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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Body image diversity in the media: A content analysis of
women’s fashion magazines
Catarina de Freitas MPH
1
|
Helen Jordan PhD
1
|
Elizabeth K Hughes PhD
2,3,4
1
Melbourne School of Population and
Global Health, The University of
Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
2
Department of Paediatrics, The University
of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
3
Murdoch Childrens Research Institute,
Parkville, Vic., Australia
4
Centre for Adolescent Health, The Royal
Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, Vic.,
Australia
Correspondence
Elizabeth K Hughes, Centre for Adolescent
Health, The Royal Children’s Hospital,
Parkville Vic., Australia.
Email: libby.hughes@rch.org.au
Funding Information
This research did not receive any specific
grant from funding agencies. The Murdoch
Childrens Research Institute is supported by
the Victorian Government’s Operational
Infrastructure Support Program.
Abstract
Issue: The narrow representation of body image in the media has been linked to
body dissatisfaction, particularly among readers of women’s fashion magazines.
Some countries have made efforts to improve body image diversity in the media
and the fashion industry. This has included attempts to regulate minimum body size
of models (eg Israel, France), and the development of codes of practices such as the
Australian Industry Code of Conduct on Body Image. However, there is little evi-
dence of whether these efforts have impacted media content.
Method: This study aimed to gauge the state of body image diversity in the print
media 5 years after the introduction of the Australian Code of Conduct via a con-
tent analysis of 13 Australian women’s fashion magazines published in 2015.
Results: Results revealed low levels of diversity in body size, ethnicity and age
among models depicted in fashion magazine images. Models were predominantly
young, white and underweight.
Conclusion: The results suggest that efforts to improve body image diversity have had
little impact on print media. Further research is needed to understand the barriers to
increased diversity in the representation of body image in the media so that the industry
and regulatory bodies can further address this important issue. This is increasingly
pressing given the proliferation of content now enabled through online media plat-
forms.
KEYWORDS
body image, communications media, content analysis, diversity, magazines
1
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INTRODUCTION
Negative body image, or body dissatisfaction, is widespread and
persistent among women and men of all ages
1,2
. It is a serious
health concern as it can lead to harmful weight loss practices,
including disordered eating and excessive exercise, and is associ-
ated with other risky health behaviours such as smoking and
unsafe sexual practices
3-5
. In addition, body dissatisfaction in girls
and women has been shown to have economic consequences
through its associations with reduced educational and social partici-
pation, reduced confidence and performance levels, and reduced
cognitive capacity
6-9
. Given its wide-ranging impacts, identifying
and reducing factors that contribute to body dissatisfaction are crit-
ical areas of research.
Amongst the many and varied factors influencing body image,
the media is thought to play a significant role. Fashion magazines,
and the broader fashion and beauty industries, in particular have
been the focus of scrutiny for their frequent use of thin models and
digital alteration of images
10,11
. Cross-sectional research studies con-
firm that female fashion models are more likely to be underweight
compared to non-models
12,13
, and the practice of digitally altering
images of models to look thinner is considered the norm in the fash-
ion industry
14
. Moreover, there is now considerable evidence to sup-
port the assertion that exposure to oftentimes unrealistic and
Received: 16 June 2017
|
Accepted: 20 October 2017
DOI: 10.1002/hpja.21
Health Promot J Austral. 2017;1–6. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hpja ©2017 Australian Health Promotion Association
|
1
unattainable body images in the media has a detrimental impact on
women’s body image through social comparison, objectification and
internalisation of the thin ideal
15,16
.
