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Microplastics in air: Are we breathing it in?
Abstract
The annual production of plastic textile fibers has increased by more than 6% per year, reaching 60 million metric tons, about 16% of world plastic production. The degradation of these fibers produces fibrous microplastics (MPs). Such MPs have been observed in atmospheric fallouts, as well as in indoor and outdoor environments. Some fibrous MPs may be inhaled. Most of them are likely to be subjected to mucociliary clearance; however, some may persist in the lung causing localized biological responses, including inflammation, especially in individuals with compromised clearance mechanisms. Associated contaminants such as Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) could desorb and lead to genotoxicity while the plastic itself and its additives (dyes, plasticizers) could lead to health effects including reproductive toxicity, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity.
... MP is also considered an persistent organic pollutant (POP) due to its capability to absorb hydrophobic pollutants such as organochlorinated pesticides (OCP) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) (Wright and Kelly 2017). Studies have found that MP is also present in the atmosphere, which poses risks of inhalation into the lungs (Gasperi et al. 2018). The infiltration of MP into the lungs may lead to profound health effects known as pulmonary fibrosis (due to damaged and scarred lung tissues) (Mehrabani et al. 2023;Wong et al. 2020). ...
... Likewise, polymer industry workers are prone to MP exposure due to their abundance in the workplace and insufficient appropriate protection (Liu et al. 2019a). These findings are crucial as there is a vast possibility of MPs being inhaled and reaching the lung's alveoli (Gasperi et al. 2018). The inhalation of a particle depends on the size and shape (particles < 5 μm, and fibrous particles are very likely to enter the deep lung through inhalation) (Feng et al. 2023). ...
... Particles trapped in the mucus can be expelled by nose-blowing, coughing, sneezing, or ingestion with the mucus. In the case of ingestion along with the mucus, the particles trapped in the mucus can enter the digestive system yielding adverse effects comparable to the ingestion of MPs through food and drinks (Gasperi et al. 2018). Airborne MPs could carry micropollutants on their hydrophobic surface, especially in urban surroundings . ...
This paper presents the landscape of research on airborne microplastics and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) according to the bibliometric analysis of 147 documents issued between 2015 and 2021, extracted from the Web of Science database. The publications on airborne MPs/NPs have increased rapidly from 2015 onwards, which is largely due to the existence of funding support. Science of the Total Environment is one of the prominent journals in publishing related papers. China, England, the USA, and European Countries have produced a significant output of airborne MP/NP research works, which is associated with the availability of funding agencies regionally or nationally. The research hotspot on the topic ranges from the transport of airborne MPs/NPs to their deposition in the terrestrial or aquatic environments, along with the contamination of samples by indoor MPs/NPs. Most of the publications are either research or review papers related to MPs/NPs. It is crucial to share the understanding of global plastic pollution and its unfavorable effects on humankind by promoting awareness of the existence and impact of MPs/NPs. Funding agencies are vital in boosting the research development of airborne MPs/NPs. Some countries that are lacking funding support were able to publish research findings related to the field of interest, however, with lesser research output. Without sufficient fundings, some impactful publications may not be able to carry a substantial impact in sharing the findings and discoveries with the mass public.
Graphical abstract
... Over time, plastic disintegrates into microscopic particles called microplastics which are usually 5 mm or less (1). Microplastics can accumulate in the atmosphere, resulting from fragmentation of plastic products (2). The contamination of microplastics in varying environments has become a pressing issue in the scientific community. ...
... Although there have been several studies completed that examine the impacts of microplastic in different water sources, there is a limited amount of published work on airborne microplastics. Previous studies investigated the impacts of airborne microplastics on human health and explored different methods to collect microplastic debris (2). ...
... This location was selected to simulate a metropolitan area with high levels of human and automobile traffic. Cars and other motor vehicles often release microplastics pollutants through mechanical abrasions of the tires (2). Another factor to consider was that the location was next to a residential neighborhood. ...
Microplastics can have detrimental effects on various wildlife, as well as pollute aquatic and atmospheric environments. The term microplastics refers to miniscule pieces of plastic that are either deliberately produced at that small size or are broken down from larger pieces of plastic. This study focused on air samples collected from five locations to investigate microplastic concentrations in atmospheric fallout from indoor and outdoor settings, through a process utilizing a hand-held vacuum pump and a rotameter. The samples were collected over a five-month period, and the number, as well as the morphologies, of the microplastics were recorded for each of the five sample locations. The amount of microplastic debris found in the urban setting was larger compared to the amount found in the rural setting. Furthermore, we found that the difference between the average number of microplastic fragments and fibers collected from all locations was not large enough to be statistically significant. Since the amount of published research on airborne microplastics is very minimal, the results collected in this study will help us better understand the prevalence of airborne microplastics.
... Due to their small particle size, MPs can enter human tissues and organs in various ways, affecting reproduction, growth, and the immune system [2,156,179]. There are three exposure routes for MPs to enter the human body: ingestion [2,180], inhalation [120,181], and contact with the skin [182] ( Figure 3A). The details of the mechanisms involved are described in the following. ...
... Based on surveys, it is estimated that nearly 136,000 tons of plastic particles are released into the air annually and transported through the atmosphere, with a maximum travel distance of 95 km [188]. Notably, indoor environmental pollution is more severe than outdoor pollution [181,183,189,190], whereas an indoor study in Paris showed that the concentration of MPs was about 1-60 n/m 3 compared to less than 2 n/m 3 outdoors [141]. ...
... MPs have a high surface area, lipophilicity, hydrophobicity, and electrostatic properties, which makes them useful as carriers of certain pollutants, heavy metals, and even toxic substances (pesticide residues), while additives [plasticizer, flame retardant, surfactant bisphenol A (BPA), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)] are also frequently incorporated into plastics production [3,37,143,150,156,168,173,181,[198][199][200][201][202][203]. Notably, Klasios et al. [168] reported the observation of MPs in mussel samples collected from various locations within San Francisco Bay, and the available evidence suggests no correlation between MPs and PAHs. ...
Celluloid, the predecessor to plastic, was synthesized in 1869, and due to technological advancements, plastic products appear to be ubiquitous in daily life. The massive production, rampant usage, and inadequate disposal of plastic products have led to severe environmental pollution. Consequently, reducing the employment of plastic has emerged as a pressing concern for governments globally. This review explores microplastics, including their origins, absorption, and harmful effects on the environment and humans. Several methods exist for breaking down plastics, including thermal, mechanical, light, catalytic, and biological processes. Despite these methods, microplastics (MPs, between 1 and 5 mm in size) continue to be produced during degradation. Acknowledging the significant threat that MPs pose to the environment and human health is imperative. This form of pollution is pervasive in the air and food and infiltrates our bodies through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. It is essential to assess the potential hazards that MPs can introduce. There is evidence suggesting that MPs may have negative impacts on different areas of human health. These include the respiratory, gastrointestinal, immune, nervous, and reproductive systems, the liver and organs, the skin, and even the placenta and placental barrier. It is encouraging to see that most of the countries have taken steps to regulate plastic particles. These measures aim to reduce plastic usage, which is essential today. At the same time, this review summarizes the degradation mechanism of plastics, their impact on human health, and plastic reduction policies worldwide. It provides valuable information for future research on MPs and regulatory development.
... MP are present in food (Farrell and Nelson, 2013), drinking water (Dalmau-Soler et al., 2021) and air (Gasperi et al., 2018;Zhang et al., 2020), and these are potential intake routes to humans via ingestion (Galloway, 2015;Sangkham et al., 2022) and air and dust inhalation (Amato-Lourenço et al., 2020;Nematollahi et al., 2022). Human biomonitoring (HBM) studies demonstrate the presence of MPs in human tissues as lungs (Jenner et al., 2022), blood (Leslie et al., 2022), breastmilk (Ragusa et al., 2022), and other tissues . ...
... Human biomonitoring (HBM) studies demonstrate the presence of MPs in human tissues as lungs (Jenner et al., 2022), blood (Leslie et al., 2022), breastmilk (Ragusa et al., 2022), and other tissues . MP accumulated in human tissues can trigger physical and biological effects (Blackburn and Green, 2022), impairing the cardiovascular (Leslie et al., 2022), digestive (Banerjee and Shelver, 2021), and respiratory systems (Gasperi et al., 2018;Lu et al., 2022). However, the toxic effects of MPs depend on the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion in the human body (Wu et al., 2022). ...
