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The failure of introverts to emerge as leaders: The role of forecasted affect

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Abstract

Introverts are less likely to emerge as leaders than extraverts, however the existing literature provides little explanation as to why. To investigate the potential cause of this trait-based difference in emergent leadership, we measured trait extraversion in a sample of 184 business students and studied their leadership-related behavior in an unstructured group task. We drew from a model of forecasted affect to hypothesize that introverts would be less likely to emerge as leaders based on their belief that engaging in the necessary extraverted behavior would be unpleasant/unenjoyable (i.e. they would forecast higher levels of negative affect compared to extraverts). Consistent with this, we found that introverts were less likely to emerge as leaders, and that forecasted negative affect fully accounted for the relationship between extraversion and peer-rated emergent leadership. We therefore argue that introverts fail to emerge as leaders as often as extraverts because they engage in higher levels of forecasted negative affect and that these forecasts impede their emergent leadership potential.

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... Individual level traits include the big five personality traits such as openness to experience, cognitive ability (Kickul & Neuman, 2000), conscientiousness (Taggar, Hackew, & Saha, 1999), extraversion (Ensari et al., 2011;Spark, Stansmore, & O'Connor, 2018;Taggar et al., 1999), agreeableness (Cogliser et al., 2012), and emotional intelligence (Côté, Lopes, Salovey, & Miners, 2010;Hong, Catano, & Liao, 2011) as positive predictors of emergent leadership. Research suggests that introverts fail to emerge as leaders (Spark et al., 2018). ...
... Individual level traits include the big five personality traits such as openness to experience, cognitive ability (Kickul & Neuman, 2000), conscientiousness (Taggar, Hackew, & Saha, 1999), extraversion (Ensari et al., 2011;Spark, Stansmore, & O'Connor, 2018;Taggar et al., 1999), agreeableness (Cogliser et al., 2012), and emotional intelligence (Côté, Lopes, Salovey, & Miners, 2010;Hong, Catano, & Liao, 2011) as positive predictors of emergent leadership. Research suggests that introverts fail to emerge as leaders (Spark et al., 2018). Paunonen, Lönnqvist, Verkasalo, Leikas, and Nissinen (2006) argue that narcissism related to high selfesteem positively correlates with emergent leadershiphowever, narcissism related to Machiavellianism represents a dark side of personality and lowers leadership ability. ...
... With regard to theoretical frameworks, existing literature is intertwined with several leadership frameworks. Some of these frameworks are based on trait-based leadership theory (Wolff et al., 2002), socio emotional theory (Druskat & Pescosolido, 2006), theory of collective action (Ziek & Smulowitz, 2014), theories of self-organization and group evolution (Li et al., 2012), LMX theory (Li et al., 2012), social network theory (DeRue et al., 2015), behavioral complexity theory (Lynn Shollen & Cryss Brunner, 2016), evolutionary signaling theory (Spark et al., 2018), relational schema and network theory (Carnabuci et al., 2018), expectation states theory (McClean et al., 2018), social role theory (Briker et al., 2021), implicit leadership theory (Kalish & Luria, 2021), uncertainty reduction theory (Pilkienė, Alonderienė, Chmieliauskas, Š imkonis, & Müller, 2018), adaptive leadership theory and conservation of resources theory (Chiu, Nahrgang, Bartram, Wang, & Tesluk, 2021), gender role theory and expectancy violation theory (Lanaj & Hollenbeck, 2015), and actuality trait theory (Truninger et al., 2021). ...
... In line with the last review by Anderson and Cowan [10], several recent studies indicate that extraversion is associated with the attainment of social status (other-rated status, influence, likeability, leadership emergence, popularity) initially and after several meetings [11][12][13][14][15][16]; but see also [17]. The associations between the other four Big Five traits and status attainment have been less consistent and more context dependent. ...
... The link between extraversion and intention to lead was mediated by affective motivation to lead (i.e., enjoyment of leading) and lack of avoidance of leadership but not by calculative motivation or normative motivation to lead [21]. Similarly, extraverts emerged as leaders in groups because they are less likely to forecast negative emotions regarding an upcoming group/leadership exercise [15]. The authors reasoned that these negative expectations might inhibit extraverted behaviors that are necessary to emerge as leaders in groups. ...
... Conscientiousness has frequently been linked to status attainment in task-focused contexts but less frequently in other contexts [10,25]. Accordingly, more recent studies found that conscientiousness is positively related to peer-rated leadership emergence in business students working in small groups [17]; but see also [15] but not to classmates-rated likeability and popularity in adolescent samples [12,16]. Vice versa, agreeableness was positively linked to likeability in the two adolescent samples [12, 16] but not among the business students working groups [17]. ...
Article
The current review summarizes recent advances in research on personality predictors of status attainment. In line with previous research, recent studies indicate that extraverted and narcissistic individuals tend to attain status in groups. Research on mediating processes includes a wide range of underlying motivational, behavioral, and interpersonal perception processes. Most generally speaking, those high in extraversion and narcissism attain status because they are more motivated to do so and thus display assertive behavior that makes them look competent. Situational contexts, group tasks, and cultural contexts can moderate the personality-status links by shaping these processes. For example, studies inspired by evolutionary psychology suggest that dominant individuals are more likely to attain status when dominance is instrumental to address a threatening environment.
... These aspects affect how an individual deals with daily functions and could become either a strength or a limitation. [1][2][3] The personality spectrum varies in psychological studies, such as psychoanalysis, psychodynamics, social-cognitive, cognitive-affective, and others. One theory on analytical psychology is Carl Jung's attitude and function type of personalities: Introversion and Extroversion. ...
... As a result, introverts may inhibit knowledge sharing. 1,16 At work, extroverts may come across as "team players." As a result, extroverted traits may be linked to more pay, accolades, and promotions. ...
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Aim This study aims to identify introvert and extrovert personality types among level-6 dental students in the College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia, and analyze their clinical performance. Materials and methods In this causal–comparative research, 72 level-6 dental students (29 males and 43 females) of the College of Dentistry of Jazan University for the school year 2023–2024 were chosen to be the respondents. Myers–Briggs type indicator (MBTI), a personality test designed to differentiate introversion and extroversion, was used. Two independent variables were compared in accordance with the average grades in their clinical performance. Results The average grade of introvert dental students was 83.54 ± 7.57, with a median of 85.06, and that of extrovert dental students was 84.03 ± 7.01, with a median of 86.9. The p-value was calculated to be 0.917, and a significance level of 0.05 was used for comparison. Conclusion Clinical performance was not significantly different between introvert and extrovert dental students. Clinical significance Awareness of personality differences of members of a dental team is vital to help translate every weakness into a workable strength so that the treatment plan for each patient will be delivered with utmost quality and excellence. How to cite this article Ramos RB, Belza MSL, Coronado GB, et al. A Comparative Analysis of Introvert and Extrovert Dental Students toward Clinical Performance. J Contemp Dent Pract 2024;25(9):830–835.
... Extraversion in organizational behavior has always been recognized as an important feature of effective leaders. 1,2 In the past, most studies focused on the advantages of extraverted leaders in examining the effectiveness of leadership and management. 1,[3][4][5] Those studies gave little attention to the effect of the interaction of leaders' and followers' extraversion on organizational behavior and the relationships between leaders and followers. ...
... γ 00 , γ 10 , γ 01 , γ 20 , γ 11 , γ 02 and γ 60 in Equation [2] are equal to b 0 , b 1 , b 2, b 3 , b 4 , b 5 , and b 6 in Equation [1]. ...
