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Microplastics in air: Are we breathing it in?
Abstract
The annual production of plastic textile fibers has increased by more than 6% per year, reaching 60 million metric tons, about 16% of world plastic production. The degradation of these fibers produces fibrous microplastics (MPs). Such MPs have been observed in atmospheric fallouts, as well as in indoor and outdoor environments. Some fibrous MPs may be inhaled. Most of them are likely to be subjected to mucociliary clearance; however, some may persist in the lung causing localized biological responses, including inflammation, especially in individuals with compromised clearance mechanisms. Associated contaminants such as Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) could desorb and lead to genotoxicity while the plastic itself and its additives (dyes, plasticizers) could lead to health effects including reproductive toxicity, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity.
... A critical aspect of the incidence of atmospheric MPs is their ability to be inhaled and hence reach the lung alveoli [126]. The "breathing gateway" directly depends on particle features like size and shape. ...
... The "breathing gateway" directly depends on particle features like size and shape. According to some references, only particles smaller than 5 µm and with a fibrous nature are able to accumulate in the deep lungs [126,127]. A greater portion of the larger inhalable particles is retained by mucociliary clearance in the upper airways; a small portion passes this filter and becomes concentrated in the lungs. ...
... While research into the transport of MPs in air streams is still new, studies into their health impacts when inhaled suggest various effects throughout the respiratory tract and beyond, ranging from irritation to the appearance of cancer in cases of chronic exposure. These adverse effects include shortness of breath, similar to that caused by asthma; respiratory inflammation such as chronic bronchitis; extrinsic allergic alveolitis and chronic pneumonia; pulmonary emphysema; [139] increased likelihood of developing interstitial lung disorders; [146] coughing, breathing difficulty, and reduced lung capacity; [126] oxida-tive stress and associated cytotoxic effects; [146] and autoimmune diseases [139]. In spite of the many articles on the dangers of aerial MPs to human health, a dose-response curve has never been published [61]. ...
Microplastics (MPs) are omnipresent particles that receive special attention because of their persistent nature and their potential impact on human disease and on the environment. Most MPs are generated by the degradation of larger plastic items such as clothing, car tires, and discarded plastic materials. In indoor environments, where human beings spend most of their time, aerial MP levels are higher, and the majority are fibers produced from textiles. Airborne MPs indoors are a greater potential danger to humans than MPs ingested in food and drink. Fragments small enough to remain substantially suspended in the air column, the small airborne microparticles that are measured as PM10 and PM2.5, become available for assimilation by human beings through respiration, potentially producing various health problems. Larger MPs act by ingestion and skin contact. MPs can carry microorganisms and micropollutants adsorbed to their surfaces, facilitating their uptake and survival within the human body. Indoor airborne MPs thus represent emerging pollutants of fast-growing concern that are especially important as potential invaders of the human respiratory system, reaching the alveoli of the lungs and finally entering the circulatory system and other tissues. Since this direct human exposure to MP contamination via indoor air is so important, we discuss in this article the ways in which MP concentration and dispersal in indoor air can be affected by air turbulence that is induced by anthropogenic objects such as air conditioners, filters, and purifiers. Much evidence is equivocal and further research is necessary.
... [7,8] Atmospheric MPs may pose a unique risk because of exposure via inhalation or ingestion, the amplification of their transport due to meteorological events, and aging of MPs while in the atmosphere leading to changes in their surface characteristics and properties. [9,10]. ...
... [19] Snow particle terminal velocity decreases with the increase in size, allowing for scavenging to be up to 50 times more efficient than rain based on the snow water equivalent of a snow particle to a raindrop. [10] The deposition of MPs is a dynamic process, as resuspension to the atmosphere due to surface-level turbulent processes can occur. [20] It is estimated that the current average total atmospheric burden of MPs over the land regions of the western United States is 10,000 kg; however, little is known about the environmental fate of such atmospheric MPs. ...
... MP fibres with sizes larger than 250 μm have been detected in human lungs [132]. While a majority of these particulates are cleared by mucociliary clearance, some may linger in the lungs, causing inflammation and a biological response [133]. Microplastics are released into the air by several sources, such as synthetic textiles, polymers, abrasion of materials (e.g., car tyres), and the resuspension of microplastics in surfaces. ...
... MP fibres with sizes larger than 250 µm have been detected in human lungs [132]. While a majority of these particulates are cleared by mucociliary clearance, some may linger in the lungs, causing inflammation and a biological response [133]. Microplastics are released into the air by several sources, such as synthetic textiles, polymers, abrasion of materials (e.g., car tyres), and the resuspension of microplastics in surfaces. ...
With nearly 40% of the total plastics produced being used for packaging, up to five trillion plastic bags are consumed in the world annually. The inadequate disposal of plastic waste and its persistence has become a serious challenge/risk to the environment, health, and well-being of living creatures, including humans. The natural degradation of plastics is extremely slow; large pieces of plastic may break down into microplastics (MPs) (1 μm–5 mm) or nanoplastics (NPs) (<1000 nm) after protracted physical, chemical, and/or biological degradations. A brief overview of the transport of micro- and nanoplastics in the aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments is presented. Details are provided on the exposure routes for these waste materials and their entry into humans and other biota through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. The greatest concern is the cumulative impact of the heterogeneous secondary MPs and NPs on planetary and human health. Inhaled MPs and NPs have been shown to affect the upper respiratory tract, lower respiratory tract, and alveoli; prolonged exposure can lead to chronic inflammatory changes and systemic disease. These can also lead to autoimmune diseases and other chronic health conditions, including atherosclerosis and malignancy. Sustainable mitigation strategies to reduce the impact of MPs/NPs include source reduction, material substitution, filtration and purification, transformation of plastic waste into value-added materials, technological innovations, etc. Multidisciplinary collaborations across the fields of medicine, public health, environmental science, economics, and policy are required to help limit the detrimental effects of widespread MPs and NPs in the environment.
... Microplastics present in salt intended for consumption and drinking water have the potential to be ingested by humans through the digestive system, while those found in the air may come into contact with both the digestive and respiratory systems of individuals. Just as suspended microplastics can be inhaled and deposited in the lung, microplastics might also be swallowed through hand-to-mouth contact, especially for children [22,24], and by the entire population when contained in food. A recent study by Zhao and You [25] estimated the microplastic exposure per country, where it was found that in the most affected country, Indonesia, the average per capita intake of MPs is 15 g/month, chiefly via seafood. ...
... Products made from different materials and not intrinsically "safe and sustainable by design" (SSbD) limit the end-of-life options. The seminal article by Geyer et al. [24], "Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made" gives a good overview of what happened to all plastics-6.3 billion tons of plastic waste till 2015. Today, only 9 years later, in 2024, we are already talking about an additional ~350 million tons of plastic waste per year, out of ~450 million tons of production-and still about the same rate of only 9% recycling and approx. ...
Environmental pollution from plastics has become one of the biggest concerns globally. Microplastics (MPs) are plastic materials less than 5 mm in size. They remain in the environment for hundreds to thousands of years without degrading, only breaking down further to nanoplastics (NPs). Micro- and nanoplastics can be the origin of many diseases and can carry various pathogenic substances on their surface and spread them throughout the biosphere, starting with contained additives and ending with adsorbed toxins from the environment and potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Exposure routes for humans and animals are through air, water and food/feed. Due to the placement of livestock—including ruminants, fish and poultry—and humans at the top of the food web, any pollution in water, air or soil can eventually be transferred to livestock and from livestock to humans. The presence of microplastics in the intestines of aquaculture species, ruminants and poultry, for instance, was found to cause a change in the intestinal microbial population and, as a result, the occurrence of diseases. These particles have also been observed in other organs such as liver, kidneys, lung, spleen, heart, ovaries, and testicles of animals, which causes biochemical changes, structural destruction, and malfunction. While the complete extent of the negative health impacts of microplastics remains still largely unknown, their ubiquitous presence and the transmission of chemicals from microplastics to organisms is a notable issue, underscoring the importance of gaining a more comprehensive understanding of the potential threats posed by microplastics to animal and ultimately human health, coupled with a need for drastic reduction of the plastic freight into the environment. This review article summarizes recent findings on the effect of micro- and nanoplastics on farmed animals and, ultimately, on humans. Action is needed to reduce the number of microplastics to which farmed animals, and thereby humans, are exposed.
... In the marine environment, plastics are subjected to severe weathering conditions, UV sunlight, and mechanical abrasion that disintegrate bigger plastics into tiny plastic particles, which are typically referred to as microplastics (MPs), with a size range of 1-5000 µm, and nanoplastics (NPs), with a size range of 1-1000 nm [3,4]. These micro-and nanoplastics (MNPs) have been found in several environmental matrices, i.e., marine biota [5], soil [6], air [7], food [8], and recently in human blood [9]. Within the oceans, MNPs can be found in various layers due to their different molecular weights, causing them to float on the water's surface, within the water column, and in sedimentary layers [10], and are thus capable of interacting with different aquatic species. ...
Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) pose a significant threat to marine and human life due to their immense toxicity. To protect these ecosystems, the development of reliable technologies for MNP detection, characterisation, and removal is vital. While FTIR and Raman spectroscopy are established methods for MNP analysis, fluorescence (FL) spectroscopy has recently emerged as a promising alternative. However, most prior research relies on FL emission probing with a single excitation wavelength for MNP detection. In this study, we introduce a two-dimensional (2D) fluorescence excitation–emission (FLE) mapping method for the detection of commonly found microplastics, namely polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polypropylene (PP). The FLE mapping technique enables the collective recording of emission spectra across a range of excitation wavelengths, revealing the dominant excitation–emission features of different microplastics. This research advances the field by offering a non-destructive and label-free identification of MNP contamination through the use of FL spectral fingerprints.
... Their widespread occurrence, persistence, and potential toxicity make them a serious threat, necessitating increased attention and action to mitigate their impact on natural systems and public health [1]. They can be introduced in the environment either as water-insoluble readymade micro-pellets, microbeads, microfibers, and other forms those are intentionally produced by mankind, known as primary sources [2,3] and the tiny breakage part of large plastic matters produced in the environment known as secondary sources [4,5]. Daily commodities, cosmetic accessories, or industrial sludges contribute huge amount of primary microplastics [6] while the majority of microplastics originate from secondary sources [7]. ...
... Anthropogenic activities have been identified as significant contributors to the abundance of MPs in the atmosphere, particularly those composed of fibrous materials 123 . Available occurrence data suggest that fibers, shed from clothing, serve as a major source of atmospheric MPs, along with particles from high-speed tires on roads 124,125 . However, research on the contamination of atmospheric fallout by MPs is still limited and represents an emerging area of study. ...
... While microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems has been recognized for some time, recent trends have shown a marked increase in both plastic production and waste mismanagement. For example, between 1950 and 2017, plastic production reached approximately 9.2 billion tons, with nearly half of this production occurring after 2004 [19]. In 2021 alone, global plastic production exceeded 400 million tons, which, combined with the long persistence of microplastics in the environment, poses significant risks to aquatic biodiversity and human health [20,21]. ...
Microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems has emerged as a significant environmental concern, warranting comprehensive investigation, and understanding. This study employs bibliometric analysis to systematically review and synthesize the existing literature on microplastic pollution in freshwater environments from 2013 to 2023. The exponential growth in research output was uncovered by analyzing 885 documents sourced from the Web of Science database, with an average annual growth rate of 73.13% and an average document citation of 30.17. Our findings highlight the dominance of primary and secondary microplastics as pollutants, their ecological consequences, and the resultant socio-economic implications. Notably, the Science of the Total Environment and Environmental Pollution journals emerge as leading publication venues, while China, Germany, and the USA lead in research contributions, underlining the global nature of microplastic pollution research. The analysis further outlines the most commonly cited works, identifying pivotal studies that have shaped current understanding and future research directions. This bibliometric analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the research landscape on microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems, helping researchers to identify knowledge gaps and emerging trends. These insights can guide future research directions and inform policymakers and stakeholders on where scientific efforts should be concentrated to better understand and address the impacts of microplastic pollution.
... Synthetic fibers are widely documented as the primary form of MPs globally [6,67], including in Brazil [68] and the PSR [27,28]. These fibers are predominantly associated with the discharge of treated and untreated sewage, as well as industrial effluents [69] in inland water ecosystems, and constitute almost 60% of global fiber consumption, with PES, polyamide, acrylic polymers, and polyolefins being the most common types [70,71]. ...
Microplastics (MPs) are reported as ubiquitous in the environment. In recent years, these microplastic particles have been found in table salt, seafood, and honey, as well as in drinking water. However, the process by which water reaches households for consumption has not yet been investigated. Thus, we compared the concentration, shape, color, size, and polymer types of MPs in water sources that have passed through different filtration techniques for human consumption such as water purifiers, ceramic filters, and tap water. A total of 9262 items of microplastics were identified in the analyzed water samples. Higher MP concentration (ANOVA, F = 68.16; D.F. = 2; p < 0.01) was observed in water from purifiers (1.41 MPs/L) and taps (1.13 MPs/L) compared to ceramic filter water (0.49 MPs/L). Transparent fibers ranging in size from <500 µ to >5 mm, composed of polyester, polypropylene, and polyamide, were predominant in all water samples. We emphasize that regulations and restrictions related to the production and use of plastics, promotion of environmental education (scientific dissemination) for the population, and the development and popularization of filters that promote the retention of MPs at the source and also in sinks are useful measures for reducing contamination of water bodies and water for human consumption.
... In 2019, a study indicated that MPs are transported in the atmosphere by wind to remote areas [40]. A study in 2017 showed indoor air microfiber concentrations between 1 and 60 microfibers per cubic meter (33% of which are MPs) [41]. ...
... Piehl et al., 2018;Schrank et al., 2022) sowie in der Atmosphäre nachgewiesen (vgl. Gasperi et al., 2015;Dris et al., 2016;Gasperi et al., 2018;Stanton et al., 2019;Vianello et al., 2019;Kernchen et al., 2021 Barnes et al., 2009;Gerritse et al., 2020;Meides et al., 2021Meides et al., , 2022 Yong et al., 2020;Missawi et al., 2023). ...
Die menschliche Gesundheit und die Gesundheit unseres Planeten sind unmittelbar miteinander verbunden. Planetary Health als multidimensionale Forschungsdisziplin analysiert diese Zusammenhänge sowie die Auswirkungen menschlicher Eingriffe in die natürlichen Systeme der Erde und damit auf unsere Gesundheit. Dieses Buch bietet einen umfassenden Einblick in die komplexen Beziehungen zwischen Mensch, Umwelt, Klima und Gesundheit. Fachbeiträge ausgewiesener Expertinnen und Experten beleuchten nicht nur allgemeine Hintergründe wie Nachhaltigkeit, Umwelt- sowie Gesundheitsgerechtigkeit und Migration, sondern zeigen auch gesundheitsbezogene Umweltrisiken sowie damit verbundene Auswirkungen auf die menschliche Gesundheit auf. Darauf aufbauend werden setting- sowie verhaltensbezogene Lösungsansätze vorgestellt (z. B. Hitzeaktionspläne, klimasensible Pflege, Green Nudging), mit denen ein positiver Einfluss auf unsere Umwelt bewirkt werden kann. Der interdisziplinäre Themenband ist sowohl für Praktiker/-innen, Lehrende als auch Studierende geeignet, die sich mit den Schnittstellen von Umwelt und Gesundheit befassen. Er bietet ein aktuelles Spektrum an Erkenntnissen, um das Verständnis für die Zusammenhänge zwischen unserem Planeten und unserer Gesundheit zu erweitern. Das Buch betont die Verantwortung jedes Einzelnen und ermutigt, aktiv zu einer gesünderen Zukunft beizutragen. Mit Vorworten von Maike Schaefer und Claudia Hornberg
... While they amend the qualities of plastic products, almost all are hazardous as well as possess a high risk of contaminating soil, water and air. Documentation exists in favor of the toxicity, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity caused by additives such as plasticizers and dyes (Gasperi et al., 2018). Phthalates, Bisphenol A (BPA) along with certain brominated flame retardants which are commonly utilized in domestic items as well as food packaging, have been identified to disrupt the hormonal balance and the presence of these endocrine disruptors can have detrimental effects on human health (Pironti et al., 2021). ...
Zoology: Advancements and Research Trends is a comprehensive compilation of cutting-edge research and insights in the field of Zoology. This book has been meticulously curated to serve as an invaluable resource for students, researchers, and professionals who are keen to explore the latest advancements and emerging trends in various sub-disciplines of Zoology, including toxicology, pharmacology, and general zoology. As an Assistant Professor in the Department of Zoology, Wildlife, and Fisheries at the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, I, Dr. Muhammad Umar Ijaz, have dedicated over a decade to advancing our understanding of animal physiology, cell biology, toxicology and pharmacology. My extensive experience in these fields, coupled with my broader expertise in general zoology, has provided me with a profound appreciation for the complex interplay between living organisms and their environments. This book reflects my commitment to bringing together a diverse array of topics that highlight the breadth and depth of contemporary zoological research. Zoology: Advancements and Research Trends is not just a collection of research topics but a reflection of the collaborative spirit that drives scientific progress. The diverse expertise of the contributing authors ensures that this book offers a well-rounded perspective on the current trends and future directions in Zoology. I hope that this book will serve as a valuable reference for those in academia and industry, providing insights that will inspire future research and contribute to the ongoing dialogue in the field. It is my sincere belief that the knowledge shared within these pages will help shape the future of Zoology, ultimately contributing to the betterment of our understanding and stewardship of the natural world. I would like to express my gratitude to all the contributors, reviewers, and colleagues whose efforts have made this book possible. I also extend my thanks to the students and researchers who continue to push the boundaries of what we know and what we can achieve in this dynamic field.