... Despite the knowledge gap concerning human exposure to MPs and health effects, in vitro toxicity studies highlighted the ability of MPs to trigger inflammation, granulomas, and fibrosis (Beckett, 2000) and induce oxidative stress (Leslie et al., 2022), which could have a role in the onset of lung diseases (Gasperi et al., 2018). Described effects in the respiratory tract include epithelial barriers dysfunction, cytotoxicity, inflammatory response and redox imbalance and synergistic effects with allergens . ...
Background
Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles (<5 mm) ubiquitous in water, soil, and air, indicating that humans can be exposed to MPs through ingestion of water and food, and inhalation.
Objective
This review provides an overview of the current human biomonitoring data available to evaluate human exposure and health impact of MPs.
Method
We compiled 91 relevant studies on MPs in human matrices and MPs toxicological endpoints to provide evidence on MPs distribution in the different tissues and the implications this can have from a health perspective.
Results
Human exposure to MPs has been corroborated by the detection of MPs in different human biological samples including blood, urine, stool, lung tissue, breast milk, semen and placenta. Although humans have clearance mechanisms protecting them from potentially harmful substances, health risks associated to MPs exposure include the onset of inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage, potentially leading to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as cancer, as suggested by in vitro and in vivo studies.
Conclusion
Based on compiled data, MPs have been recurrently identified in different human tissues and fluids, suggesting that humans are exposed to MPs through inhalation and ingestion. Despite differences in MPs concentrations appear in exposed and non-exposed people, accumulation and distribution pathways and potential human health hazards is still at an infant stage. Human biomonitoring data enables the assessment of human exposure to MPs and associated risks, and this information can contribute to draw management actions and guidelines to minimize MP release to the environment, and thus, reduce human uptake.
... Due to the dynamic nature of the air and the way that wind disperses particles from one place to another, the sources of airborne microplastics are complex. Another source of these MPs may include degradation or chopping of macro-plastics or synthetic material in industries (Gasperi et al., 2018). PMMA, a synthetic thermoplastic, Fig. 7. Microphotographs and Raman spectra of different microplastic particles found in indoor and outdoor air samples. ...
... Due to their hydrophobic properties microplastics a growing portion of particulate matter (Sridharan et al., 2021) have been implicated in the transportation of harmful heavy metals (such as Pb, Cd, Ni, and Zn), persistent organic pollutants, and PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) (Abbasi et al., 2020). Additionally, they may contain dyes, chemicals, pigments and other hazardous chemicals capable of having deleterious impacts on human health (Gasperi et al., 2018). Microplastics concentration, exposure time and size of the particles can assist in investigating impacts on human body. ...
... Several sources can contribute to the release of MPs/NPs into the air (Gasperi et al., 2018), including synthetic fabrics from clothing, tire erosion (especially from automobiles and trucks), household objects, waste incineration, building materials, sewage sludge, landfills, abrasive powders, 3D printing, and the re-suspension of polymer fragments in urban dust (Kershaw, 2016). The most commonly reported form of MPs in the atmosphere is synthetic fibers with a length >5µm, and a diameter around 3µm (Cai et al., 2017). ...
... The most commonly reported form of MPs in the atmosphere is synthetic fibers with a length >5µm, and a diameter around 3µm (Cai et al., 2017). The increasing use of synthetic fibers with a diameter of 1-5µm by the textile industry has contributed directly and indirectly to textiles as a source of fibrous MPs and NPs (Gasperi et al., 2018). ...
The Journal of the Organization of Professional Associations (OPA), Sri Lanka
... As a consequence, according to researchers from the University of Newcastle in Australia, we consume 5 g of plastics during the week, as they write, the equivalent weight of a credit card (WWF, 2019). eir amount and ubiquity in the air were not expected and have a significant share in the composition of PM because they may constitute one-third of the composition of PM (Gasperi et al., 2018) and are also a carrier of other pollutants. If it is present on the surface when exposed to UV radiation, it decomposes slowly but almost to a chemical molecule (Kleinteich et al., 2018), whereas when covered with soil, it lasts for hundreds of years because the number of microbial species decomposing them is limited. ...
... As we can see, the list of PM pollutants in the rooms where we are staying may be relatively long. But in recent years, we have been additionally concerned about a significant proportion of microplastics (MP), which has been identified in the composition of PM, reaching one-third of its amount (Gasperi et al., 2018). e harmfulness of MP to humans and the environment is being intensively studied (Dris et al., 2017;Kannan & Vimalkumar, 2021;Prata, 2018;Zhang et al., 2020). ...
A large part of the civilizational progress has been achieved at the expense of the natural environment, which recently reached the stages that threaten its creator. Plants play an important role in various areas of our lives, and it turned out that we can rely on them to reduce this threat. The ability of living organisms and the systems they create to protect and restore the environment is at the core of a technology called environmental biotechnology. Advances in science and technology have created a plant-based discipline known as phytoremediation. This technology allows us to remove or reduce the level of pollutants in our surroundings. We can phytoextract heavy metals from contaminated soil and water with the help of resistant plant species and recover noble metals and rare elements. When the soil or water is contaminated with organic compounds, we try to eliminate them completely with the help of plants and their microbiome. Phytoextraction from water is related to the accumulation of pollutants in water and sediments, in which macrophytes from all water groups participate, including free-floating submerged and emerged plants. The task of these plants, apart from the accumulation of metals or organic toxins, is also the uptake of phosphorus and nitrogen to prevent the eutrophication of water. In recent years, the quality of air has deteriorated. Nowadays, 90% of the population breathes air that does not meet WHO standards. It should be emphasized that in the case of outdoor air, there is no industrial system for removing pollutants. In fact, we can only count on nature: rainfall and plants. Indoor air is sometimes even more polluted than outside and, therefore, we should be safe in it with the help of plants that are able to create a refuge. Additionally, it fulfills biofilling desires and improves our mood.
... Microplastics have been found in air samples, food, and drinking water (Lusher et al., 2017;Gasperi et al., 2018), and the consequences of microplastics on human health management have recently been addressed. Humans may be exposed to microplastics through inhalation or ingestion; however, the health effects on humans are unknown. ...
... Microplastics would accumulate and induce toxicity by eliciting an ☆ This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Amit Bhatnagar. immunological response if consumed or inhaled, according to limited data from animal studies (Deng et al., 2017;Gasperi et al., 2018). Chemical toxicity is caused by microplastic leaching in combination with chemicals (additives and adsorbed toxins) (Diepens and Koelmans, 2018). ...
Microplastics were found to be the major pollutant across the globe. Plastic microbeads, like 0.5 mm, are very small and mainly used for exfoliation. The marine species cannot distinguish between their usual food and these microbeads. Microbeads have the potential to transfer up the food chain, which may lead to consumption by humans in the end. Activated carbon from inexpensive sources has greatly interested separation systems, especially in water treatment. In that view, carbon nanoparticles were produced, combined with polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) polymer, and used as a membrane to trap the microplastic particles. UV–Vis, FTIR, TEM, and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the produced carbon nanoparticles. FT-RAMAN Spectroscopy studies, microbial viable cell count, and turbidity analysis followed the membrane preparation and post-treatment. The carbon nanoparticle fabricated nanofilm effectively eliminates the microbial count and microplastics and reduces the turbidity (0.13 NTU). This study confirms that the membrane effectively filters microplastics and other contaminants. Nowadays, nanofiltration technologies have been considered beneficial for eliminating microplastics to an efficiency of 95%. Further research is needed to determine a feasible low-cost, ecologically suitable, and effective solution to remove the microplastics in water.
... Due to the physicochemical properties of MPs, their accumulation in soil, air, and aquatic ecosystems is favored (Andrady 2011;Brennecke et al. 2015;Castañeda et al. 2014;Gasperi et al. 2018;Walkinshaw et al. 2020). Accordingly, one of the main problems that have arisen is the passage of these pollutants to humans, directly or indirectly (Fig. 1). ...