A variety of strategies aimed at reducing the impact of the media
on body image have been developed. Consumer-targeted strategies
such as university-based body image interventions that include a
media literacy component have shown some promise
17
. However,
greater impact is likely with content-targeted strategies such as the
implementation of government policies and legislation that directly
changes practices in the fashion industry and associated media. In
2009, the Australian government formed a National Advisory Group
on Body Image. From a range of “soft”and “hard”regulatory policy
instruments available, the Advisory Group developed a voluntary
Industry Code of Conduct on Body Image
18
. This code of conduct
contained 7 “good-practice”principles for the advertising, fashion
and media industries including diversity in the representation of
body size and ethnicity, use of healthy weight models and guidelines
for the use of digital alteration. The code was launched alongside a
Positive Body Image Awards scheme that recognised efforts by the
industry to promote positive body image. Other countries have gone
a step further, imposing legal requirements for fashion models and
the use of digital alterations. In 2013, Israel introduced a law which
required fashion models to have a BMI of at least 18.5 kg/m
2
, pro-
ven by a medical certificate no older than 3 months and for any digi-
tally altered images to have a visible warning label, stating that
alterations have been made, covering 7% of the size of the image
surface area
19
. Similarly, in 2015 amendments were made to the
French Health Bill requiring models to be of a minimum BMI of
18
20
. The law has only recently come into effect but with the BMI
cut-off replaced with a requirement for models to have a medical
certificate stating they are healthy to work, and for images in which
a model’s appearance has been manipulated to be labelled as
retouched. Other initiatives have come from the industry itself, such
as the Dove Real Beauty and Target Loves Every Body campaigns.
Although these efforts suggest greater awareness, both within
government bodies and the fashion industry, of the need to depict
diversity in appearance, there is little evidence of whether this work
has resulted in greater diversity in the appearance of women
depicted in fashion magazines. Content analysis of magazine content
is a useful and widely used technique
21-27
and can be used to deter-
mine the extent to which fashion magazines comply with standards
or expectations of body diversity. This approach has been used pre-
viously to explore magazine representation of older women
27
, mas-
culinity in men’s lifestyle magazines
23
and gender role portrayals
24
.
A content analysis study by Boyd and Moncrieff-Boyd
28
explored
whether magazines upheld aspects of the Australian Voluntary
Industry Code of Conduct on Body Image
18
. The study looked at the
representation of diverse body shapes and sizes in the annual swim-
suit issues of 7 Australian women’s magazines
28
. Three criteria were
used: evidence of at least one fuller size/plus size model, evidence
of various body shapes and sizes, and evidence of body enhance-
ment tips for diverse body types. It was found that while most
magazines upheld at last one of the 3 analysis criteria, only 1
magazine showed evidence of all 3 criteria. This magazine, Madison,
has since been discontinued. The study also found that some
magazines represented and discussed body image and diversity in a
potentially problematic manner. For example, providing tips on how
to hide or disguise body areas rather than tips for dressing to suit
body figures. The authors recommended future analysis of diversity
in body shapes, ages and ethnicities in contemporary magazines to
ensure claims of diversity are objectively monitored. Although this
study found partial adherence to the Code of Conduct, it was con-
ducted shortly after the Code’s release and warned of the potential
for the results to be placatory and short-lived.
This study therefore aimed to gauge the state of body image
diversity in the print media 5 years after the introduction of the
Australian Code of Conduct. Specifically, the study aimed to evaluate
diversity in the visual representation of body size, ethnicity, and age
in Australian women’s fashion magazines published in 2015 using
content analysis. It was expected that diversity would be low across
all 3 aspects of appearance.
2
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METHODS
2.1
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Selection of magazines
Thirteen magazines were selected for inclusion in this study (all Aus-
tralian editions): Cleo, Cosmopolitan, Dolly, Elle, Frankie, Girlfriend,
Harper's Bazaar, InStyle, Marie Claire, Oyster, Shop Til You Drop,
Vogue, and Yen. Magazines were included if they targeted adoles-
cent and adult females, were primarily focused on fashion rather
than lifestyle and/or gossip, and were readily available in Australian
newsagencies. Australian magazine readership information by Roy
Morgan Research
29
indicated that 11 of the magazines had com-
bined readership of approximately 12.4% (readers 14 years and
older), equating a readership of about 2 409 000. Including Next
Media’s information for Yen
30
, the combined readership total
approximately 2 559 00. Readership information was not available
for Oyster. One issue of each magazine published was selected for
analysis based on convenience, spanning January to October 2015.