... The size of airborne microplastic is also an important indicator to determine the characteristics of microplastic directly related to the possibility of inhalation and digestion of organisms [28]. The size and range of outdoor airborne microplastic, similar to microplastic in other environments, have a wide span, ranging from less than 25 µm to 5000 µm [26] [10, p. 2]. ...
... Animals become entangled in plastic debris, often resulting in suffocation, drowning or ingestion, potentially poisoning them or blocking their digestive systems (Lusher, 2015). Recently, microplastics records in humans have emerged which may result from consumption of aquatic organisms like fish (Galloway, 2015), but also from plastics contaminating agricultural produce (Qiong, 1996) and air-borne microplastic particles (Gasperi et al., 2018). Microplastics are also presenting in human and animal tissues with potentially harmful consequences, such as disruption of various hormonal mechanisms (Galloway, 2015). ...
Plastic has become the planet's most ubiquitous form of modern pollution and microplastics are at the forefront of scientific interest and research combatting plastic pollution. The marine environment is believed to be the worst affected ecosystem globally and all marine organisms are susceptible to deleterious consequences from microplastic pollution through ingestion or entanglement. Seabirds are well-studied taxa that suffer negative consequences due to ingesting microplastics. Currently, invasive methods used to determine whether different seabird species are ingesting plastic include post mortem gut analysis and stomach flushing. As a less invasive alternative, this research analyses guano (seabird faeces) to identify microplastics. This research has designed a simplified, replicable method to extract plastic from guano in the laboratory, and applied it to guano collected from four species across different sites in Australia. Previous research has found plastic in the gut contents of all four study species; Australian pelicans, shy albatross, brown boobies and red-tailed tropicbirds, however little research has been carried out into their guano. Analysis showed all species samples contained microplastics, including a section of fishing line and drinking straw. Overall, samples from tropicbirds contained the most microplastic, followed by albatross, pelican and finally booby. While statistical analysis does not show significant differences between levels of microplastics in the different species (due to limitations of a small sample size), binary regression probability graphs signify different levels of microplastics present that can be linked to explanations regarding migratory movements, feeding guilds and geographical location. This study contributes to recent research highlighting the importance of protecting seabird species from microplastic ingestion and their role as indicators of ocean health and environmental monitors and emphasises the need for further research into the transport of microplastics through seabird excrement as a method of environmental monitoring. ii
... Microplastics have been shown to transmit hydrophobic substances effectively (Endo et al. 2013). While the plastic itself and its additives (dyes, plasticizers) could have negative health consequences such as reproductive toxicity, carcinogenicity, and mutagenicity, associated pollutants like Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) could desorb and result in Geno-toxicity (Gasperi et al. 2018). ...
Small plastic particles like Microplastics have become a global environmental concern including in Bangladesh due to their persistence in the environment and potential harm to aquatic lives and human health. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the current scenario of microplastic pollution and explores the sources, distribution, and impacts of microplastic pollution on human health, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems as well as utilizes a systematic literature review method to identify and analyze the available research on microplastic pollution in Bangladeshi perspective. The results show plastic waste mismanagement, such as inadequate waste collection, disposal, and recycling as the origin of microplastic pollution. The article examines the distribution of microplastics in various environmental matrices such as water bodies, soil, and biota and discusses the potential ecological and human health impacts of microplastic pollution in Bangladesh. Moreover, the study highlights the potential risks of microplastic ingestion by aquaticorganisms, such as shrimp, crabs, and fish which ultimately affect human health through the food chain. The study suggests several mitigation strategies including improving waste management practices, promoting public awareness, developing policies and regulations to reduce plastic use, and increasing recycling. Overall, this review contributes to the existing knowledge on microplastic pollution in Bangladesh and provides useful insights for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners to develop effective strategies for mitigating this environmental problem. However, the involvement of all stakeholders including policymakers, industries, and the general public is necessary to achieve a sustainable and healthy environment for the country.
... [3][4][5] Due to their size and density, MPs are easily transferred to air and transported by wind to longer distances of up to 100 km, causing a potential health risk when inhaled continuously by humans. 4,[6][7][8] MPs in the air can act as carriers for heavy metals, microorganisms and carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons due to their large specic surface area and sorption capacity, and thus, inhalation exposure to MPs increases the potential cancer risk. [9][10][11][12] Earlier studies reported that PET is the most abundant microplastic present in ambient particulate matter in the urban sites of India and China. ...
Microplastics (MPs) have recently become a growing environmental pollution concern. MPs are easily transferred and ubiquitously found in ambient air. MPs in the air can act as carriers for several toxic pollutants, and exposure to MPs can lead to pulmonary diseases in humans. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is one of the most abundant MPs used in the manufacturing of various fibres and plastics. In this study, we present a method for the determination of mass concentrations of PET MPs in the airborne inhalable fraction of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Teflon and quartz fiber filters were tested for extraction efficiency in measuring the mass concentrations of airborne PET MPs. Teflon filters showed good recovery (80–120%) compared to quartz fiber filters. Using this method, a pilot study was carried out in Delhi, the national capital of India, and Mohali, a suburban city in the northwest Indo-Gangetic Plain (NWIGP), for the determination of mass concentrations of PET MPs present in airborne PM2.5. The observed maximum mass concentrations of PET MPs in airborne PM2.5 in Delhi and Mohali are 135.20 ng m⁻³ and 157.98 ng m⁻³, respectively.
... Furthermore, the interaction of the MPs with the human body tissue or fluid and the body's capacity to remove the MPs from human body systems, such as respiratory and digestive, is governed mainly by the shape, size, and polymer type of the MPs (Liao et al. 2021). Exposure to MPs can cause lung fibrosis through reactive oxygen species, impact lung surfactant behavior, surface tension, and membrane structure, affect male fertility, alter cell metabolism, function, structure, and growth, induce tissue toxicity and macrophages activation, trigger inflammation, lead to mutagenesis and cancer, and result in reproductive damage (Firouzsalari et al. 2024;Gasperi et al. 2018;Goodman et al. 2021;Leonard et al. 2024;Montano et al. 2023;Pauly et al. 1998;Peng et al. 2017;Shi et al. 2022). Thus, indoor MPs studies must assess MPs' abundance and characteristics (shape, size, and polymer type). ...
Atmospheric microplastics (MPs) deposition in indoor and outdoor environments has yet to gain significant attention in Bangkok, Thailand. Outdoor MPs deposition is a potentially severe issue as it can contaminate agricultural land, water bodies, and water treatment plants. Similarly, indoor MPs can enter the human body during inhalation and ingestion as an individual spends most of the time indoors. This study employed a passive sampling method, followed by digestion, density separation, Nile red (NR) tagging, and micro-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis to identify the abundance and characteristics of MPs in indoor and outdoor (urban, semi-urban, and industrial) air in Bangkok, Thailand. This study revealed an average indoor MPs deposition of 154 ± 62 particles/square meter/day (p/m²/d). Fragments (68%) were the most abundant shape indoors. Polypropylene (PP) was the most common polymer type. Indoor MPs likely come from plastic items, such as packaging, bags, and containers/bottles, during tearing and opening and polymer-based paints and coatings due to aging. Similarly, the average MPs deposition rate was 103 ± 52, 238 ± 109, and 263 ± 128 p/m²/d at Chulalongkorn (urban), SIIT (semi-urban), and Bangkadi (industrial) sites, respectively. Fragments dominated other shapes in all the outdoor sites. PP was the polymer most repeatedly observed at Chulalongkorn, while polyethylene (PE) was the most common polymer at SIIT and Bangkadi. It is speculated that environmental degradation of plastic wastes (packaging, containers, and bags) and polymer-based paints and coatings on infrastructures add MPs to the atmosphere.
... Pollution of the natural environment by MP is a pervasive problem today (Vaughan et al. 2017). In addition to common examples, such as pollution of seas, rivers, lakes and soil, MP is also found in the air (Gasperi et al. 2015(Gasperi et al. , 2018, at high altitudes (Allen et al. 2019), in the digestive systems of animals (Gurjar et al. 2021) and their faeces (Santillán et al. 2020), in brewed tea (Hernandez et al. 2019) and bottled water (Welle, Franz 2018), in human lungs (Jenner et al. 2022) and blood (Leslie et al. 2022) or even in the bodies of newborn babies (Sripada et al. 2022). MP also enters the environment as a result of everyday human activity involving, for example, opening bottled water or other plastic packaging (Sobhani et al. 2020). ...