Microplastics (MPs) have attracted global interest because they have been recognized as emerging pollutants that require urgent attention. MPs are plastic particles with a size between 1 micron and 5 mm (1 µm-5mm); those measuring less than 1 µm are known as nanoplastics (NPs). MP is distributed in the environment in various physical forms that depend on the degradation process, the erosion factors to which it was subjected, or the original form in which it was intentionally manufactured. Humans may be exposed to these pollutants mainly by ingestion or inhalation, which could adversely affect human health with effects that are still unknown due to limitations that are often dependent on their analytical determination and lack of studies over time, as it is a relatively new topic. Therefore, this review focuses on the challenges currently faced by laboratories for determining MPs in different matrices. We highlight the application of methods and techniques to assess the precise levels of exposure to MPs in biological samples. In addition, exposure pathways, sources, and evidence of adverse effects reported in vitro and in vivo studies are described to generate knowledge about their potential threat to human health.
... To avoid contamination during the experiment process, the metal scissors was used to collect the laver samples to avoid potential MP pollution (Gasperi et al., 2018), all laboratory and fieldwork apparatuses were rinsed by the Milli-Q water at least 3 times before use. Besides, all the reagents were filtered through GF/F glass microfiber filter. ...
... According to Expósito et al. (2021), the Mediterranean Sea represents the area with the sixth-highest concentration and accumulation of marine waste debris, particularly microplastics (MPs). The majority of MPs have half-lives between hundreds and thousands of years; therefore, they are persistent (Ivleva et al. 2017;Gasperi et al. 2018). In the last decade, more research and environmental concerns have essentially focused on a very specific type of plastic waste, called micro-or nanoplastics, and preliminary evidence of their adverse interactions with marine organisms at all trophic levels and the possibility of their transfer into animal tissue and up the food chain, reaching humans (Castelvetro et al. 2021). ...
Plastic pollution and microplastic (MP) debris are some of the most significant solid waste pollutants, threatening the marine environment and causing sediment accumulation. Coastal seagrass areas are usually important habitats that support multiple living species and provide several ecosystem services. This study aimed to determine the abundance, characteristics, and composition of microplastics on the southern side of the Tunisian Mediterranean Sea by using Posidonia oceanica (P. oceanica) as a crucial trap for microplastics. Samples of Posidonia leaves were collected from the Tunisian coastal area of Gabes-City. The characterization of microplastic detritus was carried out by stereomicroscopy, and acid digestion of Posidonia tissue leaves was performed for qualitative and quantitative analysis of MPs using NMR spectroscopy. The study revealed pellets, threads, and fragments of polymers as the frequent forms found in MPs. Polyethylene, polystyrene, and bis(2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalates were the most abundant materials detected. P. oceanica leaves contributed notably to microplastic subsidence, seafloor horizontal migration, and sediment burial. Thus, marine flora appeared to be a good tool to detect and monitor plasticizers, and further studies of the P. oceanica seagrass areas will help in developing a more comprehensive knowledge of chemicals spreading over a geographical zone. The results obtained will be used for developing baseline data on plasticizer contamination on the wide-ranging marine coast.
... Additionally, their buoyancy and passive drifting allow them to be transported to places far from where they originated (Ryan, 2015). In fact, microplastics have been detected in the remotest regions of the Arctic (Lusher et al., 2015) and Antarctic (Waller et al., 2017), and even in the air (Gasperi et al., 2018). This is concerning, since microplastics in the natural environment have been observed to coexist with entities adsorbed on its surface including but not limited to known harmful substances such as heavy metals (Brennecke et al., 2016), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Sharma et al., 2020), persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (Bakir et al., 2014), and even pathogenic microorganisms (Kirstein et al., 2016). ...
Introduction
Microplastic pollution has become a global issue, eliciting attention not just from the scientific community but also both from the public and governmental bodies. Drawing data-driven policies and interventions, however, remain difficult due to the severely lacking baseline information from different environments such as beaches. One of the challenges in doing baseline studies is the lack of harmonized methodologies that will allow for comparison of results, integration of data, and its effective translation to evidence-based policies. Emphasis on quality control measures among baselining efforts through the proper implementation of experimental controls is also lacking.
Methodology
To address these gaps, we compared methodologies for preparing the sediment matrix for experimental controls, as well as evaluated protocols for extracting microplastics from tropical beach sediments. Beach sediments were collected, dried, sieved, and spiked with known amounts of microplastics of different polymer types. The removal and extraction efficiencies of the protocols being compared were evaluated.
Results and discussion
Our results showed that subjecting beach sediments to a furnace at 550° C for 4 hours is the most efficient way to remove plastic contamination, implying its applicability for preparing experimental controls. Meanwhile, a modified version of Masura et al. (2015), one of the widely cited methodologies for microplastics extraction, exhibited the highest mean extraction efficiency (99.05 ± 0.82%) among the protocols being compared. Results of this work will be useful in identifying methods that can be adopted and utilized for research and baselining efforts not just in the Philippines but also in Southeast Asia. This will also be helpful in the harmonization of methods, data reporting, and even skills as implemented through the regional and national action plans to address marine plastic pollution.
... Tong et al., 2022b;Weber et al., 2022;Xu et al., 2021;Yang et al., 2021;Yuan et al., 2022;Zhao et al., 2021;Zheng et al., 2021), and potential involvement in immune system disruption and neurotoxicity (Prata et al., 2020). However, the routes of microplastic exposure in humans also include inhalation (Amato-Lourenço et al., 2021;Gasperi et al., 2018;Prata, 2018) and dermal contact (Kumar et al., 2022;Prata et al., 2020). Based on the results in Fig. 4, it seems that microplastic intake is the main pathway causing harm to human health, or at least is the focus of recent studies. ...
... Due to ambient conditions, the water phase may evaporate or interact with impurities in the air, viruses may settle on these impurities and further spread on a solid surface or independently. Standard types of dirt such as dust and exhalation products are increasingly supplemented by microand nano-plastics [7,10], which, due to their hydrophobicity, can form surfaces on which viruses can be deposited. Due to their size and mass, droplets and aerosols settle under the influence of gravitational forces. ...
In the first part of this review the necessary information about structure and chemical composition of viruses are briefly discussed on the basic level. Main types of interaction of viruses with human cells are briefly described. The basic method of suppressing the spread of viruses from the surroundings of a healthy person and into the surroundings of an infected person is the use of protective equipment, especially face masks and respirators, where the active element is a fibrous structure. The protective functions of these structures depend on their composition (usually hydrophobic materials), construction (fabrics, knitted fabrics, nonwoven fabrics, nano-meshes), morphology (porosity, thickness, pore distribution), the form of virus propagation (usually in water droplets as a type of aerosol), interaction conditions with the surface of the protective layer (speed of impact, conditions of capture on the surface of the fibrous phase, speed of penetration) and the method of virus inactivation (usually contact or very short-range interaction). It is therefore a very complicated problem that is often solved using a combination of mathematical modeling and simulation. The purpose is to present some methods of solving problems related to the protective function of fiber structures, which allow the specification of the suitability of these structures for real use.
... Inhalable in the true sense refers to the ability to enter via mouth or nose and get deposited in upper respiratory airways. In contrast, those which could reach and deposit to the deeper lungs are generally referred to as respirable (Gasperi et al. 2018). Suspended air microplastics (SAMPs) adsorbed with microorganisms could source infections in the host organisms. ...
Contamination of ecosystems by microplastics (MPs) has been reported intensively worldwide in the recent decade. A trend of reports indicated their presence in the atmosphere; food items and soil ecosystems are rising continuously. Literature evidenced that MPs are abundant in seawater, beach sand, drinking water, agricultural soils, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, and the atmosphere. The greater abundance of MPs in the environment has led to their invasion of seafood, human-consumed food items such as table salts, beverages, takeout food containers, and disposable cups, marine biological lives, and creating serious health hazards in humans. Moreover, the absence of guidelines and specifications for controlling MPs in the environment makes the situation alarming, and the human toxicity data of MPs is scarce. Thereby, the toxicity assessment of MPs in humans is of greater concern. This review compiles the updated information on the potential sources of MPs in different components of the environment (viz. soil, water, and air), their analysis methods, effects on human health, and remediation methods.
... The discovery of plastic fibers in pulmonary tissue in the framework of a human biomonitoring investigation (Pauly et al., 1998) raised the possibility that airborne MPs can deposit or accumulate in the lungs. It has been reported that lungs accumulate fibrous particles that are a few tens of μm in size (Gasperi et al., 2018). Despite the fact that alveolar macrophages "eat" MPs, harmful particles to these cells are measuring 15-20 μm in size. ...