2.2
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Image inclusion criteria
All images within the magazines were included in the analysis if they
contained a real-life image of a female (ie not a drawing or cartoon),
were not children, and the arms and/or legs were visible including
arms and/or legs visible through tight clothing. If more than 1 model
was depicted, each model was rated separately. Coding included
whether the image was embedded within an advertisement or was
magazine-generated content (eg fashion spreads).
2.3
|
Coding procedure
Body size was classified using the Stunkard Figure Rating Scale
(FRS)
31
. The FRS is a visual scale of 9 silhouette figures increasing in
size from 1 (very thin) to 9 (very obese). It has been widely used as
2
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DE FREITAS ET AL.
a self-report measure of perceived and ideal weight status, and is
considered suitable for the assessment of an individual’s relative
weight or size by an observer
32
. A recent review of FRS found the
FRS to have high reliability and validity
33
, on par with other recent
scales such as the Photographic FRS
34
. Previous studies suggest the
FRS figures can be classified into 5 categories: underweight (figures
1 and 2), appropriate weight (figures 3 and 4), slightly overweight
(figures 5), overweight (figures 6 and 7) and obese (figures 8 and
9)
35,36
.
As few previous studies have examined ethnicity and age, this
study aimed to provide a preliminary indication of ethnicity diversity
by categorising images based on skin colour as “white”(ie Caucasian)
or “other,”and of age diversity by categorising images as “young”
and “older”(ie showing wrinkles and/or grey or greying hair).
2.4
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Content analysis procedure
All images were rated by the first author. To measure intra-rater relia-
bility, 60 images were re-coded by the same rater 1 week later. Per-
centage agreement was 100%. Inter-rater reliability was assessed by
having a second rater (third author) code 15% of the images. Percent-
age agreement was 85% for body size, 95% for ethnicity and 100% for
age. Percentage agreement above 80% is considered acceptable
37
.
3
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RESULTS
A total of 1182 images depicting 1534 models were included in the
analysis. Of these images, 293 (25%) were embedded within adver-
tisements. The mean number of model per magazine was 118, and
ranged from 28 (Yen magazine) to 190 (Shop Til You Drop maga-
zine).
Table 1 shows the percentage representation of each body size
using the FRS for the 13 magazines. Of the 1534 models, 1141
(74%) were classified underweight (figures 1-2), 380 (25%) as appro-
priate weight (figures 3-4), 10 (1%) as slightly overweight (figures 5)
and 3 (.2%) as overweight (figures 6-7). No models were classified as
obese (figures 8-9). There was considerable variation across maga-
zines. For example 54% of models in Dolly were classified as under-
weight compared to 96% of models in Shop Til You Drop.
Table 2 shows the percentage representation of ethnicity and
age. Regarding ethnicity, 1386 (90%) of all models were classified as
white. Across magazines this ranged from 84% (Marie Claire) to
100% (Cleo). Looking at age, just 12 (1%) of models were classified
as older. Eight of the magazines did not depict any older models.
The greatest age diversity was observed for Frankie, with 5% of
models depicted being of older age.
Across both advertisement images and other images, on average
73% of models were underweight, whilst 26%-27% were classified
as appropriate weight. In the advertisements, there were no models
classified as slightly overweight, overweight or obese. However, less
than 1% of models were classified as slightly overweight and over-
weight in other images. None of the advertisements analysed in this
study depicted models of non-white ethnicity and/or older age.
