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Nutritional and health effects of coffee

January 2018

DOI:10.19103/AS.2017.0022.14

In book: Achieving sustainable cultivaiton of coffee (pp.259-289)

Authors:

An increasing number of studies have shown that, in spite of its nutritional limitations, coffee is a complex mixture of bioactive substances that may act together to help prevent diseases when consumed in a proper way. This chapter reviews the literature on the nutritional and health-related aspects of regular coffee consumption, then examines the potential side effects, and looks ahead to future research in this area.

The ten leading causes of death in the world by percentage (data from WHO, 2017, updated in 2014).

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Achieving sustainable

cultivation of coffee

Breeding and quality traits

Edited by Dr Philippe Lashermes

Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), France

BURLEIGH DODDS SERIES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

E-CHAPTER FROM THIS BOOK

http://dx.doi.org/10.19103/AS.2017.0022.14

Chapter taken from: Lashermes, P. (ed.), Achieving sustainable cultivation of coffee, Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing,

Cambridge, UK, 2018 (ISBN: 978 1 78676 152 1; www.bdspublishing.com)

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

Adriana Farah, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

1 Introduction

2 Nutrients and bioactive compounds of coffee

3 Main beneﬁcial health effects of coffee

4 Potential side effects of coffee drinking

5 Final considerations

6 Acknowledgements

7 Where to look for further information

8 References

1 Introduction

Good health and well-being are essential for all humans and depend upon good nutrition.

Only when an individual has good health can he or she fully utilize their physical and

mental potentials.

Since the beginning of humanity, plant foods have been used to promote health and

prevent disease. Coffee has been exalted by people of different nations and times not

only because of its distinctive aroma and taste but also due to its stimulating and health-

promoting effects (Bizzo et al., 2015).

The earliest potential references to coffee consumption are found in the Old Testament,

where a bean was referred to as a ‘parched pulse’, and the ﬁrst written mention of coffee is

attributed to Razes, a tenth-century Arabian physician, who indicated that coffee cultivation

may have begun as early as 575 AD (Smith, 1987; Folmer et al., 2017). However, the ﬁrst

written documentation of the medicinal properties and uses of coffee was reported by

the Middle Eastern physician, Avicenna (980–1037 AD), who used it as a decongestant,

muscle relaxant and diuretic infusion. It is said that in the thirteenth century, a doctor-priest

from Mocha, Sheikh Omar, also discovered coffee in Arabia and used it as a cure for many

different types of illnesses (Ukers, 1935). The earliest coffee houses opened in Mecca

in the ﬁfteenth century, but were primarily reserved for religious purposes. After they

were popularized, following a trip to Aleppo, Dr. Leonard Rauwolf, a German physician,

introduced the beverage to Western Europe in the sixteenth century and referred to it as

being ‘almost as black as ink and very good in illness, chieﬂy that of the stomach’ (Ukers,

1935; Folmer et al., 2017).

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

Neither the Greek physician Hippocrates (460–377AD) nor the Roman physician Aelius

Galenus (129–199 AD), who later expanded Galenic theories, ever mentioned coffee, as

it was not consumed in their region at that time. However, the followers of Hippocratic–

Galenic medicine, which dominated physiology from the fourth century BC to the

nineteenth century, used it to balance the body’s ‘humours’ in accordance with individual

temperaments. Coffee was considered to be beneﬁcial to people with a lymphatic or

bilious temperament, whereas sanguine or nervous subjects were advised to use it more

reservedly. Consequently, coffee houses, which were ﬁrst introduced in Europe in the

seventeenth century, were often recommended for those suffering from maladies as part

of their treatment (Bizzo et al., 2015). In the eighteenth century, they also became places

for social gathering and commerce, and over time, more coffee houses opened up and

became popular (Folmer et al., 2017).

Despite its recognition as a medicinal agent or simply a beverage with an attractive taste,

throughout history, coffee has occasionally been seen as a villain, and to date, remainders of

this reputation still exist. The perception of coffee as an intoxicating drug and the sensitivity

of some people to caffeine are the main reasons for this, along with past discussions on

its potential contribution to the development of cancer or other diseases. However, over

the last few decades, the appearance of modern scientiﬁc technology, in combination

with large and reliable databases and sophisticated statistics, has enabled the separation

of confounding factors in epidemiological studies such as existing medical conditions,

smoking or a poor-quality diet. Additionally, an increasing number of studies have proved

that despite its nutritional limitations, coffee is a complex mixture of bioactive substances

that may act together to help prevent diseases when consumed appropriately. In view of

this, our understanding of coffee and its healthful properties has changed dramatically.

Currently, the general opinion is that moderate coffee consumption is not associated with

increased long-term risks amongst healthy individuals and can be incorporated into a

healthy and diverse diet, in combination with other healthful behaviours (US Department

of Agriculture – USDA, 2015).

This chapter presents a brief literature review of the nutritional and main health-related

aspects of regular coffee consumption.

2 Nutrients and bioactive compounds of coffee

The chemical composition of roasted coffee beans has been detailed in previous

chapters. In summary, they contain approximately 43% carbohydrates (of which 70–85% is

comprised of polysaccharides, arabinogalactans, mannans and glucan, and the remaining

amount includes sucrose, reducing sugars, lignins and pectins); 7.5–10% proteins; other

nitrogenous compounds (1% caffeine, 0.7–1% trigonelline and 0.01–0.04% nicotinic acid);

10–15% lipids (of which approximately 75% correspond to triacylglycerols, 18.5% to esters

of diterpens and free diterpens and the remaining amount to esters of sterols, free sterols,

sterylglucosides, waxes, tocopherols and phosphatides); 25% melanoidins, 3.7–5%

minerals and ~6% organic and inorganic acids, and esters (1–4% chlorogenic acids and

other phenolic compounds, 1.4–2.5% aliphatic acids and quinic acid and <0.3% inorganic

acids), in addition to other minor compounds that may be exclusive to a particular species

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 3

(Farah, 2012; Speer and Kölling-Speer, 2017). In this chapter, we will focus on the most

common species found around the world, Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora, which

are also the most consumed and the only species studied with respect to human health.

The coffee beverage or brew is an aqueous extract derived from the infusion or

percolation of roasted and ground coffee beans, using hot or cold water. The reported

amounts of nutrients, main bioactive compounds and other non-nutrients in coffee

brews are presented in Table 1. It is worth noting that a coffee brew exhibits very high

variability in terms of chemical composition due to many possible variations in raw

material production, processing and brewing, which lead to the ﬁnal product (the brew).

The ﬁrst variable is the blend, which can contain different percentages of coffee beans,

each with distinct chemical compositions derived from genetic aspects, origin and degree

of maturation (the latter being considered only in the case of a lower quality blend), grown

under different conditions and processed via varying postharvest methods. There are

also many existing types of roasting proﬁles and roasting degrees. The roasted beans

can then be ground to different sizes and the proportion of powder to water classically

used can change dramatically between countries and cultures. For example, whilst in

most European countries, the use of 6 g per 100 mL is common for ﬁltered coffees, in

Brazil, 10 g or more is used. In Italy, 20 g of ground roasted coffee is also not uncommon

for 100 mL. In espresso coffee, although traditionally 6–8 g is used per 25 mL water,

an extreme proportion of 10 g per 25 mL water is nowadays often used by third-wave

baristas. In addition, there are a variety of brewing methods where pressure, temperature

and contact time between the water and the ground coffee vary, and therefore require

different amounts of powder. Some methods use ﬁlters made up of different materials,

which may also inﬂuence the composition of the ﬁnal brew. On top of all this, the size of

a cup can vary from about 25 mL for an Italian espresso to 600 mL (20 oz) in the United

States. The standard American cup, however, is often reported as being equivalent to

approximately 250 mL (8 ﬂuid oz). The traditional European ﬁlter cup has been deﬁned

in different studies, including that of Floegel et al. (2012), as containing 150 mL. Finally,

analytical methods may cause differences in the reported compositional results, especially

for the least sensitive and speciﬁc methods. Thus, it is understandable that there are no

rigorous standard values that represent the chemical composition of a cup of coffee, but

rather a range of values. Table 1, therefore, reports the ranges of values found in the

literature, but higher or lower values can be found, depending on the compound.

It is worth noting that the yield of a brew (i.e. the amount of solids extracted from the

ground coffee found in a cup) may vary from as low as 14% to as much as 60% during

soluble coffee production, thus affecting the composition of the brew. Further to this, the

extractability of a compound by water will also depend on the amount of soluble solids

in the water. Water, containing a high amount of minerals like calcium, magnesium and

chloride may extract less solids from the ground coffee, and may also inﬂuence the ﬂow

time in an espresso machine (Folmer, pers. comm.). Considering that up to 40 g of coffee

could be used to prepare 100 mL of a coffee beverage, the amount of soluble solids in

coffee brews has been reported to vary from 2 to 6 g per 100 mL cup (Pettraco, 2005) (also

referred to as a TC ranging from 2 to 6%). In the traditionally weaker American coffees,

measurements of the amount of solids in a few cups yielded 1.2–1.5 g per 100 g. It is worth

highlighting that the amount of solids depends upon the degree of roasting.

The main components of the brew are now brieﬂy described.

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

Table 1 Content range of nutrients, bioactive compounds and other non-nutrients in coffee brews

obtained from ground and roasted blends of C. arabica species or blends of C. arabica and C. canephora

species (Trugo, 1985; Macrae, 1985; Clifford, 1985; Urgent et al., 1995; Nunes et al., 1997; Balzer, 2001;

Alcázar et al., 2003; Petracco, 2005; Boekschoten et al., 2006; Lang et al., 2010,2011; Farah, 2012; Rubach

et al., 2014; Lachenmeier, 2015; USDA, 2017; Glória and Engeseth, 2017)

Nutrients and non-nutrients

Content rangea

(from blends of C. arabica or C. arabica and C. canephora sp.)