Microplastics and nanoplastics are significant contributors to pollution as a consequence of increased plastic manufacturing and consumption, which has resulted in a worldwide environmental crisis. These small plastic particles (microplastics and nanoplastics with diameters less than 5 mm respectively 100 nm) originate from a wide range of sources, including packings, synthetic textiles, personal care products, and medical and laboratory consumables. The environmental effects and potential health hazards linked with microplastics and nanoplastics exposure are addressed in this review. Research has demonstrated a link between these plastic particles and human digestive, reproductive, respiratory, endocrine and cardiovascular pathologies. Microplastics and nanoplastics have the potential to be chronically detrimental given that they accumulate in human tissues and organs and are small enough to slip through cell membranes. In hopes of fully comprehending the mechanisms of toxicity and long-term consequences of exposure to microplastics and nanoplastics on human health, further research is urgently required. Policies that reduce the production and consumption of plastics and improve waste management practices are essential to combating plastic pollution.
... Expanding the purview, interconnected contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), VOCs, and phthalates, hitherto identified within face masks, manifest the potential for desorption, which in turn could engender subsequent health ramifications. Such implications extend to the realm of complications like reproductive toxicity and the provocation of genetic mutations [30,42,43]. Expounding upon this discourse, the research by Jin et al. 2021 [43] revealed the ubiquity of diethyl phthalete (DEP) across all scrutinized face masks. ...
Background
Spread worldwide through droplets, the Virus Sars-Cov-19 has caused a global health emergency alarm. In order to limit its spread, the use of masks has become part of the daily life of the entire population, however, little is known about its constant use and the changes generated in the oral cavity. This work aims to investigate correlations between the continuous use of masks covering the nose and mouth for 3 h and changes in the ecological factors of the oral cavity.
Methods
34 volunteers were divided into 2 groups: wear only the filtering facepiece code 2 (FFP2) mask (Group A) and wear the FFP2 mask covered by a surgical mask (Group B). Measurement of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), saliva rehydration and consistency test, collection of basal saliva and saliva stimulated with paraffin gum and mucosal swab were collected and analyzed at two times: before using the mask(s) (T 0 ) and 3 h after continuous use of the mask(s) (T 1 ).
Results
The results indicated a significant difference between the groups, in which the basal saliva volume and pH and the peaks of VOCs increased for group B between T 0 and T 1 . The rehydration time decreased and the volume and pH of the stimulated saliva increased, but with no significant difference between the groups. Furthermore, group B showed a significant decrease in Candida albicans Colony Forming Units (CFUs) and Total Bacterial Count (TBC) between T 0 and T 1 .
Conclusion
It is concluded that the prolonged use of the FFP2 mask covered by a surgical mask can generate oral alterations in the user.
... To prevent the contamination of APs, all processing of fish occurred inside a clean bench with particle filtration, and the following steps were taken in the laboratory due to micro-APs being ubiquitous in the indoor environment [29]. Before using the filter paper, it was observed with a microscope to ensure that no suspected APs were attached to it. ...
Contamination of marine fish with the widespread distribution of anthropogenic particles (APs) becomes increasingly severe, however, related research on the assessment of the occurrence of APs in the edible tissue of commercial fish is scarce. The objective of this study was to evaluate the features of APs pollution based on seven species of commercial marine fish (n = 12 per species) and investigate the accumulation of APs in different tissues of fish namely gill and gastrointestinal tract (GIT), and muscle. The results show that a total of 62 APs were detected in 33 out of 84 (39.3%) fresh fish samples using a micro-Raman spectrometer which in particular is characterized by a blue color, shape-like fiber, and size smaller than 0.5 mm. Among them, 47 (75.8%) particles were identified as pigments such as indigo, chrome yellow-orange, disperse yellow, and pigment black. The other 11 (17.7%) particles were plastic including polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyacrylonitrile (PAN). And the rest 4 (6.5%) particles were anthropogenic cellulose fibers. Muscle tissue from six species of fish was detected to contain a total of 15 APs. Based on the total mean of APs found in fish muscle (0.018 AP items/g tissue) and on the consumption of fish in Malaysia (59 kg/capita/year), the estimated human intake of APs through fish consumption was 1062 AP items/year/capita. Considering that food consumption is an important route of human exposure to APs, it is suggested to add APs testing into the guidelines of food safety management systems and adopt mitigation measures to reduce the APs pollution in food.
... According to some research, it has been reported that the concentration of MPs is much higher in indoor air as compared to outside air [46,47]. In comparison to food and water, indoor air represents a higher risk of MPs because people spend most of their lives in indoor environments where airborne MPs are ubiquitously present [48]. ...
... Así como, los procedimientos agrícolas como fertilizantes orgánicos [5]. Los MPs atmosféricos pueden ser inhalados alojándose en los pulmones, causando daño biológico localizado e inflamación, asimismo, los MPs pueden terminar en el organismo a través de la ingestión de alimentos, liberando sustancias químicas en el tacto gastrointestinal provocando toxicidad, problemas en la reproducción, carcinogenicidad y mutagenicidad [6,7]. A la actualidad, se encontró un único artículo que incluye un análisis bibliométrico de MPs atmosféricos, realizado por Can-Güven (2020) [8]. ...
The present study aims to perform a bibliometric analysis of atmospheric MPs assessment of published research (original articles and reviews) between 2015-2022, in two of the most important global academic databases, WOS and Scopus. After running the search string and document selection (by reading title and abstract) 81 articles were identified in WOS and 167 in Scopus. The first publication identified dates back to 2015 (France) with China, the United Kingdom, and the United States being the countries currently leading the research on this topic. The results allow us to conclude that research on atmospheric MPs is at an early stage of development. It is recommended that future research address the standardization of sampling procedures, PM characterization, source identification, transport, and health impacts of these pollutants.
... Although research on MPs that collect in indoor spaces is minimal, several studies have indicated their high concentration (Chen et al., 2020;Gasperi et al., 2018;Jenner et al., 2021) in indoor air, raising serious concerns about human health owing to inhalation, skin contact, and ingestion Eraslan et al., 2021). Although ingestion is typically caused by eating externally contaminated food, MPs in the interior air that settle on plates during meals can also be consumed. ...
The issue of pollution caused by microplastics (MPs) is a growing concern on a global scale. Given the significant proportion of time that individuals spend indoors. The contamination in question has the potential to directly impact the human population through exposure to indoor dust and air. This study examined MPs' existence, origins, and potential health effects in indoor environments. Stereomicroscope, μRaman, and SEM-EDX were used to identify MPs in indoor environment samples. Fibers, fragments, films, lines, foam, and pellets were commonly identified as MPs with different shapes, colors, and sizes. Experiments carried out to reduce contamination during sample
preparation anad analysis. Prefiltering solutions, thermally treating filters and washing glassware found to reduce contamination. Sample preparation should be carried out in laminar flow hood. The most typical MP encountered was fibers. PTFE, PP, PA 12,
HDPE, PS, PE, LDPE, PET, PA 6, and PS were common MPs discovered in the study. These MPs included most elements: C, O, Ca, Al, Si, K, Fe, and Mg. A year later, virgin MPs indoors and outdoors exhibited physical changes indicating aging, including cracks, broken edges, ridges, grooves, and rough and uneven surfaces. It was noted that deteriorated MPs lost weight and underwent chemical characterization alterations. According to the study's findings, indoor environments are a substantial source of MPs, and further investigation is necessary to establish how they affect human health and air quality. Individuals' levels of MP exposure varied depending on their lifestyle choices, and the number of textiles and plastics found in indoor environments.
... The risk of exposure to microplastics for children is more significant, as they consume dust, and infants may also be exposed to MPs via ingestion, for example, fibrous MPs that settle on the floor. As children crawl and touch their mouths, they ingest settled dust every day (Gasperi et al., 2018). In most cases, people are unaware that airborne pollutants can negatively impact their health. . ...
... Also, acrylic and polyester fibers can cause tumors in the lung tissues and are responsible for serious issues such as dermatitis, hormonal deregulation, and endocrine disruption in humans (Pauly et al., 1998). Persistent fiber-induced inhalation can lead to biological stressors or responses that cause inflammation, which is a potential aspect of cancer risk (Gasperi et al., 2018). Gallagher et al. (2015) reported a threefold boosted risk of esophageal, lung, and stomach cancers due to more prolonged exposure to synthetic fiber dust. ...
Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) have received considerable attention over the past 10 years due to their environmental prevalence and potential toxic effects. With the increase in global plastic production and disposal, MNP pollution has become a topic of emerging concern. In this review, we describe MNPs in the atmospheric environment, and potential toxicological effects of exposure to MNPs. Studies have reported the occurrence of MNPs in outdoor and indoor air at concentrations ranging from 0.0065 items m−3 to 1583 items m−3. Findings have identified plastic fragments, fibers, and films in sizes predominantly <1000 μm with polyamide (PA), polyester (PES), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), rayon, polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) as the major compounds. Exposure through indoor air and dust is an important pathway for humans. Airborne MNPs pose health risks to plants, animals, and humans. Atmospheric MNPs can enter organism bodies via inhalation and subsequent deposition in the lungs, which triggers inflammation and other adverse health effects. MNPs could be eliminated through source reduction, policy/regulation, environmental awareness and education, biodegradable materials, bioremediation, and efficient air-filtration systems. To achieve a sustainable society, it is crucial to implement effective strategies for reducing the usage of single-use plastics (SUPs). Further, governments play a pivotal role in addressing the pressing issue of MNPs pollution and must establish viable solutions to tackle this significant challenge.
Occurrence of microplastics in various environmental matrices is a global reality. Considering the significance of this fact, scientists are trying to identify and characterize this emerging contaminant in a variety of abiotic as well as biotic matrices, so that effective preventive measures may be adopted. Increasing plastic usage in agricultural practices in the form of packaging, mulching etc. have introduced this contaminant in agricultural soil as well. Therefore, present study was carried out in agricultural soil of Bhopal, Central India. Microplastics in agricultural soil were identified and characterized using FTIR spectroscopy, and further assessed for possible ecological risks. An amount of 307.5 ± 9.19 and 69.5 ± 4.95 particles were found in the 10 soil samples collected from each of the Bhauri and Kokta agricultural areas of Bhopal, respectively. Polyethylene and polypropylene were the most abundant microplastic polymers. Presence of these particles resulted in ‘very-low’ to ‘low’ hazard to the soil. Presence of plastic particles in agricultural soil of Bhopal was attributed to the littering of plastic packaging materials of various agrochemicals, and atmospheric deposition. Presence of microplastics may pose considerable risk to the agricultural soil, crop health, and subsequently to human health. Therefore, control measures to minimize plastic pollution need to be adopted.
Microplastics (MPs, plastic items from 1 µm to 5 mm in size) are present in all the environmental compartments. The evaluation of their concentration, fate, and spatial distribution is still a challenge for the scientific community. This concern is just debuting in developing countries, i.e. Asia, South America and Africa. This study deals with the MP contamination in the abiotic marine compartments of the Northern of Vietnam: seawater and intertidal sediments. Four sites located in the intertidal zone or near the coastline in the Tonkin bay, Vietnam were studied. A total of 16 samples (8 for each compartment) were collected in July 2020 (rainy season) and January 2021 (dry season). Plastic-like items were found at levels ranging from 3 to 303 items/m ³ in seawater and from 63 to 955 items/kg dry weight in sediments. Most of these were fibers less than 300 µm long. Higher levels in seawater were found in the rainy season compared to the drier one. As the river flow was estimated six times higher during the rainy season than during the dry season, these results suggest the river discharge as a potential source of contamination for coastal zone. The temporal variability was lower for the sediments than for the seawater, demonstrating the long-term integration of the plastic-like items in this compartment. While the nature of fibers wasn’t investigated, the plastic-like fragments were analyzed on µFTIR imaging spectrometer. The determination of polymer composition indicated that most of the fragments were made of polypropylene (PP, 82%), followed by polyethylene (PE, 9%) and polystyrene (PS, 9%). The fragment size was similar in two studied compartments but it was depending on polymer types, since PS fragments (140 ± 17 µm) were smaller than those made of PE (622 ± 123 µm) and PP (869 ± 905 µm).
Plastic pollution has become a prominent and pressing environmental concern within the realm of pollution. In recent times, microplastics have entered our ecosystem, especially in freshwater. In the contemporary global landscape, there exists a mounting apprehension surrounding the manifold environmental and public health issues that have emerged as a result of the substantial accumulation of microplastics. The objective of the current study is to employ an enhanced grey prediction model in order to forecast global plastic production and microplastic emissions. This study compared the accuracy level of the four grey prediction models, namely, EGM (1,1, α, θ), DGM (1,1), EGM (1,1), and DGM (1,1, α) models, to evaluate the accuracy levels. As per the estimation of the study, DGM (1,1, α) was found to be more suitable with higher accuracy levels to predict microplastic emission. The EGM (1,1, α, θ) model has slightly better accuracy than the DGM (1,1, α) model in predicting global plastic production. Various accuracy measurement tools (MAPE and RMSE) were used to determine the model’s efficiency. There has been a gradual growth in both plastic production and microplastic emission. The current study using the DGM (1,1, α) model predicted that microplastic emission would be 1,084,018 by 2030. The present study aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers in formulating effective strategies to address the complex issues arising from the release of microplastics into the environment and the continuous production of plastic materials.
Atmospheric pollution is one of the main consequences of anthropogenic activities in the environment. The insertion of particles suspended in the air, which are composed of dust, fumes, microplastics, and aerosols emitted by industries, vehicles, and constructions, alters the quality of the environment they are inserted into, impacting both human health and the environment. Therefore, this study aims to identify the atmospheric particles that may be influencing the air quality in the Region of Hortênsias/RS (municipalities of Canela and Gramado). The concentrations of PM 2.5 and PM 2.5−10 were evaluated at two sites from April 2021 to April 2022. The Fine and Coarse Particulate Matter Sampler (FCS) was used to collect samples at the site located in Canela (S1). In Gramado (S2), in addition to the FCS, a dichotomous sampler was also used for sampling. The filters were observed under a microscope to evaluate the presence of polymeric material. The selected particles were then analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS). Six samples of PM 2.5 did not meet the air quality standards recommended by the WHO Guideline. Alterations in the concentrations of PM 2.5 were also observed in October and December 2021 at S1 and S2 and in April 2022 at S2. The results demonstrated low air quality, and the microscopic analysis detected the presence of particles with characteristics of polymeric material. These particles suggest traces of microplastics, in addition to the presence of vehicular soot and fly ash when analyzed by SEM/EDS.
Future global connections between economic development, the rise of living standards, and environmental safeguards have always been an imbalanced triangle, resulting in various emerging organic (mostly from agriculture, industry, and household trash) and inorganic (from anthropogenic activities including manufacturing, handling, storing, and disposing of chemicals) pollutants in aquatic environments. A wide range of immediate and long-term consequences for aquatic biodiversity, human health (e.g., neurological disorders, endocrinal disruption, cancers, and immunotoxicity), and ecosystems, owing to the imprudent discharge of pollutants from documented and undocumented sources both in land and water, provoked severe worries. In recent days, algal remediation has been gaining more attention compared to existing treatment technologies due to its polymorphic bioremediation features (biosorption, bioaccumulation, biouptake, biodegradation, and photodegradation) and co-remediation of numerous standard and emerging pollutants (inorganic and organic) in the environment (air and water). With the advancement of bioremediation of emerging pollutants via algal biotechnology, this green way of detoxifying emerging pollutants prompted further research for a better understanding of the physiology, genetics (adopting genetic engineering strategies to ameliorate tolerance to emerging pollutants and biodegradation potentiality of selected highly productive algae strains), and biochemical properties of algae to optimize the organisms and the environment in which they are grown. Parallel to improving treatment techniques, merging effect-based, class-based, and green synthesis-based approaches in the global science-policy interface could protect public and ecosystem health, ensuring minimal to zero emission of emerging pollutants.
Plastic production has greatly increased in the past decades and has become central to modern human life. Realization is dawning that plastics break down into smaller pieces resulting in micro- or nanoplastics (MNP) that can enter humans directly via the environment. Indeed, MNP have been detected in every part of the human body, including the placenta, which is concerning for development. Early developmental stages are crucial for proper growth and genome programming. Environmental disruptors in MNP can have detrimental effects during this critical window as well and can increase the risk of developing disease and dysfunction. In addition, MNP may impact situations in which developmental pathways are reactivated after birth such as during organ repair. Currently, there is no overview of how MNP can impair (human) development and repair. Therefore, we provide an extensive overview of available evidence on MNP impacting developmental and regenerative processes in various organs in humans and rodent models. In addition, we have included the impact of some additives that can leach from these MNP. We conclude that MNP and their additives can have modulating effects on developing and regenerating organs.