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Purpose Drawing upon self-categorization theory and the comparative literature on public and private sectors, the purpose of this study is to examine whether leader-follower extraversion congruence is positively related to leader-member exchange (LMX) and whether congruence at high levels of extraversion results in higher LMX than congruence at low levels. Furthermore, the study aims to investigate the moderating role of sectoral difference in the relationship between extraversion fit and LMX. Methods Participants were 320 leader-follower dyads (53 leaders and 320 followers) from various public and private sectors in the Chinese cultural context. The extraversion part of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and leader-member exchange multidimensional measure (LMX-MDM) were used to measure extraversion and LMX, respectively. Hypotheses were tested using cross-level moderated polynomial regression and response surface analysis. Results Leader-follower extraversion congruence was not significantly associated with LMX, and there was no significant difference in LMX between congruence at high levels of extraversion and congruence at low levels. However, sectoral difference moderated the relationship between extraversion fit and LMX. Specifically, in the public sector, leader-follower extraversion congruence was positively related to LMX, and LMX was higher when leader and follower extraversion were both at a high level compared to when they were at a low level. In the private sector, this fit effect vanished. Practical Implications The results suggest that, in the public sector, when organizations deal with the deployment of staff, taking leader-follower extraversion fit into account may mitigate possible later relationship conflicts. However, in the private sector, by not emphasizing extraversion fit, organizations can focus resources on more crucial factors. Originality/Value By considering sectoral difference as the boundary condition of leader-follower extraversion fit, this study extends the comparative literature on public and private sectors and supports self-categorization theory.
... For example, introverts have made affective forecasting errors for future extraverted behaviors by under-predicting the positive affect and over-predicting the negative affect in these situations (Zelenski et al., 2013). This error has influenced the less frequent emergence of introverts as leaders (Spark, Stansmore, & O'Connor, 2018), and it could therefore function in the popularity domain as well. ...
... It is slightly more difficult to explain why low popularity would influence introversion, but research has demonstrated that behaving above one's status is often severely punished (e.g. by means of ostracism) (Anderson, Srivastava, Beer, Spataro, & Chatman, 2006;Anderson, Ames, & Gosling, 2008). This could account for why those with low rank in a group take less risky social initiatives and avoid leadership (Spark et al., 2018). These insights are also supported by the view that social power increases approach tendencies (e.g. ...
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Examinations of the relationship between individuals’ personal characteristics and the social positions that individuals receive in everyday peer networks have often found an association between extraversion and popularity. This thesis assesses the conditions (when) and mechanisms (why) of this association.Four research questions focus on when the link between extraversion and popularity is present. The study examines whether extraversion is already associated with popularity among seven- to eight-year-olds (Study I), if extraversion is associated with popularity in a less talkative and more stereotypically introverted culture as well (i.e. in Finland; Studies I and II), whether the association is more reflective of the popularity of extraverts or the unpopularity of introverts (Studies II and III), and if the size of the surrounding social ecology is an important precondition of this association (Study III). In addition, the study considers two why research questions. Studies II and III examine if dyadic combinations of extraversion could serve as popularity particles that would explain why extraverts are ultimately more popular in the group, whereas Study I evaluates the mediating role of oral fluency between extraversion and popularity among children.The association between extraversion and popularity is found to be highly generalizable, as it is present among young and adult Finns as well as in social networks of varying sizes. In addition, the association is linear and unilateral: introverts are unpopular as much as extraverts are popular, and dyadic combinations of extraversion are not significant in explaining this phenomenon. Finally, the higher oral fluency of extraverts partially explains their popularity in middle childhood.The discussion focuses on the causality of this association and engages with the ontological status of trait extraversion throughout the thesis. The research also highlights the role of popularity and social networks in accounting for the coalescence of extraversion.
... "Another student reported that "I deliberate before asking a question because I feel that I am disturbing the other students in the class." This reporting's as similar to Spark, Stansmore, and O'Connor (2018) who stated that introverts tend to believe or forecast that acting extroverted will not be good thus will be cautious about raising their voice to be heard or challenging another person's thoughts. ...
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This research study will examine the perceptions of graduate introvert students towards problem-based group work activities in the classroom. There is an emphasis into student-centered learning in higher education systems in today's world, and group-work activities are amongst the ways of having students active in the classroom. Results of this study will show that introverts compared to extroverts have negative group work experience. This study will show the importance of designing and structuring group work activities well to allow for all students regardless of their personalities to be able to be motivated towards group work activities and be able to retain concepts learned during student-centered learning activities. This study investigates how graduate introvert students perceive group work activities in the classroom. Personality test will be administered to ensure all participants fit into the study's description of an introvert. Qualitative approach was selected as the research design for this study using unstructured interview questions.
... It is thought that extraversion is on one end of a continuum while introversion is on the other end. Many researchers (Bourdage et al., 2015;Spark et al., 2018) explicitly define introverts as individuals who are 'low in trait extraversion', This is problematic, since it makes it challenging, if not impossible, to study introversion from a positive perspective (Blevins et al., 2022). ...
Article
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This literature review explores the role of personality types in the workplace with a specific focus on the misconceptions surrounding introverted leaders. It includes a summary of the traits and qualities that comprise an effective leader and compares introverts and extroverts in leadership roles. It also addresses how organizations can utilize hiring practices and leadership development processes to be more inclusive of introverts when identifying prospective and emerging leaders. By addressing misconceptions about introverted leaders, organizations can better understand their strengths, talents, perspectives, and values. Future research ideas are presented, and implications for workplace interventions are discussed.
... In this respect, while researchers have focused heavily on the cognitive factors that affect students' performance, they have neglected the psychological factors that stem from different personality types. Previous research (Almusharraf, 2021;Harrington and Loffredo, 2010;Lawrence, 2015;Spark et al., 2018) indicated that students' personalities, specifically whether they are introverted or extroverted, are factors that contribute to their performance and academic achievement. Therefore, the current study examines the problems that Saudi female introverted students encounter, namely lack of communication and social interaction in translation classes that are held online, to suggest appropriate solutions. ...
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Purpose The purpose of the current study was to examine the role of distance learning in enhancing introverted students’ lack of communication and social interaction to improve their performance in translation class. Cain (2013) and Kuzeljevich (2017) agreed that identifying “introverted” and “extroverted” students is important for meeting their learning needs. While extroverted students have strong social skills that allow them to interact comfortably in different learning environments, introverted students tend to be more shy, quiet, and silent, thus, requiring more careful planning in classroom settings. Therefore, educators need to support introverted students in reaching their full academic and social potential. Design/methodology/approach The present case study adopted a qualitative research method to explore the role of online/distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in enhancing introverted students’ performance and communication abilities in translation classes. The researcher of the current study spent a considerable time observing and set herself as part of the group (i.e. translation students of level 6 class) to understand the phenomenon, events and the new situation of having translation students interact in online settings. Data collection was based on this observation, interviews with the participants and archival documents. To enhance the validity and credibility of this research, the researcher employed the method of triangulation. Findings The results (see Appendixes A, B and C) revealed the level of students interactions in translation classes and their attitudes toward online learning. Based on the observations made by the instructor, the researcher found that the involvement of the introverted students during online translation learning was remarkable, as they provided their translation outputs in the chat window of Microsoft Teams with no hesitation. Consequently, 65% of the students were providing their translation output through the chat window, which indicates that they are more introverted and preferred not to speak. Comparing this result to face-to-face translation class, the researcher found that 25% of the students provided their translation outputs through oral participation. Originality/value This study contributes to the field of translation and education. Previous studies have not sufficiently examined the role of distance learning in enhancing the performance and communication of introverted students in translation classes. The current study is also expected to provide insight into the field of technical translation in remote teaching and learning settings.
... 34, nº1, 1er Cuatrimestre, 2023, pp. 44 -62 [ISSN electrónico: 1989 2006; Spark et al., 2018). Para Spark (2020), los introvertidos pueden llegar a mostrar comportamientos extravertidos; de lo que se deriva, que se puede desarrollar su liderazgo siempre que se cuente con medios y apoyo para hacerlo. ...