Macronutrients mg per 100 mL

Water 94 000–98 500 (TC 1.5–6%)

Simple sugarsb0–100 (one report up to 200 mg)

Proteins 120–400

Lipids 180–400

Soluble ﬁbresc200–700 (more commonly between 400 and 500)

Aliphatic acids and quinic acidf692–2140

Vitamins:

Thiamin (B1) 0.001

Riboﬂavin (B2) 0.177

Niacin (B3, nicotinic acid)d0.8–10 (more commonly up to 5)

Pyridoxine (B6) 0.002

Folate (B9, DFE)e1

Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid 0.2

Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) 0.01

Vitamin K (phylloquinone) 0.1

Tocopherols (α, β, γ) Traces, only in unﬁltered coffees

Minerals: Total ashes 150–500

Potassium, K 115–320

Calcium, Ca 2–4

Sodium, Na 1–14

Phosphorus, P 3–7

Iron, Fe 0.02–0.13

Zinc, Zn 0.01–0.05

Manganese, Mn 0.02–0.05

Bioactive compounds mg per 100 mL

Caffeine 50–380 (commonly between 50 and 150)

Trigonelline 12–50

N-methylpyridinium 2.9–8.7

Diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol) 0.2–1.5 (paper ﬁltered); 2.6–10 (boiled)

Chlorogenic acids 32–500 (commonly 50–150)

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 5

2.1 Macronutrients

As with other types of plant beverages, coffee brews do not contain excessive amounts of

macronutrients (absorbable carbohydrates, proteins and lipids) and calories, unless they are

consumed with sugar, milk or cream. According to the USDA National Nutrient Database

(2017), 100 mL of ﬁltered coffee (breakfast blend) contains approximately 2 kcal. Exceptions

include boiled coffees and similar types of brews, which contain a reasonable amount of

lipids as both soluble and insoluble materials are consumed. The nutritional quality of coffee

proteins is limited and approximately 50% of this fraction is insoluble and lacks the essential

amino acid, tryptophan (Macrae, 1985). In addition, during roasting, most simple sugars and

proteins are degraded or changed via the Maillard and pyrolysis reactions and so the amount

of protein in the cup is low (120–400 mg per 100 mL, USDA 2017). The detection of up to

200 mg per 100 mL of simple sugars, mainly arabinose, galactose and mannose, and lower

amounts of sucrose, fructose and glucose, has been reported for brewed coffee and dissolved

soluble coffee at 2% (coffee/water), with the latter being higher (Macrae, 1985; Trugo, 1985).

Galactomannans and type 2 arabinogalactans are considered to be the predominant soluble

dietary ﬁbres in a coffee beverage (often between 140 and 650 mg per 100 mL), of which

approximately 70% is comprised of galactomannans (Gniechwitz et al., 2007; Farah, 2012);

however, care is needed to distinguish polysaccharides from total carbohydrates in order to

avoid overestimation.

Nutrients and non-nutrients

Content rangea

(from blends of C. arabica or C. arabica and C. canephora sp.)

Sum of other phenolic

compounds

0.1–0.2

Melanoidins 500–1500

β-carbolins (norharman and

harman)

0.004–0.08

Serotonin 0–1.4

Melatonin 0.006–0.008

Polyamines (spermine and

spermidine)

0.4

Some undesirable compoundsgµg per 100 mL

Acrylamide 3.9–7.7

5-hydroxytryptamidesh1.2–34.3 (ﬁltered), 350–840 (espresso and French press)

Furani3.8–262

a Content varies with blend, origin, agricultural practices, roasting method and degree, grid, brewing method,

amount of coffee powder to water and analytical method.

b Arabinose, mannose, galactose, sucrose and minor monosaccharides.

c Polysaccharides, mainly galactomannans and type II arabinogalactans.

d Daily recommendations for adults:16 mg for men and 14 mg for women (WHO/FAO, 2002).

e Dietary Folate Equivalent.

f pH 4.3 (acidic coffee, light roast), to 5.8. Common values around 5.0.

g These undesirable compounds do not include incidental contaminants.

h N-alkanoyl-5-hydroxytryptamides (C5HTs).

i Content decreases rapidly after brew preparation.

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

2.2 Micronutrients

With regards to micronutrients, the brew may contain a reasonable amount of vitamins and

minerals. Niacin, in the form of nicotinic acid, is the main vitamin in a coffee brew and is

also known as vitamin B3 or PP (pellagra preventing), and participates as a coenzyme in

various metabolic processes involved in energy metabolism and tissue health. Additionally,

it contributes to the normal functioning of the nervous system, among many other functions.

Deﬁciency of this vitamin causes pellagra, a disease characterized by skin lesions and

diarrhea, among other symptoms (Arauz et al., 2015). Regular coffee consumption can supply

an essential part of the daily recommendation for adults, which is 16 mg for men and 14 mg

for women according to FAO standards (WHO/FAO, 2002). Niacin can also be produced

in the liver from a reasonable amount of tryptophan (60mg thyptophan makes 1mg niacin),

which is present in animal proteins, nuts, and some other seeds. The intake of niacin from

coffee is particularly important in places where tryptophan consumption is low, such as in the

rural and less developed areas of Central America and Central Africa where corn (which is

poor in niacin and tryptophan) is the staple food (Carpenter, 1983; Macrae, 1985). However,

it is worth noting that people who consume corn as tortillas or similar foods made with corn

ﬂour pre-treated with alkaline water are not at risk of niacin deﬁciency as those who consume

untreated corn and corn ﬂour (Carpenter, 1983). Most recently, supplementation of nicotinic

acid has been used to decrease low and very low density lipoproteins (LDL and VLDL) levels

(Le Bloch et al., 2010) and to contribute to the hepatoprotective effect of coffee (Arauz et al.,

2015) and therefore, an additional food source of niacin, like coffee is welcome considering

that excess amounts of the vitamin are excreted in urine (Wang et al, 2001).

Coffee brews may also contain very small amounts of nicotinamide, another form of niacin,

and other B vitamins (thiamin, riboﬂavin, pyridoxine, folic acid), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and

phylloquinone (vitamin K) (Macrae, 1985; USDA 2017). Unﬁltered coffees can contain small

residual amounts of tocophenols (α, β and γ – the latter two predominate), although during

and after roasting almost all of the original amount in green coffee (about 60 mg/100g) is

degraded or oxidized (Macrae, 1985).

Considering the different factors that create a large variability in the composition of

roasted coffee, in addition to differing brewing methods and the extractability of different

minerals, the values of total ash ranging between 150 and 500 mg per 100 mL have been

reported, including data from dissolved soluble coffee (containing 7–10% ash), prepared

at 2% (ground coffee to water). For infusions prepared from ground coffee in Poland

(Grembecka et al., 2007), the consumption of 300 mL (2 cups) was estimated to supply,

on average, 4.5% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for Mg, 3.5% for K, 2.8%

for Mn, 2.4% for Cr, 1.9% for P, 0.32–0.43% for Ca and Na, 0.26–0.33% for Cu and Fe,

0.13% for Zn and 2.6–15.6% for Ni. Higher average percentages were estimated from the

ingestion of a 300-mL beverage prepared from instant coffee: 12.3% for Mg, 8.9% for K,

8.6% for Mn, 4.9% for Cr, 7.4% for P, 1.6% for Ca, 2.5% for Na, 0.32% for Cu, 2.9% for Fe,

0.35% for Zn and 4.9–29.7% for Ni. Estimates indicate that the consumption of coffee in

typical amounts does not exceed the tolerance limits for the ingestion of toxic metals, such

as Pb and Cd.

In a study performed in Portugal (Oliveira et al., 2012), two cups of instant coffee (total of

4 g) were estimated to supply 9.5% of the RDA for K, 5.2% for Mg, 4.4% for Mn, 3.5% for

Ni, 2.2% for P, 1.5% for Fe, 0.5% for Cr, 0.4% for Ca and 0.2% for Na. In a more recent study,

also performed in Portugal (Oliveira et al., 2015), one cup of an espresso coffee beverage

(prepared from 5 to 6 g of ground coffee) was estimated to provide 5.2–7.0% of the RDA for

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 7

K, 2.8–7.2% for P, 1.4–2.2% for Mg, 1.4–1.9% for Mn, 0.14–0.28% for Ca, 0.07–0.15% for Fe

and <0.02% for Na.

Other similar studies indicate that regular coffee intake (300 mL) does not contribute,

in most cases, to amounts higher than 10% of the daily recommendations in different

countries.

2.3 Bioactive compounds

It is well known that nutrients are required to maintain normal body functions and are

therefore bioactive. However, the term ‘bioactive compounds’ commonly refers to minor

food constituents that exert biological functions other than nutritional functions. These

compounds are commonly found in plants, and in a few animals that feed on them, and

their chemical structures and biological functions vary widely.

Although most health-related aspects of coffee have been attributed to the beverage

and not to individual compounds, mechanistic studies have suggested that some speciﬁc

bioactive compounds play key roles as co-adjuvant agents in disease prevention. In

addition to caffeine, the most studied bioactive compounds of coffee are chlorogenic acids

and their lactones, trigonelline and their derivatives, the diterpenes, cafestol and kahweol

and melanoidins. The polysaccharides, galactomannans and type II arabinogalactans,

and β-carbolines are amongst the emerging bioactive compounds for which there is still

insufﬁcient information to substantiate any health effects. Also, relatively recently, it has

been suggested that some coffee amines exert positive effects on health when consumed

in low quantities, which are referred to as bioactive amines. Each of these compounds or

group of compounds will be introduced hereafter and their effect on health will be brieﬂy

discussed. The main undesirable compounds in coffee are also introduced.