Lake sediments as microplastic sink: The case of three lakes from Northern and Central Poland. Quaestiones Geographicae 43(3), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznan, pp. 103-112. 7 figs. abstract: Microplastic (MP) concentrations were determined in surface samples of bottom sediments collected from three lakes in northern and central Poland, located in catchments with low direct anthropopressure. Between 4 MP and 21 MP particles per kilogram of wet sediment were identified in the lakes studied. These values are small compared to those found in lakes located in urbanised areas and other aquatic environments, but important from the point of view of the threat to local freshwater ecosystems. The differences in the number of MP particles in the three examined lakes are a result of the way their nearest environments are used. Lake Czechowskie, the richest in MP particles found, is partially surrounded by pastures and arable lands, while some of the areas lying by are also seasonally used for recreation. In contrast, Lakes Głęboczek and Gościąż, both completely surrounded by forests, show significantly less MP pollution. The sources of MP in these lakes are primarily attributed to atmospheric transport. A correlation was made between the deepest detected MP particles (ranging from 25 cm to 60 cm) and the rate of sedimentation in the lakes, calculated based on the average annual deposition in sediment traps. Based on this, the attempt was made to determine the exact year of the deepest identified MP particles. The results obtained for each lake-the year 1901 for Lake Czechowskie, 1963 for Lake Głęboczek and 1986 for Lake Gościąż-were interpreted in terms of the sources of MP origin.
... 42 For example, exposure to ultrafine particles (UFP) and black carbon (BC) has particularly negative health effects due to their small size (ability to penetrate the air-blood barrier in the respiratory tract) and chemical composition. Determining the size distribution of particle-bound carcinogen compounds, BC and UFP deposition dose, and physical-chemical characteristics of some newly emerging pollutants, such as microplastics and plasticizers, 43,44 would allow estimating respiratory tract deposition dose of pollutants for much more accurate health risk assessment. One of the key questions is how to monitor the health effects of IAQ. ...
Indoor air pollution is a recognized emerging threat, claiming millions of lives annually. People are constantly exposed to ambient and indoor air pollution. The latest research shows that people in developed countries spend up to 90% of their time indoors and almost 70% at home. Although impaired IAQ represents a significant health risk, it affects people differently, and specific populations are more vulnerable: children, the elderly, and people with respiratory illnesses are more sensitive to these environmental risks. Despite rather extensive research on IAQ, most of the current understanding about the subject, which includes pollution sources, indoor–outdoor relationships, and ventilation/filtration, is still quite limited, mainly because air quality monitoring in the EU is primarily focused on ambient air quality and regulatory requirements are lacking for indoor environments. Therefore, the EDIAQI project aims to improve guidelines and awareness for advancing the IAQ in Europe and beyond by allowing user‐friendly access to information about indoor air pollution exposures, sources, and related risk factors. The solution proposed with EDIAQI consists of conducting a characterization of sources and routes of exposure and dispersion of chemical, biological, and emerging indoor air pollution in multiple cities in the EU. The project will deploy cost‐effective/user‐friendly monitoring solutions to create new knowledge on sources, exposure routes, and indoor multipollutant body burdens. The EDIAQI project brings together 18 organizations from 11 different European countries that provide interdisciplinary skills and expertise in various fields, including environmental science and technology, medicine, and toxicology, as well as policy design and public engagement.
... The physical and chemical characteristics of airborne microplastics were examined and analyzed in previous studies. Identifying suspended airborne microplastics (SAMPs) can be challenging due to their extremely small size compared to other environmental media (Gasperi et al. 2018;Kek et al. 2024). Visual analysis is often regarded as the most straightforward and frequently applied method of identification (Can-Güven 2021; Azari et al. 2023). ...
Microplastics are contaminating air, water, soils, both in populated megacities and in remote areas. Here we review analytical methodologies and occurrence of suspended airborne microplastics in Asia. Forty-three studies on suspended airborne microplastics were examined in thirteen countries across Asia. Abundance of suspended airborne microplastics ranged from 0.93 to 8,865 particles/m3 in indoor locations, 0.017 to 18,880 particles/m3 in outdoor areas, and 0.39 to 19 particles per 100 m3 in the oceanic environment. Suspended airborne microplastics mostly had the shape of fibers and fragments. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene polymers were commonly found. The size of plastic particles ranged from 0.43 to 9,555 µm, and the strategies used in sampling and analytical methods can influence the size of suspended airborne microplastics. Occurrence of suspended airborne microplastics in Asia demonstrates a critical pollution issue in the region.
... Moreover, the large surface area of MPs allows them to adsorb additional air pollutants, including heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, on their surfaces. This process may trigger the oxidative stress pathway, which may cause cytotoxicity, disrupts metabolism, and causes inflammation in alveolar cells (Chen et al., 2023;Gasperi et al., 2018;Wright et al., 2020). In real-life exposure, the proportions of MPs cleared, deposited, or penetrated through an individual's lung not only depends on the properties of the MP particles but also on the physiology and condition of the individual's lungs (Carvalho et al., 2011). ...
... Moreover, microplastics (MPs) that are produced during plastic degradation have a size of less than 5 mm and have the potential to cause eco-toxicological effects [17][18][19][20]. Additionally, fibrous MPs have the potential to cause health impacts like carcinogenicity and mutagenicity because they can be breathed and may accumulate in the lungs [20,21]. ...
Pollution coming from plastic polymers, particularly polyethylene (PE), poses a serious threat to both humans and animals. The biodegradation of plastics facilitated by insects is a crucial and eco-friendly approach that can be employed to combat this global concern. Recently, the larvae of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella (L.) have been recognized as avid 'plastivores'. The current study was aimed at evaluating the feeding efficiency of G. mellonella larvae on PEs of various densities with a co-diet supplementation of wheat germ + honey and beeswax. The results reveal that maximum PE consumption (9.98 ± 1.25 mg) was recorded in the case of 1.0 mm thick PE after a 24 h interval; however, the same scenario also achieved the greatest reduction in larval weight (27.79 ± 2.02 mg). A significant reduction in PE mass (5.87 ± 1.44 mg) was also observed in 1.0 mm PE when fed beeswax; however, the larvae experienced minimal weight loss (9.59 ± 3.81 mg). The larvae exhibited a higher PE consumption in 1.0 mm PE, indicating that the lower the density of PE, the greater the consumed area. Moreover, the biodegradation levels were notably higher within the 24 h interval. In conclusion, these findings suggest that the density of PEs and the supplementation of the co-diet have an impact on PE biodegradation. Additionally, the utilization of G. mellonella for the biodegradation of PE proves effective when combined with beeswax, resulting in minimal weight loss of the larvae. Our findings offer initial insights into how Galleria mellonella larvae biodegrade polyethylene (PE) of four different densities, along with co-diet supplementation. This approach helps us evaluate how varying densities affect degradation rates and provides a better understanding of the larvae's capabilities. Additionally, our observations at three specific time intervals (24, 48, and 72 h) allow us to identify the time required for achieving degradation rates. Through examining these time points, our method offers valuable insights into the initial phases of plastic consumption and biodegradation.
... Inhalation of MPs may lead to respiratory problems, including inflammation and irritation tract of respiratory and aggravate conditions such as asthma and allergies. In addition, some MPs may carry chemicals or other contaminants that can be released after inhalation, potentially causing toxicity and health hazards (Gasperi et al. 2018;Geng et al. 2023b;Li et al. 2021;K. Lu et al. 2021;W. ...
The concern about microplastics is increasing due to their adverse effects on human health and environmental pollution. This study identified microplastics in the indoor air of hospitals in different departments, including laboratory, physiotherapy, endoscopy, and emergency departments, as well as in outdoor air around hospitals. Additionally, we assessed exposure to microplastics through inhalation. A total of 56 samples of indoor air and 14 samples of outdoor air were collected and analyzed. Microplastics were identified in indoor and outdoor air of hospitals with mean values of 29.75 ± 8.28 and 2.2 ± 0.95 MPs/m3, respectively. The highest abundance of microplastics was found in the indoor air of the laboratory department (33.13 ± 4.98 MPs/m3), followed by physiotherapy (31.49 ± 3.81 MPs/m3), emergency (28.08 ± 3.28 MPs/m3), and endoscopy (26.74 ± 3.09 MPs/m3) departments, respectively. PET and PP were the predominant polymer compounds of microplastics in indoor and outdoor air, respectively. The mean values of daily exposure to microplastics through inhalation in indoor and outdoor air in hospitals were157.18 ± 54.64 and 12.23 ± 5.51 MPs/day, respectively. We conclude that exposure to microplastics through inhalation may increase health risks to individuals, necessitating further investigation.