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Resulta habitual que el alumnado universitario desconozca las implicaciones que supone tener una personalidad extravertida o introvertida en el desarrollo de su particular autoliderazgo. La presente investigación tiene por objetivo analizar los efectos de un Programa de Autoliderazgo (PAL), compuesto de ocho talleres y con un enfoque de aprendizaje experiencial, en aquellos participantes (nivel máster) que tienen un rasgo de personalidad introvertida; teniendo por finalidad que se puedan beneficiar de una experiencia y desarrollo más efectivos e integrales, y de una mejor preparación para el mundo laboral. Para ello, y utilizando un diseño cuasi experimental y otro ex post facto (n=126), se aplican: a) la subescala de extraversión del Modelo Big 5, y b) el Modelo de Bisquerra y Pérez-Escoda, para constatar el Desarrollo de las Competencias Emocionales (DCE). Se comparan cuatro tipos de alumnado: extravertidos o introvertidos formados (PAL-SI), o no formados (PAL-NO), dándose dos grupos de resultados: a) los basados en la prueba ANOVA. En los que se concluye que el alumnado introvertido PAL-SI obtiene peores puntuaciones que los extravertidos PAL-SI también; si bien los primeros recuperan terreno con respecto a los extravertidos PAL-NO (Grupo de Control) en: Autonomía Emocional (AE) y Bienestar Emocional (BE); y b) los soportados por la prueba ANCOVA, en los que se revela un impacto positivo y diferenciado en el grupo de introvertidos PAL-SI con respecto al grupo de introvertidos PAL-NO en: DCE Total, Consciencia Emocional (CoE), y Regulación Emocional (RE).
... The third explanation is that introverts engage in higher negative forecasts of the emotions they think they will experience during a future social activity where that activity is relevant to leadership situations (e.g., working in groups to solve a task). In turn, these forecasts may inhibit introverts' desire to engage in behaviours necessary to emerge and thus be seen as less leader-like by observers (see Spark et al., 2018;Zelenski et al., 2013). The fourth explanation is that the neurobiological evidence of the differences between extraverts and introverts shows that extraverts have a lower threshold for pursuing rewarding stimuli (Depue & Collins, 1999) and the behaviours that lead to leadership, which are themselves rewarding (e.g., Anderson & Berdahl, 2002;Anderson, John, & Keltner, 2012;Ashton et al., 2002). ...
Article
Extraversion is a consistent predictor of informal leader emergence, however little is known about extraversion’s causal effect in terms of predicting the transition to formal leadership. Using two large household samples from Germany (Study 1, n1 = 6,709) and Australia (Study 2, n2 = 6,056), we test whether trait extraversion predicts the transition of employed persons into formal leadership positions. Using survival analysis with Cox proportional hazards regression within a non‐linear generalised additive modelling (GAM) framework, we modelled the relationship between extraversion and the ‘hazard’ of transitioning into a formal leadership role. After controlling for sex, height, age, education and the other big five traits, we found that extraversion consistently predicted the hazard of transitioning into a formal leadership role over time. Given the importance of leadership to life outcomes, being more likely to transition into a formal leadership role may afford extraverts with considerable cumulative benefits over their career.
... However, extraversion also appears to be strongly related to social status. Studies on leadership have shown that individuals high on extraversion emerge as leaders in groups more often than individuals low on extraversion (Ensari, Riggio, Christian & Carslaw, 2011;Spark, Stansmore & O'Connor, 2018). Extraverts also attain high status in dormitories, fraternities and sororities (Anderson & Cowan, 2014) and score higher on power and achievement values (Roccas et al., 2002). ...
Article
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We examine inclusion and status as potential mediators in the relationships between extraversion and agreeableness, on the one hand, and life satisfaction, on the other hand. Previous research has shown that agreeableness is less strongly related to life satisfaction compared to extraversion. We argue that the relatively weak association between agreeableness and life satisfaction is due to the fact that, even though this personality trait is positively related to inclusion, it is only weakly related to status. Using structural equation modeling (SEM) and survey data from Australia, Denmark and Sweden, we test five hypotheses about the linkages between these personality traits, inclusion, status and life satisfaction. Our results show that both extraversion and agreeableness are positively associated with life satisfaction and that this association is much stronger for extraversion. Furthermore, our results show that extraversion is reliably associated with both inclusion and status, whereas agreeableness is a reliable predictor of inclusion but not of status. Turning to our mediation analysis, our main results demonstrate that the relationship between extraversion and life satisfaction is fully mediated by both inclusion and status, whereas the relationship between agreeableness and life satisfaction is partially mediated by inclusion. Our mediation analysis further shows that agreeableness has a negative direct effect on life satisfaction over and above the positive indirect effect through inclusion. Our findings highlight the role of both inclusion and status as important mediators in the relationships between extraversion and agreeableness, on the one hand, and life satisfaction, on the other hand.
... Bourdage et al., 2015). Indeed, Spark et al. (2018) explicitly define introverts as individuals who are 'low in trait extraversion ' (p. 84). ...
Article
Since being introduced over a century ago, trait extraversion and introversion have generated substantial research. However, this research has focused primarily on extraversion, with introversion being relatively neglected. Accordingly, the purpose of this paper is to take stock of extraversion and introversion research in the workplace. Doing so allows us to propose a shift in focus away from extraversion to the study of introversion and its potential positive benefits. First, we briefly review the traits’ evolution during the past century and then examine 10 commonly used trait extraversion scales to better understand how extraversion and introversion are studied. Thereafter, we review 10 years of scholarship (2009–2019) appearing in 12 leading management journals. Overall, we find that there is a positive bias towards extraversion and its positively valenced characteristics such as positive affect, outgoingness and socialness. In contrast, our review reveals that introversion is treated as ‘low extraversion’ and often imbued with negatively valenced characteristics such as social awkwardness and low social self‐esteem. Based on our multilevel review of the literature, we propose a working list of positively valenced characteristics of introversion and suggest how these introversion characteristics might be beneficial at multiple levels in organizations. In doing so, we hope that our paper will generate new ways of seeing introversion and extraversion alike, which should help right the balance in our shared understanding of how extraversion and introversion can positively shape workplace outcomes.
... In the midst of such a quarantined environment, the contribution of mattering on perceived social inclusion and life satisfaction might be related to individuals" personality, especially their trait extraversion. The facets of extraversion from the Big-Five are excitement-seeking, assertiveness and warmth [25]; high extraversion is correlated to social activities and other behavior related to sociability [26,27]. In the context of MCO, activity in social events was replaced by being active in social media [28]; thus, it can be assumed that the isolative nature of MCO would likely to alter people into more active or passive in social media based on their levels of extraversion. ...
Article
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This study aims to investigate the role of mattering, trait extraversion and perceived social inclusion in developing the sense of life satisfaction among adults who reside in Malaysia during the quarantine period amidst the Pandemic in March-June 2020. Previous studies indicated that mattering was a robust predictor of life satisfaction; however, the nature of the quarantine might have affected the perception of social inclusion among individuals with certain levels of extraversions. Therefore, we hypothesized a moderated mediation model; mattering will interact with trait extraversion in predicting life satisfaction, and the prediction is mediated by perceived inclusion. Three hundred and ninety participants were voluntarily recruited to respond to scales such as Life Satisfaction Inventory, State Self-Esteem Scale, General Mattering Scale and the extraversion facet in Big Five Inventory. The scales, demography questions, and informed consent were accessible by online link given to the participants through social media. The analysis was conducted by using PROCESS Macro model eight for statistical product and service solutions (SPSS) applying the Bootstrap analysis with 5000 samples and 95% confidence interval. The result suggested that the hypothesis was confirmed; perceived inclusion levels significantly mediated the association between mattering and life satisfaction among individuals with low and moderate levels of extraversion. However, full mediation only applied among the individuals with moderate extraversion, because among those with low extraversion, mattering was still a significant predictor of life satisfaction.