2.3.1 Caffeine

Caffeine is the most well-studied compound present in coffee, and its mechanisms of

function are generally well documented. First, there are psychostimulating effects which

include an acute impact on mental performance as well as long-term inﬂuence on the risk

of developing neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. Caffeine

has also been found to improve physical performance, which will be discussed in the next

section on the health effects of coffee. Most recently, a number of studies have reported

new bioactive effects for caffeine, and one of the emerging effects is the enhancement

of the antioxidant effect of coffee. Caffeine metabolites, especially 1-methylxantine and

1-methylurate, have exhibited an antioxidant activity in vitro (Moura-Nunes et al., 2009).

Corroborating these results, the average plasma iron-reducing capacity of human subjects

after regular coffee consumption was higher than that recorded after the consumption of

decaffeinated coffee, suggesting that whole coffee is more efﬁcient than decaffeinated

coffee with respect to its antioxidant capacity (Moura-Nunes et al., 2009).

There are a few in vitro studies showing that caffeine contributes to the antibacterial effect

of coffee against Streptococcus mutans, a signiﬁcant contributor to cariogenic bacteria, as

well as intestinal pathogenic bacteria (Antonio et al., 2010). Over the last few years, it has

also been suggested that caffeine exerts an antihyperlipidemic effect (decreased storage

of triglycerides and cholesterol) by inhibiting lipogenesis and stimulating lipolysis through

the regulation of the gene expression responsible for lipid metabolism in liver cells (Quan,

2013). These are just a few of the various emerging effects of caffeine.

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

2.3.2 Chlorogenic acids and their derivatives

Chlorogenic acids and their derivatives – Chlorogenic acids are the main phenolic compounds

in coffee and this group of compounds includes approximately ten major esters and four

major lactones (produced during roasting), in addition to dozens of trace compounds. The

total amount of chlorogenic acids in C. canephora beans is almost double than that found

in C. arabica beans, and because chlorogenic acids are partly degraded or transformed

during roasting, dark roasted coffees contain lower amounts of these compounds. In roasted

products, the difference between species is signiﬁcantly reduced.

These compounds are frequently referred to as powerful antioxidants and anti-

inﬂammatory compounds due to the results of in vitro and animal studies, as well as a

few human studies (Santos et al., 2006; Torres and Farah; 2016, Folmer et al., 2017), but

the mechanism of action of the different compounds and how they are related to the

prevention of the disease remains, to a large extent, unknown.

Owing to the high concentration of chlorogenic acids in coffee brews (Table 1),

compared with chlorogenic acids and other phenolic compounds in foods, in general, they

may play a major role in the diet of consumers as a source of antioxidative compounds.

The signiﬁcant contribution of chlorogenic acids to the dietary intake of antioxidative

compounds is exempliﬁed in a number of reports from different countries in which, based

on their ofﬁcial food consumption database or other types of surveys, coffee was the main

contributor to total dietary antioxidant capacity, that is, Brazil (66%), Norway (64%), Italy

(38% for women and 27% for men), Spain (45%), Japan (56%) and the Czech Republic

(54.6% for women and 43.1% for men) (Torres and Farah, 2016). However, it should be

kept in mind that the intake of chlorogenic acids from coffee does not replace the intake

of antioxidants from other foods, as each has its own speciﬁc bioactivity.

Together with other polyphenols, carotenoids and additional classes of antioxidative

compounds, chlorogenic acids and their lactones have been associated with a decrease in

the risk of Alzheimer’s and type 2 diabetes, amongst various degenerative diseases (Kasai

et al., 2000; Obuleso et al., 2011; Farah, 2012).

Long before epidemiological studies investigated the association between coffee

consumption and health effects, the antimutagenic property of chlorogenic acids and their

metabolites was discovered. Recent studies have conﬁrmed these ﬁndings and elucidated

several mechanisms of chemopreventive action, which include modulating the expression

of the enzymes that are involved in endogenous antioxidant defences, DNA replication,

cell differentiation and ageing (Feng et al., 2005; Ramos, 2008;Jurkowska, 2011), metal

chelation, inactivation of reactive compounds and metabolic pathway changes (Kasai et

al., 2000; Farah, 2012). In the colon, for example, chlorogenic acids may inactivate free

reactive radicals and as a result help prevent colon cancer (Ludwig et al., 2014).

Additional health effects observed in vitro and in animal studies include hepatoprotective

(including cirrhosis, liver cancer and other liver diseases), immune-stimulatory and

antibacterial and antiviral activities. Synthetic derivatives of these compounds have also

inhibited HIV-1 replication in cells, which could play a role in research towards drugs

that inhibit HIV (Farah, 2012). Additionally, recent in vitro studies have suggested that

after coffee consumption, the unabsorbed portion of chlorogenic acids may serve as a

substrate to stimulate the growth of beneﬁcial intestinal bacteria; however, this effect

requires further investigation due to conﬂicting data in different studies (Sales et al., 2017).

Trace amounts of other phenolic compounds, that is, isoﬂavones, proantocyanidins

and lignans, have been identiﬁed in coffee (Farah and Donangelo, 2006), which possibly

enhance the beneﬁcial effects of chlorogenic acids.

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 9

2.3.3 Melanoidins and polysaccharides

Melanoidins and polysaccharides – Coffee melanoidins have gained importance over the

years because of their contribution to, amongst others, the antioxidant and antimicrobial

effects of coffee (Ruﬁán-Henares and Morales, 2007). This is at least, in part, due to the

incorporation of chlorogenic acids and other bioactive compounds into their structure

during roasting (Farah, 2012).

As melanoidins are not digested, they may act, in combination with coffee polysaccharides

(mainly galactomannans and type II arabinogalactans), as soluble dietary ﬁbres. They are

largely indigestible and thus fermented in the gut (Borrelli et al., 2004; Gniechwitz, 2008).

A recent study concluded that the consumption of 0.5–2 g melanoidins per day (present

in 2–5 cups) contributes up to 20% of the recommended 10 g of daily soluble dietary ﬁbre

intake. It has also been hypothesized that these substances may stimulate the growth of

beneﬁcial bacteria in the lower digestive tract (Fogliano and Morales, 2011), in the same

way as chlorogenic acids; however, the data remain controversial.

As with chlorogenic acids (Passos et al., 2014), it has been hypothesized that melanoidins

can enhance immune-stimulating properties and contribute signiﬁcantly to reducing the risk

of colon cancer (Vitaglione et al., 2012; Moreira et al., 2015; Fogliano and Morales, 2011),

which might occur in different ways: i) by increasing the elimination rate of carcinogens

through higher colon motility and faecal output, ii) by decreasing colon inﬂammation

through improved microbiota balance (prebiotic effect) and iii) by serving as a ‘sponge’ for

free radicals in the gut (Garsetti et al., 2000; Folmer et al., 2017).

2.3.4 Trigonelline and derivatives

Trigonelline and derivatives – Trigonelline is another compound that has gained importance

in recent years due to its potential contribution to the protective effect of coffee against

diseases. In vitro and animal studies have reported different involvements of trigonelline

against type 2 diabetes (Yoshinari and Igarashi, 2010), as well as neuroprotective (Hong et al.,

2008; Tohda et al., 2005), antitumour (Hirakawa et al., 2005) and phytoestrogenic effects

(Farah, 2012). Beans from C. arabica species contain higher amounts of this compound,

compared with C. canephora, and as with chlorogenic acids, trigonelline undergoes changes

and degradation during roasting; hence, dark roasted coffees contain low amounts. However,

10–20% of the original amount of trigonelline is converted into nicotinic acid (niacin) (Farah,

2012). In addition to its vitamin function, niacin is also involved in other bioactive functions,

presenting antidiabetic (Yoshinari and Igarashi, 2010), antioxidant and hepatoprotective (Arauz

et al., 2015) effects in vitro and in animal studies. The compound n-methylpyridinium and

other pyridinium derivatives are additional thermal degradation products generated by the

decarboxylation of trigonelline. It has been reported that like trigonelline, n-methylpyridinium

promoted higher glucose utilization in liver cells, stimulating cellular energy metabolism and

contributing to the protective effect against type 2 diabetes (Riedel et al., 2014). Pyridinium

derivatives have also been reported to present antioxidant/chemopreventive (Somoza et

al., 2003), hepatoprotective (Gebicki et al., 2008), vasoprotective (Lang et al., 2011) and

antithrombotic effects (Kalaska et al., 2014).

2.3.5 Diterpenes

Diterpenes – Cafestol and kahweol are diterpenes present in coffee mainly in the form of

salts or esters of (predominantly) saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. They represent

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

approximately 20% of the lipid fraction of coffee, with cafestol being more abundant. Higher

levels of diterpenes are found in C. arabica than in C. canephora species. Coffee diterpenes

exhibit strong anticarcinogenic and hepatoprotective properties in vitro (Farah, 2012).

Diterpene levels in the coffee cup vary signiﬁcantly based on the natural variations in

green coffee beans, roasting conditions and preparation methods (Urgert et al., 1997; Gross,

1997;Urgert and Katan, 1995). Whilst ﬁltered and soluble coffees are practically diterpene-

free (due to their poor solubility in water, they are trapped by paper ﬁlters), espresso-based

methods contain higher levels of diterpenes, which are, on the other hand, signiﬁcantly

lower than those found in French press or Turkish coffee (2–10 mg per cup) (Farah, 2012).

2.3.6 β-carbolines

β-carbolines – These are alkaloids formed in coffee mainly during roasting and the

two identiﬁed β-carbolines in coffee are norharman and harman. Despite some past

controversies regarding the neurological and toxicological effects of these compounds

in studies using high doses in animals, β-carbolines have been recently associated

with potentially positive effects, including neurological ones, with antidepressive and

neuroprotective properties. It has also been suggested that they may reduce the risk of

diabetes. The total concentration of these compounds in the brew is highly variable in the

literature, from 4 to 80 µg per 100 mL, but typical concentrations are reported to be in the

range of 4–20 µg per 100 mL, being primarily dependent on the coffee species. Roasted

C. canephora beans have consistently higher amounts of β-carbolines than C. arabica

beans (Farah, 2012;Rodrigues and Casal, 2017;Casal, 2017).