4
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DISCUSSION
Overall there was little diversity amongst body images represented
in Australian women’s fashion magazines. Across the 13 magazines
examined, models were mostly underweight, white and young. Just
1 in 4 models were observed to be of an appropriate weight or lar-
ger, with less than 1% observed to be overweight. There was little
difference in diversity between advertisements and non-
TABLE 1 Number (%) representation of body sizes for each magazine using Stunkard’s (1983) Figure Rating Scale
a
Figure Rating Scale, n (%)
Magazine Images, n Models, n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cleo 104 121 1 (1) 85 (70) 32 (26) 3 (2) –– –––
Cosmopolitan 110 126 3 (2) 92 (73) 18 (14) 11 (9) 2 (2) ––––
Dolly 78 123 –67 (54) 43 (35) 11 (9) 1 (1) 1 (1) –––
Elle 121 164 17 (10) 122 (74) 25 (15) ––––––
Frankie 55 62 1 (2) 37 (60) 12 (19) 5 (8) 5 (8) 2 (3) –––
Girlfriend 94 112 1 (1) 66 (59) 33 (29) 12 (11) –– –––
Harper’s Bazaar 111 139 11 (8) 91 (65) 35 (25) 2 (1) –– –––
InStyle 78 100 1 (1) 79 (79) 17 (17) 2 (2) 1 (1) ––––
Marie Claire 120 159 6 (4) 103 (65) 47 (30) 3 (2) –– –––
Oyster 76 82 2 (2) 66 (80) 13 (16) –1 (1) ––––
Shop Til You Drop 121 190 10 (5) 173 (91) 7 (4) ––––––
Vogue 88 128 2 (2) 88 (69) 34 (27) 4 (3) –– –––
Yen 27 29 0 (0) 17 (61) 8 (29) 3 (11) –– –––
Total, n (%) 1182 1534 55 (4) 1086 (71) 324 (21) 60 (4) 10 (1) 3 (.2) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)
a
The stimuli for the Figure Rating Scale range from 1 (underweight) through to 9 (obese).
DE FREITAS ET AL.
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3
advertisements aside from a small representation of overweight
body sizes in the non-advertisement images.
These findings are unsurprising given those of previous stud-
ies
27,28
; however they are disappointing given recent efforts to change
practices and improve diversity in the representation of females in the
media. Unfortunately, these findings appear to confirm that voluntary
efforts such as the Australian Voluntary Industry Code of Conduct on
Body Image have had a placatory and short-lived impact on media
practices, at least in the print media. Initiatives by government, indus-
try and other sectors are to be commended, yet there is a clear need
to ensure these initiatives are effectively implemented and evaluated
in an ongoing manner to ensure sustained impact. For example the
Australian Voluntary Industry Code of Conduct on Body Image initi-
ated in 2010 was an admirable achievement. However, its voluntary
nature limited implementation, and it was essentially abandoned upon
a subsequent change in government in 2013.
Of importance, policy and legislative strategies aimed at changing
industry practices need to be made in consultation with industry to
identify and address any barriers to change. Furthermore, efforts to
address the effects of media on body image must be multifaceted.
Policy efforts need to be complemented with education and advo-
cacy, including evidence-based interventions like media literacy and
cognitive dissonance programmes
17
, and increased critical discourse
regarding sociocultural constructions of acceptable body size and
appearance
38
.
Although the study is helpful in contextualising the current state
of diversity in Australian women’s fashion magazines, some limita-
tions should be noted. First, only 1 issue of each magazine was anal-
ysed and selected based on convenience of availability. Other issues
of the same magazine may have included more diverse range of
models, and may have identified seasonal differences. Second, the
classification categories used for age, ethnicity and body size could
be considered simplistic and somewhat subjective. However,
obtaining actual data on the characteristics of models were not fea-
sible, and the coding system arguably represents how the magazine
images would be perceived by readers. The simplicity of the coding
also allows for ease of replication in follow-up studies. Indeed, this
study showed the rating system to have good intra- and inter-rater
reliability. That said, the dichotomous categorisation of ethnicity
remains problematic as it limits a more nuanced consideration of
ethnic diversity and may inadvertently validate the dominant repre-
sentation of white females in magazines. Third, images were only
included in the ratings of ethnicity and age if they had met inclusion
criteria which were designed to allow ratings of body size (ie visible
arms and/or legs). More inclusive criteria for these ratings (eg head
shot only) may have increased the degree of ethnicity and age diver-
sity observed. However, our impression from the rating process is
that any such effect would be minimal.
Finally, the analysis was restricted to print magazines. Analysis of
other forms of media is of growing importance given the rise in
social media and magazines’increased use of online platforms.