... Specific personality characteristics such as dominance and assertiveness increase individuals' chances to become leaders (Judge et al., 2009;Ensari et al., 2011). Other characteristics such as agreeableness and introversion decrease the odds (Judge et al., 2002;Dilchert, 2007;Spark et al., 2018). ...
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There are two big problems related to leadership today: unequal representation and high failure rates among leaders. This conceptual paper argues that commonly shared values, assumptions, and beliefs about leadership, i.e., universal leadership culture, are the common cause of both problems. After the concepts and levels related to leadership culture were explained, we introduce a multilevel, multi-actor process model named the bottleneck metaphor of leadership culture. This metaphor describes how leadership cultures are co-constructed by multiple actors based on their involvement in leader selection and reproduce themselves in groups over time based on emergent leaders' characteristics. Next, a diagnostic tool called “the leadership mirror” is proposed for organizations that want to assess their leadership culture's current state as a starting point for further interventions. Specific suggestions are made for various actors, ranging from individuals to organizations, for their possible roles in preventing undesired leadership cultures.
... Many factors hold back introverted learners from engaging in learning interactions (Kou et al. 2018;Spark et al. 2018). One of these factors is related to their processing of knowledge of the subject matter because they need more time to process and construct meaning (Rios et al. 2018). ...
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A primary effort within the literature addresses the needs in acclimatizing dynamic, student-driven instruction to conceive a significantly enhanced online learning environment. This study serves to examine the relationship, if any, between student characteristics (introversion and extraversion) and contribution in the online writing environment (social presence) and their sense of class community in online writing courses. The research was undertaken in a public university in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), examining a sample (N = 171, 36 males and 135 females) of EFL male and female students. The results confirmed the ICT positive relationships between extraverted and introverted students with their social presence and sense of class community. These results reinforce the instructor’s significant role in implementing and engaging students in learning experiences that can address the need for different types of students (e.g., extraverts, introverts) and enhance their interaction through online platforms. The study further calls for developing pedagogically sound approaches to shift away from instructor-fed to student-centered online learning that incorporates instructors’ facilitation, constructive and continuous feedback, and clear guidance. It further urges the utilization of sociopsychological methods to address individual differences, especially in online learning.
... In applying whole trait theory to the leadership context, we suggest that introverts have the capacity to enact extraverted behaviour as needed during the emergence process, however are simply less inclined to do so when able to freely choose (forecasting that it will be unpleasant may be a key reason why; Spark, Stansmore, & O'Connor, 2018;Zelenski et al., 2013). Thus, ordinarily, introverts will be less likely to emerge as leaders in leadership situations, however when instructed to act extraverted in such situations, it follows that introverts will emerge as leaders as often as extraverts. ...
Article
Extraverts are more likely than introverts to emerge as leaders, however little is known about the explicit behaviours that cause such an advantage and what introverts can do to overcome their relative disadvantage. Utilising an experiment (n = 601) in a group context, we assessed the effects of manipulating state extraversion on peer-rated emergent leadership, self-rated emergent leadership, and post-activity affect. Participants completed a big five personality measure and were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a control condition, an ‘act extraverted’ treatment, or an ‘act introverted’ treatment. Results confirmed extraverts’ emergent leadership advantage but demonstrated that state extraversion was the proximal cause of emergent leadership, with both extraverts and introverts emerging as leaders when instructed to act extraverted. Acting introverted i) had a particularly deleterious effect on self-rated emergent leadership regardless of trait extraversion, ii) caused a reduction in positive affect for ambiverts and extraverts but not for introverts, and iii) caused an increase in negative affect for ambiverts and extraverts but not for introverts.
... Within the five-factor model (Costa & McCrae, 1992a;McCrae & Costa, 1997), the facets of extraversion are warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and positive emotion. Using five-factor scales, many behaviours have been correlated with high scores for extraversion, including social activities (Eaton & Funder, 2003;Wilt & Revelle, 2019), as well as other behaviours that are intuitively linked to sociability, such as alcohol consumption (Martsh & Miller, 1997) and leadership (Spark, Stansmore, & O'Connor, 2018). See Revelle (2009 and for reviews. ...
Article
With nearly 3.5 billion people now using some form of social media, understanding its relationship with personality has become a crucial focus of psychological research. As such, research linking personality traits to social media behaviour has proliferated in recent years, resulting in a disparate set of literature that is rarely synthesised. To address this, we performed a systematic search that identified 182 studies relating extraversion to social media behaviour. Our findings highlight that extraversion and social media are studied across six areas: 1) content creation, 2) content reaction, 3) user profile characteristics, 4) patterns of use, 5) perceptions of social media, and 6) aggression, trolling, and excessive use. We compare these findings to offline behaviour and identify parallels such as extraverts' desire for social attention and their tendency to display positivity. Extraverts are also likely to use social media, spend more time using one or more social media platforms, and regularly create content. We discuss how this evidence will support the future development and design of social media platforms, and its application across a variety of disciplines such as marketing and human-computer interaction.
... Behaving above one's status is punished by the group (Anderson et al., 2008(Anderson et al., , 2006, and those with low rank avoid risky social initiatives and leadership (Spark, Stansmore, & O'Connor, 2018). Thus, it could be that high and low sociometric status allow and constrain various behaviors, emotions, and cognitions to the extent that new network equilibria emerge and can be observed as increases and decreases in extraversion. ...
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Sociometric status, the regard that other group members confer to an individual, is one of the most ubiquitous and behaviorally relevant attributes assigned to the person by the social environment. Despite this, its contribution to personality development has received little attention. The present three-wave longitudinal study, spanning the age range 7-13 years (n = 1222), sought to fill this gap by examining the transactional pathways between peer sociometric status (measured by peer nominations) and Five-Factor personality traits (measured by self-, parent, and teacher ratings). Sociometric status prospectively predicted the development of extraversion. By contrast, agreeableness and neuroticism prospectively predicted the development of sociometric status. Furthermore, individual-level stability in extraversion was associated with individual-level stability in sociometric status. The results were robust across different sources of personality ratings. We argue that peer sociometric status in the school classroom is the type of environmental effect that has potential to explain personality development. Due to its stability, broadness, and possible impact across a variety of personality processes, sociometric status can both repetitiously and simultaneously influence the network of multiple inter-correlated micro-level personality processes, potentially leading to a new network equilibrium that manifests in changes at the level of the broad personality trait.
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Purpose The purpose of this study is to clarify the definitional inconsistencies around the concept of “leadership potential” and differentiate it from related constructs, provide a comprehensive review of the literature and propose a research agenda to guide future studies. Design/methodology/approach The authors adopt a systematic literature review method to achieve this purpose. Adhering to the established guidelines, they analyzed 81 empirical articles published in 27 leading journals from 2011 to 2024. Findings Despite its prominence in discussions of leadership emergence, development, effectiveness and promotability, the literature lacks consensus on operationalizing leadership potential. In response, the authors propose a novel operationalization based on Pinder’s (1988) three dimensions of motivation, namely – direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. The analysis of this paper structured through the theory-context-characteristics-method (TCCM) framework identifies several critical gaps: One-third of the reviewed studies lack a theoretical foundation, while the remaining predominantly rely on trait and cognition-based approaches; most research emphasizes individual-level predictors and outcomes, with limited exploration of contextual factors; and quantitative approaches dominate the field leaving room for alternative methodological approaches. Based on these observations, a future research agenda using TCCM has been proposed. Originality/value This study contributes uniquely to the leadership literature by clarifying the distinctions between “leadership potential” and related constructs, introducing an operationalization grounded in Pinder’s motivational framework and presenting a holistic view of the literature on leadership potential. Further, this study advances the field by proposing a future research agenda, an aspect previously unexplored. Additionally, the authors use the TCCM framework, a guided framework for systematic literature review that has not been adopted in the leadership literature.