... MNP are found in both out-door and indoor air, with higher concentrations in indoor air [17,26,[37][38][39][40]. In the first study of airborne fibers in 2017, 1/3 of indoor fibers were found to be composed of plastic, while the other 2/3 were composed of natural materials [17]. ...
Background
Israel is a regional "hotspot" of plastic pollution, with little discussion of potential adverse health effects from exposure to plastic. This review aims to stimulate discussion and drive policy by focusing on these adverse health effects.
Main body
Plastics are synthetic polymers containing additives which can leach from food- and beverage-contact plastic into our food and beverages, and from plastic textiles onto our skin. Plastics persist in the environment for generations, fragmenting into MNPs: Micro (1 micron–5 mm)-Nano (1 nm–1 micron)-Plastic, which contaminate our atmosphere, water, and food chain. MNP can enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation and touch. MNP < 10 microns can cross epithelial barriers in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems, and fragments < 100 nm can cross intact skin, enabling entry into body tissues. MNP have been found in multiple organs of the human body. Patients with MNP in atheromas of carotid arteries have increased risk of a combined measure of stroke, cardiovascular disease, and death. Toxic additives to plastics include bisphenols, phthalates, and PFAS, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) which cause dysregulation of thyroid function, reproduction, and metabolism, including increased risk of obesity, diabetes, endometriosis, cancer, and decreased fertility, sperm count and quality. Fetal exposure to EDCs is associated with increased rates of miscarriages, prematurity and low birth weight. There is likely no safe level of exposure to EDCs, with increasing evidence of trans-generational and epigenetic effects. There are several existing Israeli laws to reduce plastic use and waste. Taxes on single-use plastic (SUP) were recently cancelled. There are many gaps in regulatory standards for food-, beverage- and child- safe plastic. Existing standards are poorly enforced.
Conclusion
Reduction in production and use of plastic, promotion of recycling and reduction of leaching of toxic additives into our food and beverages are essential policy goals. Specific recommendations: Periodic monitoring of MNP in bottled beverages, food, indoor air; Strengthen enforcement of standards for food-, beverage-, and child-safe plastic; Renew tax on SUPs; National ban on SUP at public beaches, nature reserves and parks; Ban products manufactured with MNP; Increase research on sources and health outcomes of exposure to MNP and EDCs.
... Minutes of fiber can get out quickly from wearing, drying, tailoring, producing clothes, and other fiber products. Analyzing and characterizing atmospheric MPs helps determine the origin of airborne MPs [17,30] Nevertheless, myriad sources contribute significantly to the presence of MPs in the atmosphere, including tire erosion from automobiles, trucks, household objects, waste incineration, building materials, sewage sludge, landfills, abrasive powder, and 3D printing processes. For instance, the washing and drying of a single garment may release approximately 1900 fibers in the air. ...
In the last century, human activities were the primary cause of air, water, and soil contamination. However, in the twenty-first century, while pollutants like sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) remain significant, microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a new global environmental concern. Microplastics are plastic fragments that are less than 5 mm in diameter. Their widespread distribution in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems has adverse impacts on various ecological systems. The presence of MPs has been well documented in diverse matrices, such as table salt, drinking water, indoor and outdoor air, beer, cold drinks, aquatic organisms, plants, and earthworms. The potential adverse effects of MPs consumption have been reported in various organisms, including earthworms and aquatic fishes; however, their potential effects on human health through respiratory, dietary, and other exposures are still being elucidated. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on potential sources, quantities present in water, table salt, air, and possible routes in the human body through different trophic levels. Furthermore, this paper reviews insights into the movement and accumulation of MPs at different trophic levels (i.e., aquatic, and terrestrial organisms) and their impacts on the cycling of soil carbon and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Additionally, this review paper addresses the current trends in MPs research and proposes strategic management techniques to mitigate MPs pollution.
... Microplastics are made up of particles with various morphologies, such as fiber, fragment, spherical, film, and foam 3 , as well as variations in color and surface porosity 4 . Along with a variety of additives, MPs also adsorb hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs), which include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), [4][5][6] and thus imply potentially different toxicity 7 . The surface of MPs contains pores and cracks which give them a better adhesive character due to the degradations 8 . ...
Plastic particles less than 5 mm in size, known as microplastics, can infiltrate the environment from a variety of sources. This study aimed to assess the presence of microplastics (MPs) in the atmosphere at fifteen major traffic intersections in the greater Dhaka city from July to August 2022.The deposition rate (DP) of MPs was calculated and the observed DPs value ranged from 1.11×106 MPs/m2/day to 5.78×106 MPs/m2/day with a portion of microplastics exhibiting fluorescence activity. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to analyze the functional groups present in microplastics. The identified polymer compositions of MPs were polyethylene (PE), Nylon-6 and natural polymers (cellulose and rubber). The current study highlights the data and knowledge gaps on the atmospheric transport of microplastics and their impact to the deterioration of overall urban air quality. Dhaka Univ. J. Sci. 72(2): 07-14, 2024 (July)
Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and microplastics (MPs) in the atmosphere raise widespread apprehension due to their association with the ecosystem and public health. The accumulation of airborne MPs and PTEs was analyzed in Polyalthia longifolia leaves, and the Pollution Index (PI) was calculated along an industrial, residential, and rural gradient in Bangladesh. Only polyethylene terephthalate (PET) was found in the highest concentration in industrial areas compared to other areas. In leaves, a significantly higher Cd, Pb, and Zn concentration was found in industrial regions compared to residential and rural areas. For Cd, the PI was observed to be higher than 1 in rural areas, indicating a moderate level of pollution; it was higher than 3 in residential areas, showing considerable pollution; and it was found to be more than 6 in industrial areas. The higher concentration of both MPs and PTEs with increasing urbanization reflects the influence of anthropogenic activities. The findings of the study demonstrate the fascinating potential of P. longifolia tree leaves as a promising bioindicator for air quality biomonitoring.
Microplastic fibres are found everywhere that researchers have looked for them, from remote mountains to human lungs. However, data are not yet available to facilitate the design of low-shedding textiles. Effective use of standard test methods could establish the impact of processing variables on textile’s propensity to fragment or shed fibres into the environment, allowing industry to design and select lower-polluting materials. Three new test methods are recommended using the widely accessible accelerated laundering equipment used for colour fastness to wash tests. However, the recommended gravimetric analysis of results takes over 8 h per specimen batch, in addition to specimen preparation, testing and effluent filtration, making analysing test results prohibitively time-consuming, and expensive, for many brands. Visual ‘grey scales’ are very commonly used to grade colour fastness test results, and this article proposes the use of an equivalent ‘fibre fragmentation scale’ to dramatically increase the throughput of fibre fragmentation testing and reduce its cost without compromising accuracy or reliability. Mean fibre fragmentation scale grades given by sets of three observers correlated with gravimetric results at 99% confidence. Subjective grades assigned to test specimens, and photographs of test specimens, had significantly lower variability than gravimetric methods at small, ‘more acceptable’, levels of fibre fragmentation.
Airborne microplastics are emerging pollutants originating from disposable tableware, packaging materials, textiles, and other consumer goods. Microplastics vary in shape and size and exposed to external factors break down into even smaller fractions. Airborne microplastics are abundant in both urban and natural environments, including water bodies and glaciers, as particles can travel long distances. The potential toxicity of airborne microplastics cannot be underestimated. Microparticles, especially those < 10 µm, entering the human body through inhalation or ingestion have been shown to cause serious adverse health effects, such as chronic inflammation, oxidation stress, physical damage to tissues, etc. Microplastics adsorb toxic chemicals and biopolymers, forming a polymer corona on their surface, affecting their overall toxicity. In addition, microplastics can also affect carbon dynamics in ecosystems and have a serious impact on biochemical cycles. The approaches to improve sampling techniques and develop standardized methods to assess airborne microplastics are still far from being perfect. The mechanisms of microplastic intracellular and tissue transport are still not clear, and the impact of airborne microplastics on human health is not understood well. Reduced consumption followed by collection, reuse, and recycling of microplastics can contribute to solving the microplastic problem. Combinations of different filtration techniques and membrane bioreactors can be used to optimize the removal of microplastic contaminants from wastewater. In this review we critically summarize the existing body of literature on airborne microplastics, including their distribution, identification, and safety assessment.
It is estimated that up to 9 million tons of plastic waste enters the oceans every year. There is a top of research on the harmfulness of microplastics to our health. While aspects of the use of polymeric packaging for food, dishes, or plastic furniture and clothing are often dictated by economic considerations, psychological, sociological and cultural aspects can be shaped at the level of operation of healthy and rational product choices in local markets. With increased exposure to plastic in the world, the goal of the natural sciences is to develop research tools on the harmfulness of microplastics. Within the framework of social responsibility, social sciences should give recommendations in areas of social life and propose practical measures to make people aware of where microplastic comes from and how to reduce its use.