2.3.7 Bioactive amines

Bioactive amines – These compounds are organic bases with psychoactive, neuroactive or

vasoactive activity and participate in a number of processes in the human body. Coffee amines

that present positive health effects in in vitro and in animal studies, other than their known

physiological effects in the body, are called bioactive amines. However, no direct association

between their presence in coffee and beneﬁts to human health has been found. The main

bioactive amines are the indolamines, serotonine and melatonin, and the polyamines,

spermine and spermidine. Mean reported concentrations of serotonin in coffee beverages

vary from non-detected to 90 µg per 100 mL in most coffee beverages, but from 372 to

1354 µg per 100 mL in Turkish coffee. Information regarding melatonin is rare; however,

levels ranging from 6 to about 8 µg per 100 mL have been found. Although serotonin is

a neuroactive substance with various positive effects on well-being, serotonin from the

diet cannot cross the blood–brain barrier and can only be produced in the brain; however,

serotonin from the diet can have other potentially relevant roles including broncho- and

vasoconstrictor, antihypertonic, antioxidant and antiallergic and antidiuretic effects. It can also

help to modulate the volume and acidity of gastric juice. Spermine and spermidine (reported

amounts for each vary from non-identiﬁed to more than 150 µg per 100 mL brew) are efﬁcient

free radical scavengers in several chemical and enzymatic systems. Other amines have also

shown positive effects on health when in low quantities (Gloria and Engeseth, 2017).

2.4 Undesirable compounds in coffee

A few compounds derived from microbial contamination (ocratoxin A, biogenic amines),

pesticides or chemical reactions that occur during the roasting process (mainly acrylamide,

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 11

furan and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – PAH) have been of concern to health authorities

such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations (FAO) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).

2.4.1 Ocratoxin A

Ocratoxin A and similar toxins are derived from green bean contamination with mould and

can be avoided by carefully harvesting, processing and storing coffee, which is reﬂected in

good quality. Ocratoxin A is gradually degraded by the high temperatures of roasting and

its residual levels in roasted coffee are regulated in many countries. In the European Union,

regulation 1881/2006 states that for roasted coffees, the maximum limit is 5 µg per kg.

2.4.2 Pesticides

Pesticides comprise a large number of substances belonging to different chemical groups,

which are used to control plant diseases, pests or weeds. They can be neurotoxic or inhibit

vital metabolic reactions in living beings, targeting different mechanisms, and individual

pesticides present different levels of toxicity. In order to protect human safety and health

resulting from pesticide application during coffee production, many countries have put these

chemicals under strict legislation and surveillance. For example, in the United States, the FDA

establishes the maximum amount of a pesticide allowed to remain in food, as part of the

process of regulating pesticides. Presently, tolerance limits for about 43 pesticides in coffee

are listed by the FDA. In Japan, the maximum tolerated residual limits are amongst the lowest

(often 0.01 ppm). Despite all the regulations, pesticide residues have been found via analyses

of green coffee performed prior to importing at differing occasions and in different countries.

Due to restrictions and monitoring, the residual levels of pesticides in commercial ground

and roasted coffees are usually very low and within the established limits. The solubility

of residual pesticides after roasting is often low and therefore low amounts are found in

the brew, especially in ﬁltered coffee. However, the toxicity of their metabolites in seeds or

degradation products during roasting has not been well studied and could be higher than

that of the pesticides themselves (Farah, 2012; Cunha and Fernandes, 2017).

2.4.3 Acrylamide, furan and PAH

Acrylamide, furan and PAH are derived from reactions that occur during roasting, more

speciﬁcally Maillard and pyrolysis (Farah, 2012), which can occur in many other heated

foods such as French fries or bread. Studies assessing the risk of their concentrations in

brews have not found considerable amounts which could cause harm to human health, as

epidemiological studies have failed to ﬁnd a link between these compounds in coffee and an

elevated risk of cancer or other diseases (Lipworth et al., 2012; Nkondjock, 2012).Amongst all

these compounds, acrylamide is the most abundant and the one which many food and health

authorities have been most concerned about. It is formed at the beginning of the roasting

process and its levels decrease thereafter to a certain degree (Farah, 2012). Acrylamide has

been associated with cancer in one study using laboratory rodents which were exposed to

extremely high concentrations (1000–10 000 times physiological ranges) (Mucci and Adami,

2009). Whilst the US FDA (FDA, 2016) reported that coffee is a signiﬁcant source of acrylamide

exposure for adults, the EFSA’s recent opinion on acrylamide stated that health authorities

do not see any direct evidence of cancer risk (EFSA 4104, 2015b; Folmer et al., 2017). The

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

European Commission’s recommended indicative value is 450 µg acrylamide per kg of roast

and ground coffee, a level which is generally achievable for commercial products.

Furan, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and furfural are heterocyclic, low molecular weight

molecules with a furan ring and potential carcinogenicity in common. Furan has been

classiﬁed as a possible carcinogen (Group 2B) by the International Agency for Research

on Cancer (IARC). Group 2B status is assigned to compounds and exposure conditions

for which there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and insufﬁcient evidence

of carcinogenicity in experimental animals, and therefore requires further investigation.

No human studies are available regarding the effects of furan and there is a signiﬁcant

uncertainty in the extrapolation of risk from animal assays performed in the laboratory

to the equivalent risk for humans. When dealing with furfuryl and furan derivatives, the

EFSA report (EFSA, 2011) concluded that notwithstanding some indications of in vitro

genotoxicity, based on available data of exposure and on in vivo genotoxicity studies, which

gave negative results for the carcinogenicity evaluation in rats and mice, under normal

conditions, these compounds are of no concern to human health (Folmer et al., 2017).

Regulatory bodies, including the US FDA and the EFSA, have made no recommendations

regarding the maximum levels of furan in the dietary intake.

In coffee, these compounds are formed during the roasting stage mainly via thermal

degradation/Maillard reaction of reducing sugars, alone or in combination with amino

acids or via the thermal degradation of amino acids. The consumed levels of furan in coffee

are highly variable and reﬂect not only the preparation methods but also the roasting

conditions; however, these compounds are not exclusive to coffee. The major contributors

to furan exposure in adults and teenagers were estimated to be fruit juice, and milk-based

and cereal-based products. Additionally, jarred baby foods were also major contributors

in toddlers (Ferreira et al., 2017).

Examples of a range of furan concentrations, obtained using coffees from the Spanish

market prepared by different methods, are 12–146 µg per litre with the lowest values

found in instant and ﬁltered coffee and the highest values found in espresso. Boiled

coffee was not evaluated. The concentration for commercially packed coffee capsules was

approximately 240 µg per litre. The furan content of coffee brews from automatic coffee

vending machines ranged from 11 to 262 µg per litre; however, this is not representative

of what people would consume. Due to its high volatility, after coffee preparation, losses

occur rapidly upon mixing and waiting for the brew to cool down (Ferreira et al., 2017).

The most important contributors of HMF in the diet are dried fruits, caramel, vinegar, bread

and coffee. The content of HMF in coffee samples from coffee vending machines (8 g of

ground coffee to 100 mL water) ranged between 4 and 60 mg per litre with a mean content

of 28.8 mg per litre. The concentrations of furfural in coffee brews from European vending

machines ranged between 0.30 and 1.30 mg per litre (Ferreira et al., 2017). To date, no

measures have been identiﬁed to mitigate furan without impacting the typical coffee aroma.

PAH, from which benzo[a]pyrene is the most relevant from a toxicity point of view,

can be formed in coffee and other foods that are severely roasted or exposed to very

high temperatures. This compound is classiﬁed by the IARC as probably carcinogenic

to humans. However, the level of exposure to PAH from coffee is low and within the safe

limits set by International Agencies (IARC, 2010; EFSA, 2008).

2.4.4 Biogenic amines

Biogenic amines are organic bases of low molecular weight that participate in the regular

metabolic processes of plants, microorganisms and animals. They are produced in the

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 13

body and can also be provided by the diet and from the microbial ﬂora of the intestine; at

high concentrations, however, they can pose a toxicological risk.

Examples include histidine, tyramine, tryptamine, cadaverine and putrescine. Histidine

is the most toxic and is associated with a hypotensive effect and headaches. Putrescine,

cadaverine and tyramine seem to be toxic in higher doses in animals, but the individual

sensitivity to these compounds in humans varies considerably and causes different responses.

In coffee, biogenic amines originate from the action of microbial enzymes on amino acids

during fermentative processes, suggesting inappropriate storage or low-quality defective

fermented seeds. Roasting may deconjugate and increase the amount of some free biogenic

amines, whilst most other amines are degraded (Gloria and Engeseth, 2017b; Farah, 2012).

3 Main beneﬁcial health effects of coffee

The role of coffee drinking for the purpose of socialization and relaxation is indirectly

important for health, as stress plays a major role in the development of several diseases

that may lead to serious complications and death. Additionally, coffee has been shown

to help prevent degenerative disorders, many of which are related to neurostimulating,

antioxidant and anti-inﬂammatory effects. A prospective US cohort study (Freedman et al.,

2012) examined the association of coffee drinking with subsequent cause-speciﬁc and

total mortality in the National Institutes of Health– AARP Diet and Health Study. This study

involved more than 400 000 people and is, so far, the largest human study investigating

coffee and health. A signiﬁcant inverse association between coffee and speciﬁc deaths

due to heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, injuries and accidents, diabetes and

infections was found (all of which are amongst the 10 leading causes of death, WHO,

2017–Fig.1). Total mortality was reduced considerably by up to 16% for both men and

women who drank 4–5 cups of coffee a day. Similar associations were observed whether

participants drank predominantly caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee (Folmer et al., 2017).