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Purpose Emergent leadership is a relatively new phenomenon, suggesting that leaders emerge from within teams without having a formal leadership assigned role. While emergent leadership has much relevance in today's organizations transitioning from vertical to horizontal leadership, there is a paucity of research about the process of emergent leadership that enables team members to become influential within teams. Design/methodology/approach Using purposive sampling, we interview 40 individuals in nine agile teams working in five Information Technology firms. Findings We identify various traits, experiences, behaviors, skills, and abilities of emergent leaders. Broadly, we conclude that an emergent leader serves as a “detail-oriented structure” or a “big picture coordinator.” Based on the findings, we propose a leadership emergence process that details how team members gain status and emerge as leaders, as well as the factors that can cause them to lose that status and return to becoming a regular team member. Furthermore, we introduce a model that demonstrates how technical expertise and personality traits interact, influencing team dynamics and facilitating the emergence of leaders within a team. Originality/value We contribute to the literature on emergent leadership by conceptualizing lateral influence and a leadership emergence process. We also extend the agile leadership literature and address some calls for empirical studies to understand the leadership dynamics in agile teams. We also show some limitations of the existing approaches and offer some useful insights.
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Purpose Leadership research has traditionally focused on formal leadership; however, leaders may emerge in informal settings in self-managed teams, and little is known about who emergent leaders are and what their characteristics are. This study investigates emergent leaders' behaviors, roles, skills, and leadership style, drawing on a multi-method approach. Design/methodology/approach We first identify emergent leaders using social network analysis and aggregation approaches. Second, we investigate emergent leaders' characteristics using interviews with forty agile team members in five organizations. Findings Results indicate different roles of emergent leaders (i.e. coach, liaisons), leadership styles (i.e. supportive), skills (i.e. culturally intelligent, strategist), and influencing factors (i.e. personality, technical knowledge, social circle). Originality/value We contribute by identifying emergent leaders through multiple identification methods (i.e. network analysis, aggregation), and then through identifying their various characteristics, we contribute to leadership literature as well as idiosyncrasy-credit theory. We also add to agile-leadership theory, showing that multiple informal leaders may emerge within agile teams. Finally, our findings have practical implications for self-managed teams, informal group settings, organizational change professionals, and organizations with horizontal structures.
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Theories have proposed diverse reasons for why individual differences such as personality traits lead to social status attainment in face-to-face groups. We integrated these different theoretical standpoints into a model with four paths from individual differences to status: a dominance, a competence, a virtue, and a micropolitics path. To investigate these paths, we meta-analyzed over 100 years of research on bivariate associations of personality traits, cognitive abilities, and physical size with the attainment of status-related outcomes in face-to-face groups (1,064 effects from 276 samples including 56,153 participants). The status-related outcome variables were admiring respect, social influence, popularity (i.e., being liked by others), leadership emergence, and a mixture of outcome variables. The meta-analytic correlations we found were largely in line with the micropolitics path, tentatively in line with the competence and virtue paths, and only partly in line with the dominance path. These findings suggest that status attainment depends not only on the competence and virtue of an individual but also on how individuals can enhance their apparent competence or virtue by behaving assertively, by being extraverted, or through self-monitoring. We also investigated how the relations between individual differences and status-related outcomes were moderated by kind of status-related outcome, nature of the group task, culture (collectivism/individualism), and length of acquaintance. The moderation analysis yielded mixed and inconclusive results. The review ends with directions for research, such as the need to separately assess and study the different status-related outcomes.
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Promotions are central to individual career success. For organisations, it is crucial to identify and develop employees capable of higher-level responsibility. Previous research has shown that personality traits as inter-individual differences predict promotions. However, effects have mostly been examined on a broad factor level. This study investigated longitudinal effects of Big Five personality traits on both factor (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness) and more detailed facet levels on promotions in employees of a multinational wholesale company (N = 1774, n = 343 promoted). We also explored how personality differentially impacts promotional likelihood as a matter of target job level (individual contributor vs. first- or senior-level manager roles). Overall, associations with promotions were detected for neuroticism (negative) and conscientiousness (positive). At the more nuanced facet level, all Big Five factors had at least one personality facet that was significantly related to promotions. Additionally, personality-promotion relationships were generally stronger for lower- rather than higher-level promotions. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that employee personality traits have a meaningful impact on who will be promoted and should hence be considered in organisational personnel selection, personnel development, and performance management practices.
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This review of literature highlights the importance of considering the diverse needs of students in higher education learning environments in the United States. Learning activities in higher education classrooms often require students to be active verbal participants. However, in many classrooms, some students struggle when asked to participate verbally during problem-based group work activities. Findings from the review indicate varying reasons for student dislike of group work activities and highlight various considerations for developing inclusive problem-based learning activities. These findings can support the design of group work activities that support positive learning experiences for a diversity of students and allow more students to benefit from student-centered learning approaches.
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Despite significant scholarly attention and practical importance regarding who emerges as informal and formal leaders in organizations, an integrative framework of the leadership emergence literature remains elusive. The presence of such a framework proves integral for the advancement of work in this area due to the complexity of the field, coupled with its sprawling nature across multiple disciplines (e.g., management, communication, education, economics). Accordingly, in this review, we utilize a database of 270 primary studies to put forth a distal-proximal framework of leadership emergence. In particular, we systematically review past research to answer four questions: (1) what do we know about the phenomenon of leadership emergence itself, (2) what are the antecedents of leadership emergence, (3) what outcomes are associated with leader emergence, and (4) what are the boundary conditions of leadership emergence? By introducing a conceptual framework for informal and formal emergent leadership, we highlight areas of research maturity and nascency and offer several recommendations for future work in this domain. Altogether, we highlight broad theoretical implications for the leadership, teams, and individual differences literature-and elaborate upon several benefits that an integrated framework of emergent leadership provides for organizations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
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Dance educators frequently function in a performance situation–teaching, leading discussion, rehearsing, choreographing. Because of the nature of the work, introverts may be driven to behave in a more extroverted manner and less like themselves. How do introverted teachers navigate the demands of teaching and preserve their energy while best serving their students and themselves? This paper shares strategies on teaching, learning, and leading as an introverted teacher. I draw on existing literature about the introverted teacher, learner, and leader, as well as ideas on effective teaching, and I apply these ideas specifically to dance. While many introverted dance educators successfully teach and perform as extroverts, by openly claiming their introverted personality and implementing practices for teaching, leading, and learning that are specific to introverts, they can feel more confident and engaged in their teaching and working lives.
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Given the psychosocial benefits of collective action for minority group members, we explored how the personality trait introversion/extroversion may contribute to current understandings of what motivates collective action among women. Dimensions of collective action that are consistent with introversion (e.g., low risk) were expected to predict greater endorsement of collective action among introverts, whereas dimensions consistent with extroversion (e.g., public) were expected to predict greater endorsement among extroverts. One hundred and seventy-nine women completed an online questionnaire, and regression analyses showed that among introverts, collective action rated lower in risk and social cost, but higher in effectiveness and formality predicted greater endorsement. Among extroverts, collective action rated as more public (vs. private) predicted greater endorsement. The implications of utilizing personality profiles to enhance collective action are discussed.