Indeed, 4 of the magazines included in this study (Dolly, Yen, Cleo
and Shop Til You Drop) have since ceased publication with many
attributing their decline to readers shifting their media use online.
That said, there is much to learn from studies such as this which
highlight the difficulties of developing and implementing policies
which will have significant impacts on diversity in the media. The
proliferation and speed of content delivery in the online space sug-
gest this will be even more challenging as technology progresses.
Beyond these limitations, the study also had several strengths. A
large number of magazine were included for analysis, covering a
large readership. Intra-rater and inter-rater reliability showed a high
level of consistency across the measures. Diversity was measured
not only by body size but also by age and ethnicity, therefore pro-
viding a more complete indicator of diversity.
The study highlights several areas in need of further investigation
and development. Firstly, there is a clear need for initiatives target-
ing media content that are evidence-based. For example, although it
was thought that labelling images as photoshopped/altered would
reduce negative effects on body image, studies have found that such
labelling may not be effective and may sometimes have a detrimen-
tal effect on body image compared to no label
39
. In contrast, it has
been shown that exposure to advertisements depicting average-sized
models has a less negative effect on women’s body image compared
to exposure to advertisements depicting thin models, whilst having
no significant impact on the effectiveness of the advertisement
40
.
Second, when evidence is lacking to inform selection of strategies,
there needs to be a well-planned evaluation framework in place to
determine the effectiveness of implemented strategies. Such evalua-
tion frameworks can then ensure that initiatives which are effective
are maintained, and those that are ineffective are ceased. Regular
monitoring and reporting of body image diversity in the media
through content analysis, such as that undertaken for this study, can
form both a strategy for encouraging change by identifying narrow
and biased representation, and a way by which to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of specific interventions. Monitoring may, however, require
TABLE 2 Representation of ethnicity and age for each magazine
Ethnicity, n (%) Age, n (%)
Magazine White Other Young Older
Cleo 121 (100) 0 (0) 121 (100) 0 (0)
Cosmopolitan 110 (87) 16 (13) 126 (100) 0 (0)
Dolly 106 (86) 17 (14) 120 (98) 3 (2)
Elle 152 (93) 12 (7) 162 (99) 2 (1)
Frankie 60 (97) 2 (3) 59 (95) 3 (5)
Girlfriend 99 (88) 13 (12) 112 (100) 0 (0)
Harper’s Bazaar 132 (95) 7 (5) 138 (99) 1 (1)
InStyle 91 (91) 9 (9) 100 (100) 0 (0)
Marie Claire 134 (84) 25 (16) 156 (98) 3 (2)
Oyster 77 (94) 5 (6) 82 (100) 0 (0)
Shop Til You Drop 166 (87) 24 (13) 190 (100) 0 (0)
Vogue 110 (86) 18 (14) 128 (100) 0 (0)
Yen 28 (100) 0 (0) 28 (100) 0 (0)
Total, n (%) 1386 (90) 148 (10) 1522 (99) 12 (1)
4
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DE FREITAS ET AL.
more complex, innovative methodologies to capture the variety and
volume of media now available, particularly social media
41
. Finally,
there is a need for government and advocates for body image diver-
sity to more effectively engage the fashion and beauty industries in
efforts to improve body image attitudes and diversity. By working
together, industry bodies, government and advocates might better
gauge the feasibility of proposed initiatives and more readily identify
strategies will bring about change.
5
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CONCLUSION
In sum, this study found little diversity amongst the images in ado-
lescent and adult women’s magazines in Australia, 5 years after the
launch of the Australian Voluntary Industry Code of Conduct on
Body Image
18
. The predominant representation was of underweight,
white, young women. The findings suggest that the effectiveness of
soft policy options, such as voluntary codes of conduct, to promote
diversity in magazine images are ineffective in the long term. It is
likely that a raft of “harder”approaches, including mandatory regula-
tion, economic incentives/disincentives, along with media literacy
education need to be considered concurrently to address the issue
of media’s negative impact on body image.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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