Although scientiﬁc studies can link certain compounds to speciﬁc mechanisms, it is likely

that most contributions to decreasing the risk of certain diseases are caused by synergistic

or additive effects with various compounds present in coffee. The next section presents

summaries of research results on the effect of coffee and health, exploring the most

studied effects individually.

3.1 Coffee consumption for mental and physical performance

and well-being

The stimulating effect of coffee is well known and is due to caffeine’s ability to enhance

mental performance, which includes enhancing alertness and perception (Einother and

Giesbrecht, 2012). According to the EFSA, who reviewed existing evidence of caffeine

on mental performance (EFSA 2045, 2011c), generally, a dose of 75 mg is required to

obtain these effects, although very large differences in individual responses to caffeine

are observed. Caffeine consumption can also improve other functions such as memory

(Nehlig, 2010; Borota et al., 2014) and mood (Smith, 2005; Olson et al., 2010). Coffee

components other than caffeine have also been shown to inﬂuence cognitive performance

in an elderly population, though to a smaller extent than caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee

enriched in chlorogenic acids can improve alertness and reduce headaches and mental

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

fatigue in comparison to non-enriched decaffeinated coffee. The effects may be partly

attributed to chlorogenic acids, but other compounds naturally present in coffee are also

suggested to play a role (Camﬁeld et al., 2013; Cropley et al., 2012; Folmer et al., 2017).

The large inter-individual variability of the stimulating effects of caffeine is due to the

difference in the ability to metabolize and eliminate it from the body. Whilst for most

people, it takes about three to six hours to eliminate 50–75% of the caffeine and its

metabolites (Goldstein, 2010), for some people, it can take much longer. The effects

of several cups of coffee on these individuals, usually called ‘slow metabolizers’, may

therefore be accumulative for a while. The variability in the enzymatic breakdown of

caffeine may account for its variable effect on sleep induction and arousal (Youngberg

et al., 2011). The stimulating effects of caffeine tend to be stronger when the individual is

in a state of fatigue or in elderly people (van Boxtel and Schmitt, 2004). However, habitual

caffeine consumers may suffer less from these issues as they develop a tolerance. In this

case, caffeine will, for example, still disrupt their sleep, but to a lesser extent than for

people who are not habitual consumers (Childs and de Wit, 2012; Drapeau, 2006). It is the

responsibility of each person to pay attention to his or her response to caffeine intake at

different times of the day, and adapt intake patterns accordingly.

Coffee and other caffeine vehicles have been used by athletes for a long time, and

the initial papers discussing the mechanisms involved date back to 1978 (Costill, 1978).

More speciﬁcally, caffeine exerts a positive effect on the endurance and exercise capacity,

due to the effect on neural mechanisms (Spriet and Gibala, 2004;Folmer et al., 2017).

Caffeine also seems to reduce the pain perception due to an increase in the secretion

of β-endorphins which exhibit analgesic properties (O’Connor et al., 2004). It is well

documented that caffeine can enhance endurance and coordination, stop–go events (e.g.

team and racket sports) and sports involving sustained high-intensity activity lasting from

Figure 1 The ten leading causes of death in the world by percentage (data from WHO, 2017, updated

in 2014).

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 15

1 min up to an hour (e.g. swimming, rowing and running races) (Jenkins, 2008; Hogervost

et al., 2008; Folmer et al., 2017).

Based on the scientiﬁc studies, the active dose of caffeine was found to be 3 mg per kg

of bodyweight, to be taken 1 h before exercise (EFSA, 2054, 2011c; Goldstein et al., 2010).

For a person weighing about 70 kg, this amount would thus be equivalent to 210 mg.

According to the EFSA caffeine safety report (EFSA 4102, 2015a), it is safe to consume

single doses of 200 mg of caffeine less than 2 h prior to intense exercise. However, the

amount and time prior to exercise for an optimal effect will vary for different individuals

due to differences in metabolic rates (Folmer et al., 2017). In 1994, caffeine was removed

from the list of banned substances.

The impact of caffeine on the mental and physical health of women and children is

a more recent area of interest, even if the initial papers appeared in the early 1990s.

Evidence suggests that the normal hormonal changes during pregnancy slow the body’s

ability to metabolize caffeine. Therefore, a given dose of caffeine can have longer-lasting

effects (as long as 15 h in the third trimester) (Kuczkowski, 2009). Even though the EFSA

report on caffeine safety (EFSA 4102, 2015a) concludes that its consumption is safe

for pregnant and lactating women, it recommends an intake reduction to a maximum

of 200 mg throughout the day. Based on scientiﬁc ﬁndings, there is no risk of adverse

birth weights for caffeine consumption below these values. Nevertheless, the risks of very

high intake (more than 600 mg of caffeine per day) include foetal growth retardation and

low weight for gestational age (Sengpiel et al., 2013). Although there is no consensus in

studies suggesting that caffeine could delay the time of conception, it may be prudent for

women who have difﬁculty in conceiving to limit the caffeine intake to less than 300 mg

per day (Higdon and Frei, 2006; Folmer et al., 2017).

It is known that caffeine is present in the milk of lactating coffee drinkers with a peak

appearing about 1 h after consuming a caffeinated beverage (Stavchansky et al., 1988;

Nehlig and Debry, 1994). For this reason, doctors recommend that breastfeeding women

keep caffeine intake below 200 mg per day (EFSA 4102, 2015a). At these levels, studies

show that the sleep time of nursing infants is similar to controls (Santos et al., 2012; Clarc

and Landholt, 2016; Folmer et al., 2017).

When it comes to children and coffee consumption, there are major cultural differences

in both overall coffee consumption and consumption guidelines. For example, in most

European countries, habitual coffee consumption starts when children become adults, and

until the age of 10, chocolate and tea are the main sources of caffeine (EFSA 4102, 2015a).

Brazil has implemented an active coffee school programme based on the ﬁndings that

20% coffee added to a glass of whole milk helps children perform better in school (ABIC,

2016). Additionally, there are studies that show that caffeine may attenuate the symptoms

of attention-deﬁcit syndrome (Garﬁnkel et al., 1981). European adolescents consume less

coffee and their source of caffeine intake is widely distributed amongst different types

of food and beverages (EFSA 4102, 2015a). In the United States, this section of the

population primarily consumes caffeine from soft drinks (USDA, 2015).

As information on the impact of caffeine on the health of children and adolescents is

scarce, it is difﬁcult to derive general conclusions on safe intake levels. Caffeine doses of

about 1.4 mg per kg bodyweight or more may impact sleep quality in adults, particularly

when consumed close to bedtime (EFSA 4102, 2015a). For this reason, and because data

on safe habitual caffeine intake for children and adolescents are insufﬁcient, the EFSA

suggests a limit of 3 mg of caffeine per kg of bodyweight per day (EFSA 4102, 2015a),

which would equal around 90 mg for a 10-year old (Folmer et al., 2017).

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

Canadian authorities are more conservative and suggest a limit of 2.5 mg per kg of

bodyweight per day (Health Canada, 2011). The short-term risk associated with children

and caffeine consumption is that caffeine may cause anxiety and nervousness (Nawrot

et al., 2003).

3.2 Coffee and cognitive health

The acute effects of caffeine were discussed in the mental performance section. In this

section, we will look at the long-term effects of coffee on reducing the risk of cognitive

degenerative diseases. Cognitive functions such as verbal ability, inductive reasoning and

perceptual speed decrease after 20 years of age. Genetics, life events and lifestyle factors

impact the rate and amplitude of this decline (Hedden and Gabrieli, 2004; Folmer et al.,

2017). A large number of epidemiological studies relate the regular consumption of coffee

to a reduced appearance of cognitive decline in the elderly (Arab et al., 2013; Ritchie,

2007; Corley, 2010). A meta-analysis of these human studies suggests that there is a clear

protective effect of caffeine consumption, rather than from coffee itself (Santos et al.,

2010; Ryan, 2002).

Alzheimer’s disease is the most frequent cause of dementia, leading to a progressive

cognitive decline. Whilst there is currently no medication for Alzheimer’s disease (Waite,

2015), there are studies that show an inverse association between the coffee consumption

and the development of Alzheimer’s disease, with a 27% risk reduction (Barranco Quintana

et al., 2007; Waite, 2015; Folmer et al., 2017). The mechanism is believed to be related to the

anti-inﬂammatory effect of caffeine on the A1 and A2 receptors, in addition to reducing the

deposits of toxic beta-amyloid peptide in the brain, a pathological characteristic in patients

with Alzheimer’s disease (Rosso, 2008; Arendash and Cao, 2010). In addition to caffeine,

the intake of polyphenols also seems to help decrease the risk of Alzheimer’s disease.

Emerging evidence from animal models also links chlorogenic acids to the prevention of

neurodegenerative disease and ageing (Esposito et al., 2002; Ramassamy, 2006). Although

the involvement of coffee polyphenols in the human cognitive function has not been well

studied, the number of ﬁndings on the in vitro neuroprotective effects of polyphenols in

general is rapidly increasing (Lakey-Beitia, et al., 2015). Initial indications relate the anti-

inﬂammatory effects of polyphenols to the reduced risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease.

Other proposed mechanisms could be i) inhibition of the enzymes acetylcholinesterase

and butyrylcholinesterase in the brain, as this retards acetylcholine and butyrylcholine

breakdown and ii) the prevention of oxidative stress–induced neurodegeneration due to its

high antioxidative activity (Oboh et al., 2013, Folmer et al., 2017).

Similar to Alzheimer’s disease, a large number of epidemiological studies have reported

an inverse relationship between the caffeine consumption and the risk of developing

Parkinson’s disease. The latter is a neuropathological disorder that slows down the

motor function, whilst generating resting tremors, muscular rigidity, gait disturbances

and impairing postural reﬂex. It involves the degeneration of neurons in the brainstem

(Kuwana et al., 1999). Coffee consumption appears to reduce, or delay, the development

of Parkinson’s disease. From the meta-analysis of 26 studies, a 25% lower risk of Parkinson’s

disease was found in coffee drinkers compared with non-coffee drinkers. The mechanism

is probably related to the capacity of caffeine to block the A2 adenosine receptors in the

brain (Costa et al., 2010). Studies recently outlined a possible additional mechanism. A

rodent model showed that trigonelline may exert a neuroprotective effect, inducing a

signiﬁcant reversal of motor dysfunction (Nathan et al., 2014; Folmer et al., 2017).