Indonesia merupakan negara yang menyumbang sampah plastik terbanyak kedua di dunia. Beberapa produsen mulai memberikan solusi terhadap banyaknya sampah plastik tersebut akan tetapi solusi tersebut dinilai masih memberikan dampak negatif yang lebih buruk sehingga disebut dengan False Solution Plastic Management. Salah satu dampak dari False Solution yaitu pencemaran udara berupa mikroplastik. Tujuan dari penelitian ini untuk mengidentifikasi adanya mikroplastik di udara dan jumlah polutan PM 2.5 di sekitar hasil pengolahan sampah plastik. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode Purposive Random Sampling. Pengambilan sampel berada di dua tempat yang berbeda yaitu pada pabrik daur ulang dan timbulan sampah. Hasil menunjukkan terdapat mikroplastik pada dua tempat tersebut. Jumlah mikroplastik yang teridentifikasi sebanyak 1258. Jumlah tersebut didominasi oleh jenis mikroplastik fiber. Penelitian ini juga mengukur jumlah polutan PM 2.5 yang berada di sekitar tempat pengambilan sampel. Nilai PM 2.5 pada pabrik daur ulang sebesar 25 µg/m3 dan pada timbulan sampah 1876 µg/m3.
Microplastics, measuring less than 5 mm in diameter, are now found in various environmental media, including soil, water, and air, and have infiltrated the food chain, ultimately becoming a part of the human diet. This study offers a comprehensive examination of the intricate nexus between microplastics and human health, thereby contributing to the existing knowledge on the subject. Sources of microplastics, including microfibers from textiles, personal care products, and wastewater treatment plants, among others, were assessed. The study meticulously examined the diverse routes of microplastic exposure—ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact—offering insights into the associated health risks. Notably, ingestion of microplastics has been linked to gastrointestinal disturbances, endocrine disruption, and the potential transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Inhalation of airborne microplastics emerges as a critical concern, with possible implications for respiratory and cardiovascular health. Dermal contact, although less explored, raises the prospect of skin irritation and allergic reactions. The impacts of COVID-19 on microplastic pollution were also highlighted. Throughout the manuscript, the need for a deeper mechanistic understanding of microplastic interactions with human systems is emphasized, underscoring the urgency for further research and public awareness.
The estimation of microplastic pollution in the terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems is carried out by quantification and identification of the contaminated
environment. Microplastic estimation consists of various steps such as sampling,
visualization and quantification. Generally, the planktonic net, bongo net, manta net,
and neuston net have been used for water sampling. While, grab samplers, tweezers, tablespoons, trowels, shovels, spatulas, or hand picking method have been used for soil and sediment sampling. The biological sample from the study sites comprises the direct collection of the whole organism or its colony as a sampling unit. However all samples are required to be processed further to extract the microplastic using techniques such as filtration, density extraction, digestion, and magnetic & electrostatic extraction. The digestion method is used for direct characterization such as thermal gravimetric analysis. The identification of microplastic is based on microscopic images which provide the shape, size, colour, and texture of the microplastic surface. Visual identification using microscopes is time-consuming and susceptible to human error as well as a risk of misidentification, which leads to underestimation or overestimation of microplastic pollution. Spectroscopic methods such as ATR-FTIR, μ-FTIR and Raman spectroscopy provide identification and quantification of synthetic polymer. Advance combined analytical techniques have been reported during the last few years such as portable micro-Raman, SEM-FTIR, Pyr-GC-MS, TGA-DSC, and PEE. Priority and care are essential concerning the sampling, storage and handling of microplastic samples for the QA/QC for accurate analysis. The present chapter aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge of tools and techniques used for microplastic inquiries from an environmental sample.
Microplastics (MPs) are present not only in the environment but also in drinking water, food, and consumer products. These MPs being toxic, carcinogenic, endocrine disrupting, and genetic risk creators cause several diseases. Despite various approaches, the development of onsite applicable, facile, and quick MP detection methods is still challenging. Here, 3D‐plasmonic gold nanopocket (3D‐PGNP) nanoarchitecture is formed on a paper substrate for simultaneous MP filtration and detection. The paper‐based 3D‐PGNP is integrated with a syringe filter device, and then, MP‐containing solutions are injected through the syringe. Subsequent detection of the MPs using the surface‐enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) successfully identifies the MPs without pretreatment. The interface and volumetric hotspot generation of 3D‐PGNP around the captured MPs significantly improves the sensitivity, which is confirmed by finite‐difference time‐domain simulation. Then, the SERS mapping images obtained from a portable Raman spectrometer are transformed into digital signals via machine learning (ML) technique to identify and quantify the MP distribution. The developed SERS‐ML‐based MP detection method is applied for mixture MPs and for real matrix samples, demonstrating that the method provides improved accuracy. This system is expected to be used for various MPs detection and for environmentally hazardous substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
There has been growing evidence showing the widespread of airborne microplastics (AMPs) in many regions of the world, raising concerns about their impact on human health. This review aimed to consolidate recent literature on AMPs regarding their physical and chemical characteristics, deposition in the human respiratory tract, translocation, occurrence from human studies, and toxic effects determined in vitro and in vivo. The physical characteristics influence interactions with cell membranes, cellular internalization, accumulation, and cytotoxicity resulting from cell membrane damage and oxidative stress. In addition, prolonged exposure to AMP-associated toxic chemicals might lead to significant health effects. Most toxicological assessments of AMPs in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated that oxidative stress and inflammation are major mechanisms of action for their toxic effects. Elevated reactive oxygen species production could lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammatory responses, and subsequent apoptosis in experimental models. To date, there has been some evidence suggesting exposure in humans. However, the data are still insufficient, and adverse human health effects need to be investigated. Future research on the existence, exposure, and health effects of AMPs is required for developing preventive and mitigation measures to protect human health.
Microplastics (MPs) have become an environmental concern, and studies with humans and different animals are being carried out and improved. Thus, the objective of the present work was to verify the ingestion of PMs in bats from the Brazilian legal Amazon. Therefore, the entire digestive (esophagus to the anus) and respiratory (trachea to the lungs) systems of 81 individuals of bats of 25 different species were analyzed separately. This is the first report of microplastics in Amazonian bats, among the analyzed bats, 95.06% showed contamination by PMs; the digestive system was the one with the highest contamination and the fibers were the only form found. Ingestion and inhalation of plastic waste can happen through direct or indirect contact with contaminated air, water or food. With the verification of contamination by PMs, mainly in the digestive system, future works can analyze their feces to verify the amount of PMs that are being excreted.
Accumulating evidence shows widespread contamination of water sources and food with microplastics. Although the liver is one of the main sites of bioaccumulation within the human body, it is still unclear whether microplastics produce damaging effects. In particular, the hepatic consequences of ingesting polyethylene (PE) microplastics in mammals are unknown. In this study, female mice were fed with food contaminated with 36 and 116 µm diameter PE microbeads at a dosage of 100 µg/g of food for 6 and 9 weeks. Mice were exposed to each type of microbead, or co-exposed to the 2 types of microbeads. Mouse liver showed altered levels of genes involved in uptake, synthesis, and β-oxidation of fatty acids. Ingestion of PE microbeads disturbed the detoxification response, promoted oxidative imbalance, increased inflammatory foci and cytokine expression, and enhanced proliferation in liver. Since relative expression of the hepatic stellate cell marker Pdgfa and collagen deposition were increased following PE exposure, we assessed the effect of PE ingestion in a mouse model of CCl4-induced fibrosis and showed that PE dietary exposure exacerbated liver fibrogenesis. These findings provide the first demonstration of the adverse hepatic effects of PE ingestion in mammals and highlight the need for further health risk assessment in humans.