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This chapter examines the intersection of gender and personality, specifically addressing some of the issues that introverted women leaders may face. The author's personal experiences as an elementary school principal will be interwoven into the current research that highlights the underappreciated strengths of introverted women leaders. Personality traits and leadership styles of introverts are presented along with descriptions of the experiences of female leaders. The chapter ends by providing readers with ideas to support women and introverts in school to prepare them for future leadership roles.
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A major theoretical and empirical advancement of recent work in personality science concerns the variability of personality traits and the impact on people’s lives. In this current climate, research has focused on how acting out of character can shape important life outcomes for dispositional introverts. For example, research in personality science has identified relations between acting extraverted and increases in positive affect for dispositional introverts, but also evidenced the costs. The specific nature of how individuals adapt their introversion and how they may experience the consequences in the workplace remains unexplored. We therefore review the nuances and complexities of the adaptiveness of introverts in the workplace through the lens of free-trait theory. Although we acknowledge that introversion is theoretically and empirically distinct to shyness, we see this as an opportunity to leverage a deeper understanding of introversion to provide a more well-rounded view on the adaptiveness of shyness in contexts such as the modern, dynamic workplace.
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Despite recent growth in popular press about introversion and negative responses to introversion at work, academic work has yet to directly investigate this topic. This may be at least partly due to a sensitive issue: do negative responses to introversion at work purely constitute mistreatment, or are these legitimate responses to introversion? We propose a framework that incorporates both perspectives as interlinked explanations for this phenomenon: the Stereotype-Driven Process, which is driven by bias and associated with mistreatment, and the Target-Driven Process, which is driven by introversion itself and can be associated with legitimate responses to introversion. As such, this paper describes how negative responses to introversion come about, introduces perceived introversion mistreatment, examines negative outcomes associated with negative responses to introversion, and delineates numerous testable propositions that can guide future research on the topic.
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Sociometric status, the regard that other group members confer to an individual, is one of the most ubiquitous and behaviourally relevant attributes assigned to the person by the social environment. Despite this, its contribution to personality development has received little attention. The present three‐wave longitudinal study, spanning the age range 7–13 years (n = 1222), sought to fill this gap by examining the transactional pathways between peer sociometric status (measured by peer nominations) and Five‐Factor personality traits (measured by self‐ratings and parent and teacher ratings). Sociometric status prospectively predicted the development of extraversion. By contrast, agreeableness and neuroticism prospectively predicted the development of sociometric status. Furthermore, individual‐level stability in extraversion was associated with individual‐level stability in sociometric status. The results were robust across different sources of personality ratings. We argue that peer sociometric status in the school classroom is the type of environmental effect that has potential to explain personality development. Because of its stability, broadness, and possible impact across a variety of personality processes, sociometric status can both repetitiously and simultaneously influence the network of multiple inter‐correlated micro‐level personality processes, potentially leading to a new network equilibrium that manifests in changes at the level of the broad personality trait. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology
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This study examined Teacher Serap’s (the second author of this study) effort to recognize and reach an introverted student in her classroom based on her own experiences. The study was conducted within the scope of the “narrative research” methodology, one of the qualitative research designs. The main purpose of narrative studies is to examine the ways through which individuals experience the world and reality by analyzing their own personal stories. From this point of view, this study examined Teacher Serap’s experiences with an introverted student in her classroom through her own personal stories and the changes that these experiences caused both in the introverted student and her profession. Data were collected through a series of semi-structured interviews. After each interview was transcribed, written feedback from the teacher was obtained through e-mails and new interviews were conducted with her about the issues that were not clear enough. In addition, after finishing the writing of the research report, Teacher Serap was invited to indicate her opinions on the entire report. Data were reorganized around the sub-questions of the study and presented in a chronological framework under five themes. They include: (1) recognizing the introverted student, (2) getting to know the introverted student, (3) reaching the introverted student, (4) tracing the changes in the introverted student, and (5) evaluating the professional attainments. According to the findings, Teacher Serap believes that she has achieved her desired goals for her introverted student and developed an invaluable understanding about the phenomenon of difficult children. The study concludes that there is a need for comprehensive narrative research studies to be carried out on other types of difficult children.
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Extraverts are better than introverts at building rapport, but it remains unknown what they do behaviorally to better connect with other individuals. We hypothesized that extraverts mimic more than introverts as a way to build rapport; however, we predicted that this social skillfulness of extraverts emerges only when they are motivated to affiliate. In Study 1, we found that extraversion predicted increased mimicry when an affiliation goal was present, but not when an affiliation goal was absent. In Study 2, we found that mimicry mediates the relationship between extraversion and rapport, but only when an affiliation goal is present. Our findings are the first to identify a behavior that extraverts engage in that helps them build rapport. Furthermore, our studies show that this skillfulness of extraverts emerges only when they are motivated to affiliate, providing evidence in favor of the reward-sensitivity-as-core model of extraversion over the sociability-as-core model of extraversion.
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Affective forecasting often drives decision-making. Although affective forecasting research has often focused on identifying sources of error at the event level, the present investigation draws upon the "realistic paradigm" in seeking to identify factors that similarly influence predicted and actual emotions, explaining their concordance across individuals. We hypothesised that the personality traits neuroticism and extraversion would account for variation in both predicted and actual emotional reactions to a wide array of stimuli and events (football games, an election, Valentine's Day, birthdays, happy/sad film clips, and an intrusive interview). As hypothesised, individuals who were more introverted and neurotic anticipated, correctly, that they would experience relatively more unpleasant emotional reactions, and those who were more extraverted and less neurotic anticipated, correctly, that they would experience relatively more pleasant emotional reactions. Personality explained 30% of the concordance between predicted and actual emotional reactions. Findings suggest three purported personality processes implicated in affective forecasting, highlight the importance of individual-differences research in this domain, and call for more research on realistic affective forecasts.
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Using a field experiment in the United Arab Emirates, we compared the impacts of directive and empowering leadership on customer-rated core task proficiency and proactive behaviors. Results of tests for main effects demonstrated that both directive and empowering leadership increased work unit core task proficiency, but only empowering leadership increased proactive behaviors. Examination of boundary conditions revealed that directive leadership enhanced proactive behaviors for work units that were highly satisfied with their leaders, whereas empowering leadership had stronger effects on both core task proficiency and proactive behaviors for work units that were less satisfied with their leaders. We discuss implications for both theory and practice.
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Extraversion predicts leadership emergence and effectiveness, but do groups perform more effectively under extraverted leadership? Drawing on dominance complementarity theory, we propose that although extraverted leadership enhances group performance when employees are passive, this effect reverses when employees are proactive, because extraverted leaders are less receptive to proactivity. In Study 1, pizza stores with leaders rated high (low) in extraversion achieved higher profits when employees were passive (proactive). Study 2 constructively replicates these findings in the laboratory: passive (proactive) groups achieved higher performance when leaders acted high (low) in extraversion. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for leadership and proactivity.
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For more than sixty years, the leaderless group discussion (LGD) has been commonly used to assess leadership emergence and potential. This research focuses on individual differences as predictors of leader emergence in LGDs. Meta-analytic methods allowed us to combine and compare results from 45 studies, producing 196 effect sizes, and make statistically guided decisions about the strength of relationships between individual difference and personality variables and leadership emergence in LGDs. Consistent with more general research on leader emergence and effectiveness, we found a number of individual differences predictive of leader emergence in LGDs, most notably extraversion and authoritarian personality. This research augments previous meta-analytic research on personality and leadership with a focus specifically on the leaderless group discussion.