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 17

3.3 Coffee and cardiovascular disease

One of the misinterpretations linking coffee and health stemmed from the belief that

the risk of cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death in the world according to

the WHO (13.2% and 2% of deaths due to ischaemic and hypertensive cardiovascular

diseases, respectively, WHO, 2017;Fig.1), was increased by drinking coffee. This belief was

supported by the fact that caffeine increases blood pressure and acutely reduces insulin

sensitivity after coffee consumption. However, it is now known that most acute caffeine

effects cease to exist with regular coffee consumption due to adaptation mechanisms

and that other coffee components, mainly chlorogenic acids and trigonelline, have

compensatory effects on endothelial dysfunction and insulin resistance. Additionally,

in vitro and animal studies indicate that coffee has high antioxidant and anti-inﬂammatory

potential, improves endothelial dysfunction and reduces insulin resistance, which are key

mechanisms for cardiovascular protection (Rebello and Van Dam, 2013).

Corroborating these ﬁndings, dozens of studies have shown the inverse association

between coffee consumption and cardiovascular diseases. Andersen et al. (2006)

studied the relationship of coffee drinking with total mortality and mortality attributed to

cardiovascular disease, cancer and other diseases with a major inﬂammatory component.

A total of 41 836 postmenopausal women aged 55–69 years at baseline were followed

for 15 years. During this period, there were 4265 deaths. Evaluating the causes of

mortality, the authors observed that coffee consumption increasingly reduced the risk

of cardiovascular and other inﬂammatory diseases in postmenopausal women, thereby

decreasing mortality from these diseases. This effect was attributed to the ability of coffee

to inhibit inﬂammatory processes via its antioxidative and anti-inﬂammatory compounds.

A meta-analysis was carried out by Crippa et al. (2014), using 21 prospective studies,

with 997 464 participants and 121 915 reported deaths. Results indicated that coffee

consumption is inversely associated with all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality

and that the risk was increasingly reduced for those who consumed 3 to 4 cups. Similar

results were observed by Malerba et al. (2013).

Another recent study by Ding et al. (2015) examined the causes of death of 19 524

women and 12 432 men from two large cohort studies in the United States, the Harvard

Health Professionals Follow-up Study and the Nurses’ Health Study (1 and 2). Inverse

associations were observed between the consumption of regular and decaffeinated coffee

and the deaths due to cardiovascular and neurological diseases. When restricting to those

that had never smoked, the all-cause mortality risk was also increasingly reduced as the

number of cups increased; however, higher consumption reduced the beneﬁt somewhat.

Stroke is the second leading cause of death in the world as estimated by the WHO

(11.9% of the total deaths, WHO, 2017; Fig.1); however, data on the association between

coffee consumption and risk of stroke are scarce. A study by Lopez-Garcia (2009)

analysed data from a prospective cohort of 83 076 women in the Nurses’ Health Study for

24 years. Results evidenced that long-term coffee consumption is not associated with an

increased risk of stroke in women. In contrast, data suggested that coffee consumption

may modestly reduce this risk. Decaffeinated coffee was associated with a trend towards

a lower risk of stroke after adjustment for caffeinated coffee consumption. Using data

from 11 prospective studies with 479 689 participants and 10 003 cases of stroke, a meta-

analysis performed by Larsson and Orsini (2011) corroborated the results obtained for

women, ﬁnding an inverse, although modest, association between moderate coffee

consumption and risk of stroke.

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

3.4 Coffee and type2 diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by a high blood glucose level, which can cause

complications such as cardiovascular diseases, stroke, chronic kidney failure, foot ulcers

and damage to the eyes (IDF, 2012). There are three main types of diabetes: type 1, in

which the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin and which is generally genetically

determined; type 2 diabetes is the seventh leading cause of death in the world (2.7%

of the universal deaths, WHO, 2017), starts with insulin resistance (lack of insulin may

also develop) and is promoted by obesity and a sedentary lifestyle (Coope et al., 2015);

and gestational diabetes, an often transient disease that occurs when pregnant women

develop a high blood sugar level (IDF, 2015; Folmer et al., 2017).

Floegel et al. (2012) investigated the association between the coffee consumption

and the risk of chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes. They used data from 42 659

participants collected over 8.9 years from the European Prospective Investigation into

Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. They found an inverse association of consumption of

more than 4 cups (150 mL) of regular coffee per day with the overall risk of type 2 diabetes.

A number of similar studies have observed such effects related to regular coffee

drinking. A recent meta-analysis of large epidemiological studies conﬁrmed the link

between moderate coffee consumption and a reduced risk of developing type 2 diabetes

across different populations (Ding et al., 2014). The ﬁndings from these systematic studies

demonstrate a clear inverse association between the coffee consumption and the risk of

developing diabetes. Compared with no, or infrequent, coffee consumption, the risk of

developing type 2 diabetes was reduced linearly, with a 33% reduction for 6 cups per

day. In a similar comparison, drinking up to four cups per day of decaffeinated coffee was

associated with a 20% reduced risk (Ding et al., 2014). This suggests that the protective

effects of coffee on diabetes are independent of caffeine.

Animal studies have indicated that the main compounds responsible for the protective

effect are chlorogenic acids (Kempf, 2010) and its derivatives, as well as trigonelline (van

Dijk et al., 2009; Rios et al., 2015). They appear to preferentially target hepatic glucose

metabolism by improving insulin sensitivity (Lecoultre et al., 2014). Other proposed

mechanisms observed in in vivo and in vitro studies include the regulation of key enzymes

of glucose and lipid metabolism, such as glucokinase, glucose-6-phosphatase, fatty acid

synthase and carnitinepalmitoyltransferase (Waite, 2015). In a human study, trigonelline

generated signiﬁcantly lower glucose and insulin levels after an oral glucose load

compared with a placebo (Rios et al., 2015).

3.5 Coffee and liver diseases

There are a number of diseases that can impact liver health and include both liver cancer

and cirrhosis, a progressive disease caused by liver steatosis (fatty liver) and alcohol abuse,

where the healthy tissue is replaced by the scar tissue and eventually prevents the liver

from functioning correctly (Saab et al., 2014). According to a recent meta-analysis of 16

human studies, coffee consumption reduces the risk of developing liver cancer by 40%

compared with no coffee consumption (Larsson and Wolk, 2007; Bravi et al., 2013).

In a clinical study performed in Brazil, caffeine consumption greater than 123 mg per

day was also associated with reduced hepatic ﬁbrosis (Machado et al., 2014). In addition,

the study observed positive effects of regular coffee consumption in patients with chronic

hepatitis C.

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 19

A number of in vitro studies have demonstrated the strong role of the chlorogenic

acids present in coffee in protecting the liver from damage at various levels, possibly by

preventing cell apoptosis and oxidative stress damage due to the activation of the body’s

natural antioxidant and anti-inﬂammatory systems (Ji et al., 2013). Coffee melanoidins have

also been reported to have a protective effect on liver steatosis in obese rats (Vitaglione

et al., 2012), which suggests that the melanoidins in coffee may have an inﬂuence on liver

fat and functionality. Although melanoidins do not seem to be absorbed in humans, they

can function as an antioxidant dietary ﬁbre, like the unabsorbed portion of chlorogenic

acids, quenching radicals and improving the reduced/oxidized glutathione balance in

the colon. At the same time, they may act to promote the growth of a beneﬁcial colon

microbiota, affecting inﬂammatory pathways in the colon and consequently in the liver

(Folmer et al., 2017).

3.6 Coffee and cancer

In the broadest sense, cancer represents the ﬁnal result of abnormal cell growth and can

occur in most human tissues. The carcinogenicity of coffee drinking was assessed by the

IARC in 1991. At that time, coffee was classiﬁed as ‘possibly carcinogenic to humans’

(Group 2B), based on limited evidence of an association with cancer of the urinary bladder

from case-control studies, and inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental

animals. When subsequent studies were controlled for smoking, they failed to show an

elevated risk of bladder cancer (Butt and Sultan, 2011). Recently, the IARC re-evaluated

the carcinogenicity of drinking coffee and other hot beverages (Loomis et al., 2016), using

a much larger database of more than 1000 observational and experimental studies. In

assessing the accumulated epidemiological evidence, more weight was given to well-

conducted prospective cohort and population-based case-control studies that controlled

adequately for important potential confounding factors, including smoking (tobacco) and

alcohol consumption. In conclusion, there was no consistent evidence associating drinking

coffee with bladder cancer. In contrast, for endometrial cancer, the ﬁve largest cohort studies

showed mostly inverse associations with coffee drinking. These results were supported by

the ﬁndings of several case-control studies and a meta-analysis. Inverse associations with

coffee drinking were also observed in cohort and case-control studies of liver cancer in

Asia, Europe and North America. A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies estimated

that the risk of liver cancer decreases proportionally with coffee intake. No association or

a modest inverse association for female breast cancers was found. Similarly, no association

was found for pancreas and prostate cancers. Data were also available for more than 20

other cancers, including lung, colorectal, stomach, oesophageal, oral cavity, ovarian and

brain cancers and childhood leukaemia. Although the volume of data for some of these

cancers was substantial, evidence was inadequate for all the other cancers reviewed for

reasons including inconsistency of ﬁndings across studies, inadequate control for potential

confounding factors, potential for measurement error, selection bias or recall bias or

insufﬁcient numbers of studies (Loomis et al., 2016). As a result of this re-evaluation, coffee

was upgraded by the IARC and is no longer considered to be potentially carcinogenic.