Background: Humans cannot avoid plastic exposure due to its ubiquitous presence in the natural environment. The waste generated is poorly biodegradable and exists in the form of MPs, which can enter the human body primarily through the digestive tract, respiratory tract, or damaged skin and accumulate in various tissues by crossing biological membrane barriers. There is an increasing amount of research on the health effects of MPs. Most literature reports focus on the impact of plastics on the respiratory, digestive, reproductive, hormonal, nervous, and immune systems, as well as the metabolic effects of MPs accumulation leading to epidemics of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. MPs, as xenobiotics, undergo ADMET processes in the body, i.e., absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which are not fully understood. Of particular concern are the carcinogenic chemicals added to plastics during manufacturing or adsorbed from the environment, such as chlorinated paraffins, phthalates, phenols, and bisphenols, which can be released when absorbed by the body. The continuous increase in NMP exposure has accelerated during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic when there was a need to use single-use plastic products in daily life. Therefore, there is an urgent need to diagnose problems related to the health effects of MP exposure and detection. Methods: We collected eligible publications mainly from PubMed published between 2017 and 2024. Results: In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on potential sources and routes of exposure, translocation pathways, identification methods, and carcinogenic potential confirmed by in vitro and in vivo studies. Additionally, we discuss the limitations of studies such as contamination during sample preparation and instrumental limitations constraints affecting imaging quality and MPs detection sensitivity. Conclusions: The assessment of MP content in samples should be performed according to the appropriate procedure and analytical technique to ensure Quality and Control (QA/QC). It was confirmed that MPs can be absorbed and accumulated in distant tissues, leading to an inflammatory response and initiation of signaling pathways responsible for malignant transformation.
Microplastics are commonly found in aquatic ecosystems and can pose environmental threats to aquatic organisms. While the threats of microplastic ubiquity are recognized, few studies have concomitantly quantified microplastic abundance and heavy metals along a rural–urban river continuum. In the current study, we studied changes in microplastics and heavy metals (using lead as a proxy) by collecting sediment and water samples along a rural–urban river over two seasons (temperate spring and summer) and across five sites in a North American River. Our results revealed that microplastics decreased in a downstream direction in surface water but did not change predictably in sediment samples collected along the river continuum. Regarding the relationship between microplastic abundance and lead concentrations, we found a positive relationship between microplastics in sediment samples and lead concentrations. Contrariwise, we found no discernible correlation between microplastics in surface water and lead concentrations along the river continuum. Given the presence of microplastics at every site and moderate lead pollution documented in the Wolf River, our results provide baseline data that can aid in the concurrent assessment of microplastics and heavy metals in river systems. These findings can inform environmental managers in planning pollution management strategies for waterways flowing through rural–urban areas.
Microplastics and nanoplastics, particles smaller than 5 millimeters, have induced profound ecological imbalances in aquatic environments, posing threats to habitats, food chains, and organisms through pollution and bioaccumulation. Their capacity to adsorb harmful chemicals raises concerns for aquatic life and human health via contaminated seafood consumption. Furthermore, terrestrial ecosystems are not spared, with soil quality and nutrient cycling impacted by these pollutants. Given their global dispersion through wind and water currents, even remote areas are affected. Addressing these challenges mandates significant actions, including reducing plastic production, improving waste management, and implementing strategies for environmental remediation. Public awareness and education are pivotal for fostering sustainable practices and mitigating the pervasive impact of plastic contamination on ecosystems worldwide.
The presence of microplastics (MPs) in human body parts has raised significant concerns due to their status as a major environmental pollutant. Despite existing methods for detecting and identifying MPs in human tissues, there is a lack of standardized techniques, compromising
the comparability of data across studies. This review critically analyzes the current knowledge on MPs in human body parts, sources and potential exposure pathways. This study underscores the urgent need for standardized and validated techniques for accurate MP analysis and characterization in human tissues, addressing the methodological challenges in MP detection. The findings of this review indicate that humans are exposed to MPs potentially through several routes such as ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact. However, the exact routes for MPs entering the body remain unclear. It also examines the wide range of
health impacts associated with MPs, such as oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, endocrine disruption, and potential genotoxicity. Nevertheless, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying these effects are still not well understood, especially when considering the diverse concentrations, shapes, and sizes of MPs. Therefore, further research is essential, particularly to enhance epidemiological studies that can robustly establish the link between MP exposure and health impacts in large populations. Advancing this knowledge will be crucial for developing effective strategies to safeguard both environmental and public health from the detrimental effects of MPs.
Keywords: Emerging contaminants; Microplastic Detection; Human health; Toxicity; Bioaccumulation; Mitigation strategies
Microplastics (MPs), particles under 5 mm, pervade water, soil, sediment, and air due to increased plastic production and improper disposal, posing global environmental and health risks. Examining their distribution, quantities, fate, and transport is crucial for effective management. Several studies have explored MPs' sources, distribution, transport, and biological impacts, primarily focusing on the marine environment. However, there is a need for a comprehensive review of all environmental systems together for enhanced pollution control. This review critically examines the occurrence, distribution, fate, and transport of MPs in the following environments: freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. The concentration of MPs is highly variable in the environment, ranging from negligible to significant amounts (0.003–519.223 items/liter in water and 0–18,000 items/kg dry weight sediment, respectively). Predominantly, these MPs manifest as fibers and fragments, with primary polymer types including polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate. A complex interplay of natural and anthropogenic actions, including wastewater treatment plant discharges, precipitation, stormwater runoff, inadequate plastic waste management, and biosolid applications, influences MPs’ presence and distribution. Our critical synthesis of existing literature underscores the significance of factors such as wind, water flow rates, settling velocities, wave characteristics, plastic morphology, density, and size in determining MPs' transport dynamics in surface and subsurface waters. Furthermore, this review identifies research gaps, both in experimental and simulation, and outlines pivotal avenues for future exploration in the realm of MPs.
Air quality protection and control is an issue of growing interest. The aspects related to the spread of t h e coronavirus have accentuated this attention. Furthermore, among the emerging contaminants (EC's) in ambient a ir, the microplastics (1-5 μm) are a great concern a risin g from anthropogenic activities. These pollutants may bring detrimental effects on human health. To control the EC's, the first activity is the characterization. To date, lim it ed studies highlight and describe technologies able to identify and measure the presence in the air of these types of emerging pollutants (EP's). Furthermore, the presented studies show a methodology gap in their experiments. The research presents and discusses the state-of-t heart adopted technologies to characterize MPs in ambient air and pointing out strengths and weaknesses. Kn o wledge gap, uncertainties and recommendations are highligh t ed. The paper provides useful information in enhanced monitoring to support policymakers in emerging microplastics pollutants and related issues, as well as potential smart technology to be implemented.
Microplastics (MPs) have been identified in diverse settings, including drinking water, freshwater, food, air, and marine environments. This study employed stereomicroscopic and µ-Raman techniques to analyze water samples from ten widely consumed bottled water brands, aiming to detect and characterize MPs. Additionally, the oral consumption of MPs per capita was estimated. The average abundance of MPs ranged from 9 ± 1.00 MPs/L to 3 ± 1.73 MPs/L across all brands. Various MPs shapes were observed, including fibers, fragments, films, and pellets, with fibers being predominant (58.928%). MPs were categorized by color into five groups (red, blue, black, yellow, and transparent), with red comprising approximately 35.714% of the total count. All identified MPs were less than 500 µm in size. µ-Raman analysis validated the presence of eight different polymer types in the samples, namely Polypropylene (PP) (37.5%), Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (3.571%), polystyrene (PS) (33.928%), polycarbonate (PC) (3.571%), polybutylene1 (PB1) (14.2%), Isotactic polypropylene (iPP) (7.142), Nylone 6-α polymorph (αNY6) (5.357%), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) (1.785%). The estimated daily intake of MPs per person was determined to be 0.42 MPs, translating to an annual intake of 153.3 MPs per person. The origin of MPs in bottled water was likely attributed to both raw water sources and packaging materials, underscoring the need for further investigation. Given the potential health implications of human exposure to drinking water MPs, careful consideration should be given to the use of plastic packaging for potable water.
Microplastics (MPs) are emergent environmental contaminants that are designated as either primary or secondary dependent on their origins. Formulation, morphology, dimensions, and colour scheme, along with other features, are connected with their propensity to reach the food webs and their dangers. Whilst ecological adversities of MPs have drawn considerable interest, the hazards to individuals from dietary exposure have yet to be determined. The aim of this review is to gauge existing understanding concerning MPs in foodstuffs and to explore the problems and inadequacies for threat assessment. The prevalence of MPs in foodstuffs and sugary drinks has been detected all over the world, but most researchers judged the existing information to be not only inadequate but also of dubious value, owing to the notable lack of agreement on a regulated quantification methods and a consistent appellation. Most published papers have highlighted potable water and condiments such as sugars, salts, and nectar as significant food components of MPs for humans. The threat assessment reveals significant discrepancies in our understanding of MP toxicity for human consumption, which hinders the estimate of risk-based regulations regarding food safety. The lack of comparators for evaluating MPs food consumption prohibits dietary MPs risk description and risk mitigation. Researchers and Food Safety Administrators confer various obstacles along with possibilities linked to the appearance of MPs in foodstuffs. Further investigation on the MPs categorization and exposures is essential considering that any subsequent threat evaluation record can contain a comprehensive dietary viewpoint.