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This study examined the effects of organisational culture and leadership styles on job satisfaction and organisational commitment in samples of Hong Kong and Australian managers. Statistically significant differences between the two samples were found for measures of innovative and supportive organizational cultures, job satisfaction and organizational commitment, with the Australian sample having higher mean scores on all these variables. However, differences between the two samples for job satisfaction and commitment were removed after statistically controlling for organizational culture, leadership and respondents' demographic characteristics. For the combined samples, innovative and supportive cultures, and a consideration leadership style, had positive effects on both job satisfaction and commitment, with the effects of an innovative culture on satisfaction and commitment, and the effect of a consideration leadership style on commitment, being stronger in the Australian sample. Also, an “initiating Structure” leadership style had a negative effect on job satisfaction for the combined sample. Participants' level of education was found to have a slight negative effect on satisfaction, and a slight positive effect on commitment. National culture was found to moderate the effect of respondents' age on satisfaction, with the effect being more positive amongst Hong Kong managers.
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Cloninger’s psychobiological model of temperament and character is a general model of personality that has been widely used in clinical psychology, but has seldom been applied in other domains. In this research we apply Cloninger’s model to the study of leadership. Our study comprised 81 participants who took part in a diverse range of small group tasks. Participants rotated through tasks and groups and rated each other on "emergent leadership." As hypothesized, leader emergence tended to be consistent regardless of the specific tasks and groups. It was found that personality factors from Cloninger, Svrakic, and Przybeck’s (1993) model could explain trait-based variance in emergent leadership. Results also highlight the role of "cooperativeness" in the prediction of leadership emergence. Implications are discussed in terms of our theoretical understanding of trait-based leadership, and more generally in terms of the utility of Cloninger’s model in leadership research.
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The long-standing question of the role of traits, particularly personality and intelligence, in predicting leadership qualities was addressed using a longitudinal design in the current study. Based on data from participants in the Fullerton Longitudinal Study, we examined the relationship between adolescent personality and intelligence collected at age 17 and multiple measures of self-reported adult leader emergence and transformational leadership at age 29. Results indicated a significant relationship between adolescent extraversion and adult workplace leader emergence and transformational leadership above and beyond adolescent intelligence, across a 12-year span. Implications for youth leader development are discussed.
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People report enjoying momentary extraverted behavior, and this does not seem to depend on trait levels of introversion-extraversion. Assuming that introverts desire enjoyment, this finding raises the question, why do introverts not act extraverted more often? This research explored a novel explanation, that trait introverts make an affective forecasting error, underpredicting the hedonic benefits of extraverted behavior. Study 1 (n = 97) found that trait introverts forecast less activated positive and pleasant affect and more negative and self-conscious affect (compared to extraverts) when asked to imagine acting extraverted, but not introverted, across a variety of hypothetical situations. Studies 2-5 (combined n = 495) found similar results using a between-subjects approach and laboratory situations. We replicated findings that people enjoy acting extraverted and that this does not depend on disposition. Accordingly, the personality differences in affective forecasts represent errors. In these studies, introverts tended to be less accurate, particularly by overestimating the negative affect and self-consciousness associated with their extraverted behavior. This may explain why introverts do not act extraverted more often (i.e., they overestimate hedonic costs that do not actually materialize) and have implications for understanding, and potentially trying to change, introverts' characteristically lower levels of happiness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
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In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
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To satisfy the need in personality research for factorially univocal measures of each of the 5 domains that subsume most English-language terms for personality traits, new sets of Big-Five factor markers were investigated. In studies of adjective-anchored bipolar rating scales, a transparent format was found to produce factor markers that were more univocal than the same scales administered in the traditional format. Nonetheless, even the transparent bipolar scales proved less robust as factor markers than did parallel sets of adjectives administered in unipolar format. A set of 100 unipolar terms proved to be highly robust across quite diverse samples of self and peer descriptions. These new markers were compared with previously developed ones based on far larger sets of trait adjectives, as well as with the scales from the NEO and Hogan personality inventories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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We examine the impact of subjective power on leadership behavior and demonstrate that the psychological effect of power on leaders spills over to impact team effectiveness. Specifically, drawing from the approach/inhibition theory of power, power-devaluation theory, and organizational research on the antecedents of employee voice, we argue that a leader's experience of heightened power produces verbal dominance, which reduces perceptions of leader openness and team open communication. Consequently, there is a negative effect of leader power on team performance. Three studies find consistent support for this argument. The implications for theory and practice are discussed.
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People enjoy acting extraverted, and this seems to apply equally across the dispositional introversion-extraversion dimension (Fleeson, Malanos, & Achille, 2002). It follows that dispositional introverts might improve their happiness by acting more extraverted, yet little research has examined potential costs of this strategy. In two studies, we assessed dispositions, randomly assigned participants to act introverted or extraverted, and examined costs-both emotional (concurrent negative affect) and cognitive (Stroop performance). Results replicated and extended past findings suggesting that acting extraverted produces hedonic benefits regardless of disposition. Positive affect increased and negative affect did not, even for participants acting out of character. In contrast, we found evidence that acting counterdispositionally could produce poor Stroop performance, but this effect was limited to dispositional extraverts who were assigned to act introverted. We suggest that the positive affect produced by introverts' extraverted behavior may buffer the potentially depleting effects of counterdispositional behavior, and we consider alternative explanations. We conclude that dispositional introverts may indeed benefit from acting extraverted more often and caution that dispositional extraverts may want to adopt introverted behavior strategically, as it could induce cognitive costs or self-regulatory depletion more generally.
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One of the fundamental questions in personality psychology is whether and how strongly trait standing relates to the traits that people actually manifest in their behavior when faced with real pressures and real consequences of their actions. One reason this question is fundamental is the common belief that traits do not predict how individuals behave, which leads to the reasonable conclusion that traits are not important to study. However, this conclusion is surprising given that there is almost no data on the ability of traits to predict distributions of naturally occurring, representative behaviors of individuals (and that there are many studies showing that traits do indeed predict specific behaviors). The authors describe a meta-analysis of 15 experience-sampling studies, conducted over the course of 8 years, amassing over 20,000 reports of trait manifestation in behavior. Participants reported traits on typical self-report questionnaires, then described their current behavior multiple times per day for several days as the behavior was occurring. Results show that traits, contrary to expectations, were strongly predictive of individual differences in trait manifestation in behavior, predicting average levels with correlations between .42 and .56 (approaching .60 for stringently restricted studies). Several other ways of summarizing trait manifestation in behavior were also predicted from traits. These studies provide evidence that traits are powerful predictors of actual manifestation of traits in behavior.
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This article provides a qualitative review of the trait perspective in leadership research, followed by a meta-analysis. The authors used the five-factor model as an organizing framework and meta-analyzed 222 correlations from 73 samples. Overall, the correlations with leadership were Neuroticism = -.24, Extraversion = .31, Openness to Experience = .24, Agreeableness = .08, and Conscientiousness = .28. Results indicated that the relations of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness with leadership generalized in that more than 90% of the individual correlations were greater than 0. Extraversion was the most consistent correlate of leadership across study settings and leadership criteria (leader emergence and leadership effectiveness). Overall, the five-factor model had a multiple correlation of .48 with leadership, indicating strong support for the leader trait perspective when traits are organized according to the five-factor model.
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This article investigates whether rapid variation within a person in extraversion is associated with positive affect variation in that person. In Study 1, participants reported their extraversion and positive affect every 3 hr for 2 weeks. Each participant was happier when acting extraverted than when acting introverted. Study 2's diary methodology replicated the relationship for weekly variations in positive affect. Study 3's experimental methodology replicated the relationship when extraversion was manipulated within a fixed situation. Thus, the relationship between extraversion and positive affect, previously demonstrated between persons, also characterizes the internal, ongoing psychological functioning of individuals and is likely to be explained by something capable of rapid intraindividual variation. Furthermore, traits and states are at least somewhat isomorphic, and acting extraverted may increase well-being.