In summary, epidemiological data demonstrated that coffee consumption is actually

associated with a lower overall risk of cancer, especially liver and endometrial cancers.

There are several compounds in coffee that have been found to play a protective role

against cancer, and the most well-known are chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. The

contribution of melanoidins has also been suggested to decrease the risk of colon cancer

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

(see chlorogenic acids and melanoidins topics in this chapter). Based on in vitro and animal

evidence, coffee diterpenes are also strong candidates.

Epidemiologic studies have shown an increased risk of oesophageal cancer from

drinking hot beverages such as maté, tea or coffee. It has been observed that the intra-

oesophageal temperature is increased by 6–12°C when coffee was drunk at 65°C (Islami

et al., 2009). The high-temperature injures the oesophageal mucosa and consequently

causes inﬂammation or forms reactive nitrogen species, a type of free radical. It has been

suggested by the IARC that drinking coffee, and other hot beverages, at temperatures

above 65°C increases the risk of oesophageal cancer (Loomis et al., 2016). Although in

some countries, coffee is consumed at temperatures below 65°C, in other countries, the

temperature can be much higher. In public places, serving coffee at very high temperatures

may inﬂuence people to drink it hotter than they would at home, so people should be

aware of this factor for all hot beverages, soups and hot foods in general.

4 Potential side effects of coffee drinking

4.1 Hyper stimulation and sleep quality and duration by caffeine

Caffeinated coffee can cause irritability and anxiety, and reduce sleep quality by increasing

the time required to fall asleep, interfering with the depth of sleep and reducing the total

time spent sleeping. It can also cause more frequent awakening or sleep fragmentation

(Folmer et al., 2017; Clarc and Landholt, 2016; Huang et al., 2011). The use of caffeine

in energy drinks, and the risk of overdosing in children, motivated health authorities to

evaluate and publish guidelines on safe caffeine consumption. The most recent report

is the EFSA’s 2015 scientiﬁc opinion on caffeine safety (EFSA 4102, 2015a). National

health authorities have also published reports like the US Department of Agriculture

report (2015). The general agreement is that the habitual consumption of up to 400 mg

of caffeine per day, and up to 200 mg per serving, does not cause safety concerns for

non-pregnant adults. Considering a range between 100 and 200 mg caffeine per cup, this

would translate into 2–4 cups per day.

4.2 Caffeine tolerance, dependence and withdrawal

Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance in the world, and the issue of

possible dependence on caffeine has been discussed for many years. In fact, different

drugs affect different people in different ways, and caffeine is no exception. It is therefore

difﬁcult to make general statements on dependence, tolerance and withdrawal; however,

there is no such brain circuit that links caffeine to dependence. Caffeine does not affect

areas involved in reinforcing and rewarding (Nehlig, 2010). According to the standard for

measuring any potential drug abuse and dependence (as deﬁned by the Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV, American Psychiatric Association, 2000),

there are no criteria that qualify caffeine for potential drug abuse (Folmer et al., 2017).

As with any drug, regular caffeine users will establish a partial tolerance to caffeine.

However, studies have shown that this tolerance only applies to effects such as jitteriness,

anxiety and an increased heart rate. Users do not develop a tolerance to the beneﬁts of

caffeine consumption such as improved mental performance, although sometimes slightly

higher doses of caffeine are required (Satel, 2006).

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 21

The types of caffeine withdrawal symptoms which are most often reported are

headaches; feelings of weariness, weakness and drowsiness; impaired concentration;

fatigue and work difﬁculty; depression; anxiety; irritability; increased muscle tension and

occasional tremors, nausea or vomiting. Withdrawal symptoms generally peak 20–48 h

after the last caffeine was consumed, although users can generally avoid these if caffeine

consumption is progressively decreased (Nehlig, 2010; Folmer et al., 2017).

Excessive coffee intake does not cause organic toxicity, but it can generate negative

side effects, such as those associated with caffeine withdrawal. Symptoms related to the

toxicity of coffee can occur at levels well below fatal doses; for example, concentrations

above 15 mg caffeine per kg of bodyweight may be toxic for the cardiovascular, nervous

and gastrointestinal systems (e.g. 1 g of caffeine for a person weighing 70 kg). Although

such caffeine levels are not easily obtained through acute coffee intake, users may easily

consume caffeine pills in such quantities. Reported overdose symptoms are hypertension

or hypotension, tachycardia, vomiting, fever, delusion, hallucinations, arrhythmia, cardiac

arrest, coma and death. Fatalities most commonly result from seizures and cardiac

arrhythmias at plasma levels of 100–180 µg per mL (Childs and de Wit, 2012; Folmer et al.,

2017). However, caffeine-related deaths have not been associated with coffee drinking

(Yamamoto, 2015).

4.3 Cholesterol-raising effects of diterpenes

Epidemiologic and mechanistic studies have reported that the diterpenes, cafestol, and

to a lesser extent, kahweol, naturally found in coffee oil and in unﬁltered coffees, can

alter lipid enzymes and thus inﬂuence cholesterol levels. This relationship was found to

be linear with increasing cafestol consumption (Urgert and Katan, 1997). A meta-analysis

of a set of 18 clinical intervention trials on coffee consumption and cholesterol and serum

lipids was performed by Jee et al. (2001). The authors corroborated the dose–response

relationship between coffee consumption and cholesterol and observed a strong increase

upon the consumption of 6 or more cups of boiled coffee per day, which was not observed

when a paper ﬁlter was used.

The high consumption of diterpenes has been associated with elevated homocysteine

and low-density lipoprotein levels in human plasma, which may indirectly increase the risk

of cardiovascular diseases (Farah, 2012).

4.4 Gastro-oesophageal reﬂux or heartburn

Gastro-oesophageal reﬂux, also called heartburn, is caused by the reﬂux of gastric ﬂuid

into the oesophagus due to the low pressure in the sphincter muscle at the junction of

the stomach and oesophagus. A number of people suffering from this condition have

mentioned that coffee may be one of the food products causing this complaint. Although

some studies have tried to investigate this, the role of coffee consumption in reﬂux is still

unclear. It has, for example, been reported that a few compounds in coffee stimulate the

production of gastric juice, which is very acidic when ﬁrst produced in the stomach (pH

1–2). Chlorogenic acids, Nβ-alkanoil-5-hydroxytryptamides (C5HTs) from coffee wax, and

to a lesser extent, caffeine, are some of the main compounds thought to promote this

effect (Fehlau and Netter, 1990). Additionally, it has been hypothesized that the roasting

products of chlorogenic acid such as pyrogallol, like C5HTs, irritate the gastric mucosa

(Darboven, 1997). In addition to the stimulation of gastric juice, coffee consumption also

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

seems to cause muscle contraction impairment (relaxation effect) of the lower oesophageal

sphincter in some individuals, promoting heartburn, which has been attributed to caffeine

(Terry et al., 2000). The pH of a coffee brew is mildly acidic, commonly ﬂuctuating between

5.8 and 5.5 in robusta coffees and between 4.3 and 4.8 in fresh lightly roasted acidic

arabica coffees, with approximately pH 5.0 being more usual in dark roasted blends. This

is much higher than the pH of gastric juice or, for example, the pH of apple juice (pH

4.3–3.3) or citric juice (pH 2.3–3.3) (Farah, unpublished).

Therefore, based on current knowledge, the stimulation of gastric juice production

along with the relaxation of the oesophageal sphincter seems to be the most likely causes

for heartburn, although some studies support the contribution of the acidity of foods

to heartburn (Feldman and Barnett, 1995). Since there are only a few studies on this

subject and none in humans, more mechanistic and clinical studies are necessary to prove

the involvement of each of these speciﬁc coffee compounds in this disease, as well as

improving conditions in their absence.

Some pre-roasting technological methods have been developed which aim to decrease

heartburn, although no clinical studies have yet proved that these treatments are effective

in humans. Reducing coffee wax, and thus C5HTs, can be achieved by applying steam

treatment, either as a stand-alone process, or as part of the water or CO2 decaffeination

methodologies (which in addition decreases the content of chlorogenic acids and caffeine).

5 Final considerations

Since the initial studies published in medical journals in the eighteenth century, coffee

has been through many waves of approval and disapproval. As science has evolved and

confounding factors could be accounted for, an increasing number of studies have found

correlations between coffee consumption and reduced risk of developing certain diseases.

As in vitro and animal studies conﬁrm the involvement of active coffee components in

speciﬁc diseases, the challenge remains to fully understand the mechanisms that these

active compounds exert, as coffee is a molecularly highly complex beverage made up of

thousands of compounds. It is, however, becoming more evident that it is not only the

speciﬁc compounds in coffee, but rather the beverage as a whole that is responsible for its

beneﬁcial effects.

Despite the potentially positive contribution of coffee to reducing the risk of certain

diseases, these ﬁndings need to be related to each other and, more importantly, to

lifestyle factors that inﬂuence the risk of developing certain diseases and longevity. Some

of these include not smoking, good nutrition (a balanced and varied diet including ﬁve

servings of fruit and vegetables daily), exercise, low alcohol consumption and low stress,

all of which have a strong documented impact on disease prevention and life expectation

(Khaw et al., 2008).

6 Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Britta Folmer, from Nestlé Nespresso SA, for her valuable

contribution to this chapter. The Research scholarships provided by the Brazilian National

Nutritional and health effects of coffee 23

Council for Scientiﬁc and Technological Development – CNPq and the Research Support

Foundation of Rio de Janeiro – FAPERJ are greatly appreciated.

7 Where to look for further information

7.1 Recommended books

Folmer, B. (Ed). (2017). The Craft and Science of Coffee. Elsevier, London,1st edition.

Farah, A. (Ed). (2017). Coffee: Chemistry Quality and Health Implications. Royal Society of

Chemistry, UK, 1st edition, In press.