Recent studies have demonstrated that dielectrophoresis is an efficient method for the separation of fibers according to fiber length. This method allows the investigation of fiber-cell interactions with fiber samples of the same composition but of different lengths. In the present study, we analyzed the effects of length on the interaction between glass fibers and macrophages by focusing on production of the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in a mouse macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7). The underlying molecular mechanisms controlling TNF-α production were investigated at the gene transcription level. The results show that glass fibers induced TNF-α production in macrophages and that this induction was associated with activation of the gene promoter. Activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor (NF)-κB was responsible for this induced promoter activity. The inhibition of both TNF-α production and NF-κB activation by N-acetyl-l-cysteine, an antioxidant, indicates that generation of oxidants may contribute to the induction of this cytokine and activation of this transcription factor by glass fibers. Long fibers (17 μm) were significantly more potent than short fibers (7 μm) in inducing NF-κB activation, the gene promoter activity, and the production of TNF-α. This fiber length-dependent difference in the stimulatory potency correlated with the fact that macrophages were able to completely engulf short glass fibers, whereas phagocytosis of long glass fibers was incomplete. These results suggest that fiber length plays a critical role in the potential pathogenicity of glass fibers.
In the first half of the twentieth century epidemiologic evidence linked elevated incidences of pulmonary fibrosis and cancer with inhalation of chrysotile and crocidolite asbestos, a family of naturally occurring inorganic fibrous materials. As the serpentine and amphibole forms of asbestos were phased out, synthetic vitreous fibers (SVFs; fiber glass, mineral wool, and refractory fiber) became increasingly utilized, and concerns were raised that they too might cause adverse health effects. Extensive toxicological research on SVFs has demonstrated that their pulmonary effects are directly related to fiber dose in the lung over time. This is the result of deposition (thin fibers deposit in the lower lung more efficiently than thick fibers) and lung-persistence ("biopersistence" is directly related to fiber length and inversely related to dissolution and fragmentation rates). In rat inhalation studies, asbestos was determined to be 7- to 10-fold more biopersistent in the lung than SVFs. Other than its effect on biopersistence, fiber composition did not appear to play a direct role in the biological activity of SVFs. Recently, the utilization of man-made organic fibers (MMOFs) (also referred to by some as synthetic organic fibers) has increased rapidly for a variety of applications. In contrast to SVFs, research on the potential pulmonary effects of MMOFs is relatively limited, because traditionally MMOFs were manufactured in diameters too thick to be respirable (inhalable into the lower lung). However, new developments in the MMOF industry have resulted in the production of increasingly fine-diameter fibers for special applications, and certain post-manufacturing processes (e.g., chopping) generate respirable-sized MMOF dust. Until the mid-1990s, there was no consistent evidence of human health affects attributed to occupational exposure to MMOFs. Very recently, however, a unique form of interstitial lung disease has been reported in nylon flock workers in three different plants, and respirable-sized nylon shreds (including fibers) were identified in workplace air samples. Whether nylon dust or other occupational exposures are responsible for the development of lung disease in these workers remains to be determined. It is also unknown whether the biological mechanisms that determine the respirability and toxicity of SVFs apply to MMOFs. Thus, it is appropriate and timely to review the current data regarding MMOF workplace exposure and pulmonary health effects, including the database on epidemiological, exposure assessment, and toxicology studies.
Two small-scale field studies were conducted to investigate the transfer of substances from products into dust due to direct and air-mediated transfer. The project focused on semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), which are frequently found in and re-emitted from dust. For the field studies, four artificial products containing deuterium-labelled SVOCs (eight phthalates and adipates) were installed in residential indoor environments. Two plastic products were installed vertically to consider substance transfer due to evaporation into air. One plastic product and a carpet were installed horizontally to investigate the direct transfer from source to dust. A pyrethroid was intentionally released by spraying a commercial spray. Dust samples were collected from the floor, elevated surfaces in the room and the surfaces of the horizontally installed products. We observed that the dust concentrations of substances only transferred via air were similar at different collection sites, but the concentrations of chemicals present in horizontal products were up to three orders of magnitude higher in dust deposited on the source. We conclude that direct transfer from source into dust substantially increases the final SVOC concentration in dust in contact with the source, regardless of the vapor pressure of investigated SVOCs, and may lead to larger human exposure.
Coal mine dust's possible carcinogenicity has recently drawn attention because of the IARC review of quartz, some new epidemiological data in German coal miners, and findings on other poorly soluble, nontoxic dusts in the rat. The aim of this study was to investigate persistent inflammation and tumor response in the rat after intratracheal instillation of two coal dust samples and other dust preparations. Female Wistar rats (190 g) were instilled with ground lean coal (60 mg) coal mine dust (60 mg), DQI2 quartz (5 mg), and fine (60 mg) and ultrafine (30 mg) TiO2. After 129 wk rats were killed, tumors detected by microscopy, and inflammation by light microscopy after specific antibody staining for macrophages and granulocytes. Increased alveolar macrophages (AM) and interstitial granulocytes were still present in dust-treated animals. Both AM and granulocytes per surface area were related to tumor incidence when all materials were plotted in one graph, and can be interpreted as effects of overload. Differences in tumor formation between fine and ultrafine TiO2, despite similar inflammatory response, are probably caused by a direct effect of ultrafine TiO2 after interstitialization. It is concluded that coal dust is another poorly soluble, nontoxic dust, which at high enough dose rate causes overload, inflammation, and tumor response in the rat.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used in large quantities as flame-retardant additives in a number of commercial products. Biomonitoring data show that, in recent years, PBDE concentrations have increased rapidly in the bodies of wildlife and humans. Usually, PBDE levels in North America have been reported to be higher than those in Europe and Asia. Moreover, body burden of PBDEs is three- to ninefold higher in infants and toddlers than in adults, showing these last two age groups the highest levels of these compounds, due to exposure via maternal milk and through dust. Tetra-, Penta-, and Hexa-BDEs are the isomers most commonly found in humans. Based on studies on experimental animals, the toxicological endpoints of exposure to PBDEs are likely to be thyroid homeostasis disruption, neurodevelopmental deficits, reproductive changes, and even cancer. Experimental studies in animals and epidemiological observations in humans suggest that PBDEs may be developmental neurotoxicants. Pre- and/or postnatal exposure to PBDEs may cause long-lasting behavioral abnormalities, particularly on motor activity and cognition. This paper is focused on reviewing the current status of PBDEs in the environment, as well as the critical adverse health effects based on the recent studies on the toxic effects of PBDEs.
Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) have been detected in indoor dust in many studies, at concentrations spanning several orders of magnitude. Limited information is available on the pathways via which BFRs migrate from treated products into dust, yet the different mechanisms hypothesized to date may provide an explanation for the range of reported concentrations. In particular, transfer of BFRs to dust via abrasion of particles or fibers from treated products may explain elevated concentrations (up to 210mgg(-1)) of low volatility BFRs like decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209). In this study, an indoor dust sample containing a low concentration of hexabromocyclododecane, or HBCD, (110ngg(-1) ΣHBCDs) was placed on the floor of an in-house test chamber. A fabric curtain treated with HBCDs was placed on a mesh shelf 3cm above the chamber floor and abrasion induced using a stirrer bar. This induced abrasion generated fibers of the curtain, which contaminated the dust, and ΣHBCD concentrations in the dust increased to between 4020 and 52 500ngg(-1) for four different abrasion experiment times. The highly contaminated dust (ΣHBCD at 52 500ngg(-1)) together with three archived dust samples from various UK microenvironments, were investigated with forensic microscopy techniques. These techniques included Micro X-ray fluorescent spectroscopy, scanning emission microscopy coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with further BFR analysis on LC-MS/MS. Using these techniques, fibers or particles abraded from a product treated with BFRs were identified in all dust samples, thereby accounting for the elevated concentrations detected in the original dust (3500 to 88 800ngg(-1) ΣHBCD and 24 000 to 1 438 000ngg(-1) for BDE-209). This study shows how test chamber experiments alongside forensic microscopy techniques, can provide valuable insights into the pathways via which BFRs contaminate indoor dust.
This study investigated the desorption behavior of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from marine plastic pellets. Long-term desorption experiments were conducted using field-collected polyethylene (PE) pellets. The results indicate that the desorption kinetics highly depends on the PE-water partition coefficients of PCB congeners. After 128d of the experiment, the smallest congener considered (CB 8) had desorbed nearly completely (98%), whereas major fractions (90-99%) of highly chlorinated congeners remained in the pellets. An intraparticle diffusion model mostly failed to reproduce the desorption kinetics, whereas an aqueous boundary layer (ABL) diffusion model well approximated the data. The desorption half-lives are estimated to 14d to 210years for CB 8 to CB 209 in an actively stirred solution (ABL thickness: 30μm). Addition of methanol to water enhanced the desorption to a large extent. A need for further work to explore roles of organic matter in facilitating solute transfer is suggested.