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We examine leadership over-emergence, defined as instances when the level of one's leadership emergence is higher than the level of one's leadership effectiveness, in a sample of intact self-managing teams who worked together for a period of seven months. We draw from Gender Role Theory and Expectancy Violation Theory to examine the role of gender in predicting leadership over-emergence. Building on arguments from Gender Role Theory, we find that all else equal, men over-emerge as leaders. However, Expectancy Violation Theory suggests that women are likely to benefit from a countervailing bias. Specifically, women are attributed with higher levels of leadership emergence than men when they engage in agentic leadership behaviors-even if the level of the behaviors exhibited by men is exactly the same. Because the impact of these behaviors on leadership effectiveness is not contingent on gender, however, women who engage in more task behaviors and boundary spanning behaviors in self-managing teams also over-emerge as leaders. We discuss the implications of this study for Gender Role Theory and Expectancy Violation Theory, along with practical implications for managing the problem of leadership over-emergence in work groups.
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In this article we reply to Davis-Blake and Pfeffer's (1989) critique of dispositional research in organizational behavior and their suggestions for what it would take for dispositional research to make a valid contribution to the field. Based on a review of studies of different populations in various settings and the different assessments of dispositions, we conclude that the evidence presents a compelling argument for incorporating dispositional theory into explanations of behavior in organizations.
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Two different theoretical models have been used to explain relationships between the personality dimensions of extraversion and neuroticism and the affect dimensions of positive and negative mood. Eysenck's model predicts that extraversion should relate to positive affect, but not negative affect, and that neuroticism should relate to negative affect, but not positive affect. The model proposed by Gray and Newman asserts that there should be an interaction between extraversion and neuroticism in predicting positive and negative affect, such that the relationship between neuroticism and affect depends on one's position on the extraversion dimension. The purpose of the present study is to test these two theoretical models (Eysenck or Gray/Newman) in relation to positive and negative affect susceptibility. Results best fit predictions derived from Eysenck's model. Extraversion was positively related to positive affect following a pleasant mood induction, and neuroticism was positively related to negative affect following a negative mood induction. There was no evidence for an extraversion × neuroticism interaction in predicting emotional reactions, as would be expected from the Gray/Newman model.
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In analyses of transcripts from 108 3-man groups, perceived leaders participated significantly more than nonleaders in production, discussion, and problem solving tasks. With the effect of overall participation partialed out, very few behavioral differences between leaders and nonleaders remained. However, high participation was neither a sufficient nor necessary condition for perceived leadership. High participators, not perceived as leaders, emphasized activities detrimental to group creativity and deemphasized facilitative activities. Although it was not possible to account for the leadership ratings of most low participators, for some it appeared that nominal leadership assignments made by E were not altered by an appointed leader's relative lack of participation in his group. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The aim of this study was to investigate (a) personality attributes and cognitive ability (g) as determinants of leadership emergence in teams, and (b) the impact of leadership that can emerge from the team leader (operationalized as the team member with the highest leadership score) and other team members (staff) on team performance. Autonomous work team members who had been working together for 13 weeks were studied. Participants were 480 undergraduates in 94 initially leaderless teams of 5 or 6. We found that leadership emergence was associated most strongly with g, followed by conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability. Teams performed best when both the team leader and staff were high in leadership. Furthermore, an effective team leader does not ameliorate the negative affects of a staff low in leadership.
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This study investigated the theoretical underpinnings of individual differences in emergent leadership behaviors and their relationships to teamwork processes and outcomes. Both personality and cognitive ability were utilized to examine behaviors of leadership emergence, team performance, and KSAs. Three hundred and twenty undergraduate psychology students completed personality and cognitive ability tests and then formed sixty-seven mixed-gender teams. Members rated each other on emergent leadership behaviors as well as their team on specific interpersonal and self-management KSAs. Results revealed that extroversion, openness to experience and cognitive ability were predictive of emergent leadership behaviors. Conscientiousness and cognitive ability were associated with team performance. Implications and future directions for research are discussed.
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Past research on the emergence of leaders in groups has typically examined relationships between individual trait variables and emergence. The current study extends work of the past by developing a multi-variable pattern approach, along with the traditional examination of individual trait measures, in the domain of emergent leadership. The personality pattern examined in this study uses the variables dominance, intelligence and general self-efficacy.All three trait variables were significantly positively associated with leader emergence. Individuals high in all three traits (HHH) emerged significantly more frequently than all other individuals while those low in all three traits (LLL) emerged significantly less frequently than all other individuals. This study demonstrates that the pattern approach is useful in the study of emergent leadership. Implications for the future research in emergent leadership are discussed.
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Examination of Saucier (1994) big-five Mini-Markers using a multinational sample (N = 491) found its psychometric properties suboptimal. Using further multinational samples, through a qualitative study (N = 23) appraising items and then a series of quantitative development and validation studies (total N = 3,068), a revised marker set was derived. This new International English Mini-Markers (a) produced better factor structures, higher scale internal consistency reliabilities, and greater orthogonality than the original set of items, (b) prove to have temporal stability, and (c) acceptable convergent validity.
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Goldberg (1992) developed a robust set of 100 adjective markers for the Big-Five factor structure found in phenotypic personality description. Because and even briefer marker set might be advantageous under certain assessment conditions, the performance of these 100 markers in 12 data sets was scrutinized, leading to the selection of an optimally robust subset of only 40 adjectives. This "Mini-Marker" subset demonstrated unusually impressive features for an abbreviated inventory, consisting of five scales that show, in comparison to the original scales, less use of difficult items, lower interscale correlations, and somewhat higher mean inter-item correlations; alpha reliabilities are somewhat lower. A format for administering this briefer inventory is appended.
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Although psychologists know a great deal about leadership, persons who make decisions about real leaders seem largely to ignore their accumulated wisdom. In an effort to make past research more accessible, interpretable, and relevant to decision makers, this article defines leadership and then answers nine questions that routinely come up when practical decisions are made about leadership (e.g., whom to appoint, how to evaluate them, when to terminate them.
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This study had three major goals: to clarify the relationships between Eysenck's, Gray's, and Cloninger's personality taxonomies, to show that traits from these taxonomies predict differential sensitivities to emotional states, and to explore the relationship between sensitivity to an emotional state and how much that state is actually experienced. A factor analysis of traits from Eysenck's, Gray's, and Cloninger's personality taxonomies resulted in three factors that were named reward sensitivity, impulsivity-thrill seeking, and punishment sensitivity. These factors predicted a global measure of affect, emotional reactions to a laboratory mood induction, and self-reported affect in daily life. Generally, reward sensitivity predicted positive, but not negative emotions, whereas punishment sensitivity predicted negative, but not positive emotions. Impulsivity-thrill seeking predicted few emotions in either context. Coherence among the relationships found across methodological contexts suggests that the traits that predict emotion susceptibilities in the laboratory similarly predict emotional experience in ongoing daily life.
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Three experience-sampling studies explored the distributions of Big-Five-relevant states (behavior) across 2 to 3 weeks of everyday life. Within-person variability was high, such that the typical individual regularly and routinely manifested nearly all levels of all traits in his or her everyday behavior. Second, individual differences in central tendencies of behavioral distributions were almost perfectly stable. Third, amount of behavioral variability (and skew and kurtosis) were revealed as stable individual differences. Finally, amount of within-person variability in extraversion was shown to reflect individual differences in reactivity to extraversion-relevant situational cues. Thus, decontextualized and noncontingent Big-Five content is highly useful for descriptions of individuals' density distributions as wholes. Simultaneously, contextualized and contingent personality units (e.g., conditional traits, goals) are needed for describing the considerable within-person variation.
Leadership emergence in autonomous work teams: Antecedents and outcomes
  • S Taggar
  • R Hackett
  • S Saha
Taggar, S., Hackett, R., & Saha, S. (1999). Leadership emergence in autonomous work teams: Antecedents and outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 52(4), 899-926.