Preedy, V. (Ed). (2015). Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention. Elsevier, London, UK, 1st

edition.

Feng, I. (2012). Coffee: Emerging Health Effects and Disease Prevention. IFT Press/Willey-

Blackwell, USA.

7.2 Recommended websites

• International coffee organization (ICO): www.ico.org. The International Coffee

Organization (ICO) is the main intergovernmental organization for coffee, bringing

together producing and consuming countries to tackle the challenges faced by

the world coffee sector through international cooperation. It makes a practical

contribution to the world coffee economy and to improving the standards of living in

developing countries by enabling government representatives to exchange views and

coordinate coffee policies and priorities, and enabling government representatives

to exchange views and coordinate coffee policies and priorities at regular high level.

On this site, in addition to the information on world coffee production, exports and

imports, general global information on coffee is also found.

• Association for Science and Information on Coffee (ASIC): www.asic-cafe.org. ‘ASIC

is a completely independent organization in the world whose scientiﬁc vocation is

speciﬁcally devoted to the coffee tree, the coffee bean and the coffee drink’. On ASIC’s

site, you will ﬁnd the proceedings of the previous colloquia as well as information and

links on the latest publications on coffee agronomy, chemistry, technology, coffee

and health and physiological effects of coffee.

• The Specialty Coffee Association (SCA) that is a membership-based association acts

as a unifying force within the specialty coffee industry and works to make coffee better

by raising standards worldwide through a collaborative and progressive approach.

Members of the SCA include coffee retailers, roasters, producers, exporters and

importers, as well as manufacturers of coffee equipment and related products. For

more information, access www.sca.coffee.The SCA was formed in January 2017

following the merger of the SCAA and SCAE, acting in the United States and Europe.

The respective websites are currently still active and information on training, education,

events and standards can still be found (seewww.scaa.org and www.scae.org)

• A website fully dedicated to entire information on coffee and health is www.

coffeeandhealth.org. It is a science-based resource developed for health care and

other professional audiences and provides the latest information and research into

coffee, caffeine and health.

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

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Oct 2024
VEGETOS

Coffee is an important indigenous beverage of India and its chemical compositions and nutraceutical value is unexplored. The current investigation was to assess the phytochemical composition in 13 local coffee varieties from Koraput valley. Significant differences were observed in the proximate compositions: the average moisture content was 3.36 g/100 g, the protein content was 9.18 g/100 g, the carbohydrate content was 23.48 g/100 g, and the food energy was 247.87 kcal/100 g among the studied coffee varieties. Across all kinds, coffee beans are high in flavonoids (6.53 to 19.08 µg/g), phenol (21.64 to 46.70 mg/g), antioxidants (57.63 to 77.66%), and caffeine (2.41 to 3.85 g/100 g). The initial two principal components recorded 62.2% of the total variations. Based on the results, two coffee varieties such as Chandragiri and Cauvery, are notably high in fiber, protein, energy and antioxidants and are the most nutritious in the area. These varieties can be used in crop improvement programs to enhance quality characteristics. Furthermore, these varieties demonstrated significant potential for creating valuable functional foods.

Chemical composition and sensory profiling of coffees treated with asparaginase to decrease acrylamide formation during roasting

Article

Apr 2024
FOOD RES INT

Bioactive profile and microbiological safety of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora beverages obtained by innovative cold extraction methods (cold brews)

Article

Nov 2023
FOOD RES INT

The acute effects of coffee consumption on blood glucose and it’s relationship with serum cortisol and insulin in females

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022
Farmatsiia

This research was aimed at analyzing the acute effects of Arabica black coffee consumption on blood glucose, insulin, and serum cortisol levels, as well as determining the pharmacological effects of black coffee as an antihyperglycemic. A randomized control trial with healthy female subjects was used in this study. There were 20 volunteers in total: 9 as the control group and 11 as the trial group. The treatment included brewing 10 grams of Gayo Arabica black coffee powder with 150 ml of boiling water. Blood glucose, insulin, and cortisol levels were measured twice, before and after 60 minutes of coffee consumption. An independent sample t-test (p < 0.05), Pearson correlation test (p < 0.05), and simple linear correlation test (p < 0.05) were used to analyze the data. Blood glucose levels and serum cortisol levels decreased significantly after coffee consumption in the trial group (p = 0.002* and p = 0.001*). There was no significant negative correlation between glucose and insulin levels (r = -0.122; p = 0.721). On the other hand, there was a significant positive correlation between cortisol levels and blood glucose (r = 0.651; p = 0.002*). In conclusion, a single cup of Gayo Arabica black coffee reduces blood sugar and serum cortisol levels, but does not increase serum insulin levels. Blood glucose levels correlate positively with serum cortisol levels in healthy female.

Human Wellbeing—Sociability, Performance, and Health

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 2017

It is well known that coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide. Since its discovery, it has played an important role in the life of many people, even though throughout history people have debated the consequences of drinking coffee to the human body and mind. The pleasurable taste and stimulating properties have been worshiped and hated. But along with these love and hate waves science has evolved and revealed that coffee is a complex mixture of substances that may act together to prevent diseases. Today the debate around the stimulating properties of caffeine has moved from “good versus bad” to the quantities needed for a beneficial impact, and amounts corresponding safe consumption. This chapter will explore these aspects bringing an overview of the evolution of coffees role in the well-being of people through history.

Use of quaternary pyridinium compounds for vasoprotection and/or hepatoprotection

Patent

Full-text available

Feb 2013

The invention relates to a method for the treatment or prevention of diseases or conditions associated with vascular endothelium dysfunction or liver injury comprising the administration to a patient in a need of such treatment or prevention of a therapeutically or prophylactically effective amount of a compound selected from the group consisting of: wherein R represents hydrogen atom, CH3, OH, pyridyl (C5H4N), 1-methylpyridyl (C5H4N—CH3) or pyridyl substituted with hydroxy group ((OH)C5H3N), and X represents a physiologically acceptable counterion.

Coffee, maté, açaí and beans are the main contributors to the antioxidant capacity of Brazilian’s diet

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2017
EUR J NUTR

Purpose The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relative contribution of the most commonly consumed plant foods in Brazil to the total antioxidant capacity (AC) of Brazilian’s diet. The importance of regional consuming habits and income for dietary AC was also approached. Methods The annual per capita consumption database from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) was used for identification of the most consumed plant foods in Brazil. Out of 124 key plant foods, 42 top AC contributing candidates were selected for AC determination based on both the frequency of consumption, and AC results reported in the literature, and in our preliminary assays. The selected food products were prepared according to the Brazilian Food Guide, and their AC was measured by TEAC and FRAP assays. Dietary AC was determined by combining these AC results with IBGE consumption data, and the relative contribution of each plant food was calculated. Results Among all evaluated food products, coffee and green maté tea presented the highest AC, followed by toasted maté tea, red wine, açaí—a native Amazonian fruit—and beans. Associating AC with the annual consumption database from IBGE, coffee alone contributed, on average, to 66 % of dietary AC; other beverages, including maté and wine, contributed altogether to 13 % of dietary AC; beans contributed to 9 %, cereals and derivatives contributed to 4 %; and in natura fruits and vegetables contributed to only 3 and 2 %, respectively. In the North region, fruits were important contributors to AC—mostly because of high açaí consumption, while in the South maté and wine also gained importance, with wine contribution being specially associated with high household income. Conclusions Coffee is the main contributor to the total dietary AC in Brazil, regardless of household income. Maté tea, açaí and beans are other major dietary AC contributors.

CHAPTER 27. Potential Adverse Effects of Coffee Bioactive Amines to Human Health: Consumption and Health Implications

Chapter

Jan 2019

Among chemical components present in coffee, biogenic amines play important roles in food safety. Concerns are associated mainly with histamine and tyramine. The first is not inherent to good quality coffee, but can be detected in defective or poor quality beans. Tyramine is inherent to coffee, especially C. canephora, which usually has higher tyramine contents compared to C. arabica. The presence of histamine in coffee is undesirable as it is hazardous to human health, especially for histamine-sensitive individuals. Putrescine and cadaverine in coffee can potentiate the toxic effects of simultaneously ingested histamine. High concentrations of tyramine in coffee could cause hypertensive crisis in individuals under treatment with classic monoaminoxidase inhibitor drugs (MAOI). Both amines along with phenylethylamine and tryptamine can also trigger headache in individuals with migraine.

Energy and Protein Requirements (Report of a joint FAO/WHO expert consultation

Article

Jan 1985

FAO/WHO/UNU

The cup

Article

Jan 2005

M. Petraco

Carcinogenicity of drinking coffee, mate, and very hot beverages

Article

Jun 2016

Chapter

Apr 2004

Erratum: Post-study caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans (Nature Neuroscience 17 (201-203))

Article

Sep 2014

Coffee: Emerging Health Effects and Disease Prevention

Book

Feb 2012

Y.-F. Chu

Coffee: Emerging Health Benefits and Disease Prevention presents a comprehensive overview of the recent scientific advances in the field. The book focuses on the following topics: coffee constituents; pro- and antioxidant properties of coffee constituents; bioavailability of coffee constituents; health benefits and disease prevention effects of coffee; and potential negative impacts on health. Multiple chapters describe coffee's positive impact on health and various diseases: type 2 diabetes; neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson's and Alzheimer's); cancer (prostate, bladder, pancreatic, breast, ovarian, colon and colorectal); cardiovascular health; and liver health. Coffee's positive effects on mood, suicide rate and cognitive performance are addressed as are the negative health impacts of coffee on pregnancy, insulin sensitivity, dehydration, gastric irritation, anxiety, and withdrawal syndrome issues. Written by many of the top researchers in the world, Coffee: Emerging Health Benefits and Disease Prevention is a must-have reference for food professionals in academia, industry, and governmental and regulatory agencies whose work involves coffee. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and the Institute of Food Technologists.

Nutritional and health effects of coffee

Abstract and Figures

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