The solubility of fibers is thought to be an important determinant of their potential for inducing toxic and tumorigenic effects in the lung. Three manmade vitreous fiber (MMVF) compositions (borosilicates) and three polymeric organic fiber (POF) compositions (polypropylene, polyethylene, and polycarbonate) were compared for solubility in a physiological fluid, Gambles solution. The test materials were subjected to leaching for 180 days in a system that provided a continuous, constant flow of Gambles solution through sample holders containing the test fibers. During the 180 days, extraction fluids from the MMVFs only were collected for chemical characterization and all fibers, MMVF and POF were examined after 180 days for changes in surface area, total specimen weight, and surface characteristics (by electron microscopy). The MMVFs underwent significant but incongruent dissolution in Gambles solution. From plots of dissolved silica versus time, their silica solubility rates were determined to be much greater than that of chrysotile asbestos (used as a control for these studies) by from 650 to 17,000 times. The surface areas of the MMVFs increased by from 1800 to 22,000%, weight losses ranged from 37 to 75%, and significant visible fiber surface changes were observed on examination by SEM (scanning electron microscopy). On the other hand, the POFs studied showed virtually no dissolution in Gambles solution in this system with no significant changes in surface area, only slight weight gains ranging from 0.08 to 0.50%, and no visible fiber surface changes. These findings indicate that these POFs are more durable and therefore may persist longer in the lung than some MMVFs. Animal testing will be required to assess whether POFs are durable in the lung.
The association between exposure to airway irritants and the presence of work-related symptoms and whether this association was modified by airway hyper-responsiveness, smoking, and allergy by history was studied in 668 workers of synthetic fiber plants. A Dutch version of the British Medical Research Council (BMRC) questionnaire with additional questions on allergy and work-related symptoms was used to assess symptoms, and a standardized histamine challenge test of airway hyper-responsiveness (AHR) was employed. Work-related symptoms were defined as having more than usual eye and respiratory symptoms during work. On the basis of job titles and working department, the exposure status of all workers was characterized into seven groups: (1) reference group; (2) white collars; (3) SO2, HC1, SO4²⁻; (4) polyester vapor; (5) oil mist and oil vapor; (6) polyamide and polyester vapor; and (7) multiple exposure. The association between exposure groups and work-related symptom prevalence was estimated by means of multiple logistic regression.
Seven patients exposed to the inhalation of synthetic fibres presented with various bronchopulmonary diseases, such as asthma, extrinsic allergic alveolitis, chronic bronchitis with bronchiectasis, spontaneous pneumothorax, and chronic pneumonia. The histological features are described and an attempt has been made to set up immunological techniques for the diagnosis. A series of histochemical techniques, based on textile chemistry, are proposed for the identification of the inclusions found in bronchopulmonary lesions. The results of the experimental production of the disease in guinea-pigs by the inhalation of synthetic fibre dusts are presented. The prognosis of these cases is good in the acute or recently established cases but is poor when widespread and irreversible fibrosis has set in. The authors consider that pulmonary disease due to inhaled particles is probably set off by an individual factor, possibly immunological.
We report the results of studies undertaken to determine whether inhaled plant (i.e., cellulosic; e.g., cotton) and plastic (e.g., polyester) fibers are present in human lungs and, if so, whether inhaled fibers are also present in human lung cancers. Specimens of lung cancer of different histological types and adjacent nonneoplastic lung tissue were obtained from patients undergoing a lung resection for removal of a tumor. With the protection of a laminar flow hood and safeguards to prevent contamination by extraneous fibers, fresh, nonfixed, and nonstained samples of lung tissue were compressed between two glass microscope slides. Specimens in these dual slide chambers were examined with a microscope configured to permit viewing with white light, fluorescent light, polarizing light, and phase-contrast illumination. Near-term fetal bovine lungs and nonlung human tumors were used as controls. In contrast to the observations of these control tissues, morphologically heterogeneous fibers were seen repetitively in freshly excised human lung tissue using polarized light. Inhaled fibers were present in 83% of nonneoplastic lung specimens (n = 67/81) and in 97% of malignant lung specimens (n = 32/33). Thus, of the 114 human lung specimens examined, fibers were observed in 99 (87%). Examination of histopathology slides of lung tissue with polarized light confirmed the presence of inhaled cellulosic and plastic fibers. Of 160 surgical histopathology lung tissue slides, 17 were selected for critical examination; of these, fibers were identified in 13 slides. The inhalation of mineral (e.g., asbestos) fibers has been described by many investigators; we believe, however, that this is the first report of inhaled nonmineral (e.g., plant and plastic) fibers. These bioresistant and biopersistent cellulosic and plastic fibers are candidate agents contributing to the risk of lung cancer.
A work-related interstitial lung disease has been diagnosed in workers at five nylon flock facilities in three different states and a Canadian province. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health hosted a workshop at which consulting pulmonary pathologists reviewed lung tissue samples from all the cases for which lung biopsy material was available (15 of 20 cases known in January 1998). After independent review and scoring of these lung tissue specimens, the pathologists reached consensus that the histopathological findings revealed a characteristic lesion-a lymphocytic bronchiolitis and peribronchiolitis with lymphoid hyperplasia represented by lymphoid aggregates. The pathologists noted that the pathological findings were distinctive when compared with known lung conditions. The clinical presentation for the cases generally included cough, dyspnea, restrictive ventilatory defect with reduction in diffusing capacity, and interstitial markings on chest radiographs or high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) scans. Six of the cases improved after removal from workplace exposure without medical treatment. Six others, who had recovered with medical treatment and removal from the workplace, had relapses in both symptoms and objective findings after attempting to return to nylon flock work. With this and other evidence supporting the existence of chronic interstitial pneumonitis associated with nylon flock processing, workshop participants recommended surveillance for early identification of affected workers and their removal from further workplace exposure.
Flocking is a widely used industrial process in which short lengths of synthetic fibers are applied to backing fabric to produce plush material. In response to an apparent outbreak of interstitial lung disease in flock workers, the Centers for Disease Control hosted a clinical-pathological workshop to identify the defining characteristics of the disease and possible etiologic agents. Six pathologists reviewed 15 biopsies of 15 cases (out of a clinical caseload of 20 patients) and assessed the pattern, extent and degree of pulmonary inflammation, fibrosis, and other changes. A consensus clinical-pathologic diagnosis was reached for each patient and correlated with clinical and radiologic findings. Four of eight open lung biopsies and one of seven closed (transbronchial) lung biopsies demonstrated a characteristic pattern to which the descriptive terminology lymphocytic bronchiolitis and peribronchiolitis with lymphoid hyperplasia was applied. The other biopsies showed nonspecific inflammatory changes, airspace organization, and diffuse alveolar damage. One open lung biopsy demonstrated respiratory bronchiolitis with lymphoid hyperplasia. None of the lung biopsies showed more than mild interstitial fibrosis and no granulomas were identified. The consensus of the workshop was that lymphocytic bronchiolitis and peribronchiolitis with lymphoid hyperplasia was a characteristic and distinctive pattern of injury in the flock workers' lung biopsies. Although the etiology of this disease remains undefined at present, the injury pattern and environmental studies suggest a chronic immunologic response to inhaled material.
- H Greim
- P Borm
- R Schins
- K Donaldson
- K Driscoll
- A Hartwig
- E Kuempel
- G Oberdorster
- G Speit
Greim H, Borm P, Schins R, Donaldson K, Driscoll K, Hartwig A,
Kuempel E, Oberdorster G, Speit G: Toxicity of fibers and
particles report of the workshop held in Munich, Germany,
October 26-27, 2000. Inhal Toxicol 2001, 13:737-754.
Direct and air-mediated transfer of labeled SVOCs from indoor sources to dust
- V Sukiene
- Von Goetz
- N Gerecke
- A C Bakker
- M I Delmaar
- Cje Hungerbuhler
Sukiene V, von Goetz N, Gerecke AC, Bakker MI, Delmaar CJE,
Hungerbuhler K: Direct and air-mediated transfer of labeled
SVOCs from indoor sources to dust. Environ Sci Technol 2017,
51:3269-3277.