Recent studies have demonstrated that dielectrophoresis is an efficient method for the separation of fibers according to fiber length. This method allows the investigation of fiber-cell interactions with fiber samples of the same composition but of different lengths. In the present study, we analyzed the effects of length on the interaction between glass fibers and macrophages by focusing on production of the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in a mouse macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7). The underlying molecular mechanisms controlling TNF-α production were investigated at the gene transcription level. The results show that glass fibers induced TNF-α production in macrophages and that this induction was associated with activation of the gene promoter. Activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor (NF)-κB was responsible for this induced promoter activity. The inhibition of both TNF-α production and NF-κB activation by N-acetyl-l-cysteine, an antioxidant, indicates that generation of oxidants may contribute to the induction of this cytokine and activation of this transcription factor by glass fibers. Long fibers (17 μm) were significantly more potent than short fibers (7 μm) in inducing NF-κB activation, the gene promoter activity, and the production of TNF-α. This fiber length-dependent difference in the stimulatory potency correlated with the fact that macrophages were able to completely engulf short glass fibers, whereas phagocytosis of long glass fibers was incomplete. These results suggest that fiber length plays a critical role in the potential pathogenicity of glass fibers.
In the first half of the twentieth century epidemiologic evidence linked elevated incidences of pulmonary fibrosis and cancer with inhalation of chrysotile and crocidolite asbestos, a family of naturally occurring inorganic fibrous materials. As the serpentine and amphibole forms of asbestos were phased out, synthetic vitreous fibers (SVFs; fiber glass, mineral wool, and refractory fiber) became increasingly utilized, and concerns were raised that they too might cause adverse health effects. Extensive toxicological research on SVFs has demonstrated that their pulmonary effects are directly related to fiber dose in the lung over time. This is the result of deposition (thin fibers deposit in the lower lung more efficiently than thick fibers) and lung-persistence ("biopersistence" is directly related to fiber length and inversely related to dissolution and fragmentation rates). In rat inhalation studies, asbestos was determined to be 7- to 10-fold more biopersistent in the lung than SVFs. Other than its effect on biopersistence, fiber composition did not appear to play a direct role in the biological activity of SVFs. Recently, the utilization of man-made organic fibers (MMOFs) (also referred to by some as synthetic organic fibers) has increased rapidly for a variety of applications. In contrast to SVFs, research on the potential pulmonary effects of MMOFs is relatively limited, because traditionally MMOFs were manufactured in diameters too thick to be respirable (inhalable into the lower lung). However, new developments in the MMOF industry have resulted in the production of increasingly fine-diameter fibers for special applications, and certain post-manufacturing processes (e.g., chopping) generate respirable-sized MMOF dust. Until the mid-1990s, there was no consistent evidence of human health affects attributed to occupational exposure to MMOFs. Very recently, however, a unique form of interstitial lung disease has been reported in nylon flock workers in three different plants, and respirable-sized nylon shreds (including fibers) were identified in workplace air samples. Whether nylon dust or other occupational exposures are responsible for the development of lung disease in these workers remains to be determined. It is also unknown whether the biological mechanisms that determine the respirability and toxicity of SVFs apply to MMOFs. Thus, it is appropriate and timely to review the current data regarding MMOF workplace exposure and pulmonary health effects, including the database on epidemiological, exposure assessment, and toxicology studies.
Two small-scale field studies were conducted to investigate the transfer of substances from products into dust due to direct and air-mediated transfer. The project focused on semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), which are frequently found in and re-emitted from dust. For the field studies, four artificial products containing deuterium-labelled SVOCs (eight phthalates and adipates) were installed in residential indoor environments. Two plastic products were installed vertically to consider substance transfer due to evaporation into air. One plastic product and a carpet were installed horizontally to investigate the direct transfer from source to dust. A pyrethroid was intentionally released by spraying a commercial spray. Dust samples were collected from the floor, elevated surfaces in the room and the surfaces of the horizontally installed products. We observed that the dust concentrations of substances only transferred via air were similar at different collection sites, but the concentrations of chemicals present in horizontal products were up to three orders of magnitude higher in dust deposited on the source. We conclude that direct transfer from source into dust substantially increases the final SVOC concentration in dust in contact with the source, regardless of the vapor pressure of investigated SVOCs, and may lead to larger human exposure.
Coal mine dust's possible carcinogenicity has recently drawn attention because of the IARC review of quartz, some new epidemiological data in German coal miners, and findings on other poorly soluble, nontoxic dusts in the rat. The aim of this study was to investigate persistent inflammation and tumor response in the rat after intratracheal instillation of two coal dust samples and other dust preparations. Female Wistar rats (190 g) were instilled with ground lean coal (60 mg) coal mine dust (60 mg), DQI2 quartz (5 mg), and fine (60 mg) and ultrafine (30 mg) TiO2. After 129 wk rats were killed, tumors detected by microscopy, and inflammation by light microscopy after specific antibody staining for macrophages and granulocytes. Increased alveolar macrophages (AM) and interstitial granulocytes were still present in dust-treated animals. Both AM and granulocytes per surface area were related to tumor incidence when all materials were plotted in one graph, and can be interpreted as effects of overload. Differences in tumor formation between fine and ultrafine TiO2, despite similar inflammatory response, are probably caused by a direct effect of ultrafine TiO2 after interstitialization. It is concluded that coal dust is another poorly soluble, nontoxic dust, which at high enough dose rate causes overload, inflammation, and tumor response in the rat.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used in large quantities as flame-retardant additives in a number of commercial products. Biomonitoring data show that, in recent years, PBDE concentrations have increased rapidly in the bodies of wildlife and humans. Usually, PBDE levels in North America have been reported to be higher than those in Europe and Asia. Moreover, body burden of PBDEs is three- to ninefold higher in infants and toddlers than in adults, showing these last two age groups the highest levels of these compounds, due to exposure via maternal milk and through dust. Tetra-, Penta-, and Hexa-BDEs are the isomers most commonly found in humans. Based on studies on experimental animals, the toxicological endpoints of exposure to PBDEs are likely to be thyroid homeostasis disruption, neurodevelopmental deficits, reproductive changes, and even cancer. Experimental studies in animals and epidemiological observations in humans suggest that PBDEs may be developmental neurotoxicants. Pre- and/or postnatal exposure to PBDEs may cause long-lasting behavioral abnormalities, particularly on motor activity and cognition. This paper is focused on reviewing the current status of PBDEs in the environment, as well as the critical adverse health effects based on the recent studies on the toxic effects of PBDEs.
Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) have been detected in indoor dust in many studies, at concentrations spanning several orders of magnitude. Limited information is available on the pathways via which BFRs migrate from treated products into dust, yet the different mechanisms hypothesized to date may provide an explanation for the range of reported concentrations. In particular, transfer of BFRs to dust via abrasion of particles or fibers from treated products may explain elevated concentrations (up to 210mgg(-1)) of low volatility BFRs like decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209). In this study, an indoor dust sample containing a low concentration of hexabromocyclododecane, or HBCD, (110ngg(-1) ΣHBCDs) was placed on the floor of an in-house test chamber. A fabric curtain treated with HBCDs was placed on a mesh shelf 3cm above the chamber floor and abrasion induced using a stirrer bar. This induced abrasion generated fibers of the curtain, which contaminated the dust, and ΣHBCD concentrations in the dust increased to between 4020 and 52 500ngg(-1) for four different abrasion experiment times. The highly contaminated dust (ΣHBCD at 52 500ngg(-1)) together with three archived dust samples from various UK microenvironments, were investigated with forensic microscopy techniques. These techniques included Micro X-ray fluorescent spectroscopy, scanning emission microscopy coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with further BFR analysis on LC-MS/MS. Using these techniques, fibers or particles abraded from a product treated with BFRs were identified in all dust samples, thereby accounting for the elevated concentrations detected in the original dust (3500 to 88 800ngg(-1) ΣHBCD and 24 000 to 1 438 000ngg(-1) for BDE-209). This study shows how test chamber experiments alongside forensic microscopy techniques, can provide valuable insights into the pathways via which BFRs contaminate indoor dust.
This study investigated the desorption behavior of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from marine plastic pellets. Long-term desorption experiments were conducted using field-collected polyethylene (PE) pellets. The results indicate that the desorption kinetics highly depends on the PE-water partition coefficients of PCB congeners. After 128d of the experiment, the smallest congener considered (CB 8) had desorbed nearly completely (98%), whereas major fractions (90-99%) of highly chlorinated congeners remained in the pellets. An intraparticle diffusion model mostly failed to reproduce the desorption kinetics, whereas an aqueous boundary layer (ABL) diffusion model well approximated the data. The desorption half-lives are estimated to 14d to 210years for CB 8 to CB 209 in an actively stirred solution (ABL thickness: 30μm). Addition of methanol to water enhanced the desorption to a large extent. A need for further work to explore roles of organic matter in facilitating solute transfer is suggested.
The solubility of fibers is thought to be an important determinant of their potential for inducing toxic and tumorigenic effects in the lung. Three manmade vitreous fiber (MMVF) compositions (borosilicates) and three polymeric organic fiber (POF) compositions (polypropylene, polyethylene, and polycarbonate) were compared for solubility in a physiological fluid, Gambles solution. The test materials were subjected to leaching for 180 days in a system that provided a continuous, constant flow of Gambles solution through sample holders containing the test fibers. During the 180 days, extraction fluids from the MMVFs only were collected for chemical characterization and all fibers, MMVF and POF were examined after 180 days for changes in surface area, total specimen weight, and surface characteristics (by electron microscopy). The MMVFs underwent significant but incongruent dissolution in Gambles solution. From plots of dissolved silica versus time, their silica solubility rates were determined to be much greater than that of chrysotile asbestos (used as a control for these studies) by from 650 to 17,000 times. The surface areas of the MMVFs increased by from 1800 to 22,000%, weight losses ranged from 37 to 75%, and significant visible fiber surface changes were observed on examination by SEM (scanning electron microscopy). On the other hand, the POFs studied showed virtually no dissolution in Gambles solution in this system with no significant changes in surface area, only slight weight gains ranging from 0.08 to 0.50%, and no visible fiber surface changes. These findings indicate that these POFs are more durable and therefore may persist longer in the lung than some MMVFs. Animal testing will be required to assess whether POFs are durable in the lung.
The association between exposure to airway irritants and the presence of work-related symptoms and whether this association was modified by airway hyper-responsiveness, smoking, and allergy by history was studied in 668 workers of synthetic fiber plants. A Dutch version of the British Medical Research Council (BMRC) questionnaire with additional questions on allergy and work-related symptoms was used to assess symptoms, and a standardized histamine challenge test of airway hyper-responsiveness (AHR) was employed. Work-related symptoms were defined as having more than usual eye and respiratory symptoms during work. On the basis of job titles and working department, the exposure status of all workers was characterized into seven groups: (1) reference group; (2) white collars; (3) SO2, HC1, SO4²⁻; (4) polyester vapor; (5) oil mist and oil vapor; (6) polyamide and polyester vapor; and (7) multiple exposure. The association between exposure groups and work-related symptom prevalence was estimated by means of multiple logistic regression.
Seven patients exposed to the inhalation of synthetic fibres presented with various bronchopulmonary diseases, such as asthma, extrinsic allergic alveolitis, chronic bronchitis with bronchiectasis, spontaneous pneumothorax, and chronic pneumonia. The histological features are described and an attempt has been made to set up immunological techniques for the diagnosis. A series of histochemical techniques, based on textile chemistry, are proposed for the identification of the inclusions found in bronchopulmonary lesions. The results of the experimental production of the disease in guinea-pigs by the inhalation of synthetic fibre dusts are presented. The prognosis of these cases is good in the acute or recently established cases but is poor when widespread and irreversible fibrosis has set in. The authors consider that pulmonary disease due to inhaled particles is probably set off by an individual factor, possibly immunological.
We report the results of studies undertaken to determine whether inhaled plant (i.e., cellulosic; e.g., cotton) and plastic (e.g., polyester) fibers are present in human lungs and, if so, whether inhaled fibers are also present in human lung cancers. Specimens of lung cancer of different histological types and adjacent nonneoplastic lung tissue were obtained from patients undergoing a lung resection for removal of a tumor. With the protection of a laminar flow hood and safeguards to prevent contamination by extraneous fibers, fresh, nonfixed, and nonstained samples of lung tissue were compressed between two glass microscope slides. Specimens in these dual slide chambers were examined with a microscope configured to permit viewing with white light, fluorescent light, polarizing light, and phase-contrast illumination. Near-term fetal bovine lungs and nonlung human tumors were used as controls. In contrast to the observations of these control tissues, morphologically heterogeneous fibers were seen repetitively in freshly excised human lung tissue using polarized light. Inhaled fibers were present in 83% of nonneoplastic lung specimens (n = 67/81) and in 97% of malignant lung specimens (n = 32/33). Thus, of the 114 human lung specimens examined, fibers were observed in 99 (87%). Examination of histopathology slides of lung tissue with polarized light confirmed the presence of inhaled cellulosic and plastic fibers. Of 160 surgical histopathology lung tissue slides, 17 were selected for critical examination; of these, fibers were identified in 13 slides. The inhalation of mineral (e.g., asbestos) fibers has been described by many investigators; we believe, however, that this is the first report of inhaled nonmineral (e.g., plant and plastic) fibers. These bioresistant and biopersistent cellulosic and plastic fibers are candidate agents contributing to the risk of lung cancer.
A work-related interstitial lung disease has been diagnosed in workers at five nylon flock facilities in three different states and a Canadian province. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health hosted a workshop at which consulting pulmonary pathologists reviewed lung tissue samples from all the cases for which lung biopsy material was available (15 of 20 cases known in January 1998). After independent review and scoring of these lung tissue specimens, the pathologists reached consensus that the histopathological findings revealed a characteristic lesion-a lymphocytic bronchiolitis and peribronchiolitis with lymphoid hyperplasia represented by lymphoid aggregates. The pathologists noted that the pathological findings were distinctive when compared with known lung conditions. The clinical presentation for the cases generally included cough, dyspnea, restrictive ventilatory defect with reduction in diffusing capacity, and interstitial markings on chest radiographs or high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) scans. Six of the cases improved after removal from workplace exposure without medical treatment. Six others, who had recovered with medical treatment and removal from the workplace, had relapses in both symptoms and objective findings after attempting to return to nylon flock work. With this and other evidence supporting the existence of chronic interstitial pneumonitis associated with nylon flock processing, workshop participants recommended surveillance for early identification of affected workers and their removal from further workplace exposure.
Flocking is a widely used industrial process in which short lengths of synthetic fibers are applied to backing fabric to produce plush material. In response to an apparent outbreak of interstitial lung disease in flock workers, the Centers for Disease Control hosted a clinical-pathological workshop to identify the defining characteristics of the disease and possible etiologic agents. Six pathologists reviewed 15 biopsies of 15 cases (out of a clinical caseload of 20 patients) and assessed the pattern, extent and degree of pulmonary inflammation, fibrosis, and other changes. A consensus clinical-pathologic diagnosis was reached for each patient and correlated with clinical and radiologic findings. Four of eight open lung biopsies and one of seven closed (transbronchial) lung biopsies demonstrated a characteristic pattern to which the descriptive terminology lymphocytic bronchiolitis and peribronchiolitis with lymphoid hyperplasia was applied. The other biopsies showed nonspecific inflammatory changes, airspace organization, and diffuse alveolar damage. One open lung biopsy demonstrated respiratory bronchiolitis with lymphoid hyperplasia. None of the lung biopsies showed more than mild interstitial fibrosis and no granulomas were identified. The consensus of the workshop was that lymphocytic bronchiolitis and peribronchiolitis with lymphoid hyperplasia was a characteristic and distinctive pattern of injury in the flock workers' lung biopsies. Although the etiology of this disease remains undefined at present, the injury pattern and environmental studies suggest a chronic immunologic response to inhaled material.
- H Greim
- P Borm
- R Schins
- K Donaldson
- K Driscoll
- A Hartwig
- E Kuempel
- G Oberdorster
- G Speit
Greim H, Borm P, Schins R, Donaldson K, Driscoll K, Hartwig A,
Kuempel E, Oberdorster G, Speit G: Toxicity of fibers and
particles report of the workshop held in Munich, Germany,
October 26-27, 2000. Inhal Toxicol 2001, 13:737-754.
Direct and air-mediated transfer of labeled SVOCs from indoor sources to dust
- V Sukiene
- Von Goetz
- N Gerecke
- A C Bakker
- M I Delmaar
- Cje Hungerbuhler
Sukiene V, von Goetz N, Gerecke AC, Bakker MI, Delmaar CJE,
Hungerbuhler K: Direct and air-mediated transfer of labeled
SVOCs from indoor sources to dust. Environ Sci Technol 2017,
51:3269-3277.