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48
4 Research on Second Language
Acquisition in Old Adulthood:
What We Have and What We
Need
Maria Kliesch, Nathalie Giroud, Simone
E. Pfenninger and Martin Meyer
Introduction
It has been wide ly b elie ved that of feri ng foreign la nguage ( FL) edu cat ion
at a young age sets the path to success. An assumption of this particular
belief seems to be that younger people learn a FL more effortlessly, more
successfully and faster than older adults (see e.g. the idea of children as
‘linguistic sponges’ discussed in Pfenninger and Singleton [2017]). One of
the main issues with the ‘catch them young’ notion is the conception of the
age factor as the non-plus-ultra predictor of second language (L2) learning
outcome at the expense of other determining factors such as the nature of
input provision, the quality of teacher education, the type of curriculum,
support from the social network, commitment of time and energy, individual
differences, learner needs, the importance of maintaining motivation
levels and integrating the first language (L1), allocation of resources and
generally ensuring appropriate conditions for learning. A growing body of
evidence from research in education, psycholinguistics, cognitive science
and neurolinguistics challenges conventional views, arguing that even
young adult L2 learners can reach native-like L2 proficiency. In a study by
Kinsella and Singleton (2014), for instance, 3 out of 20 highly proficient
late learners of French (mean age of acquisition: 28.6) performed in the
native range on all tested skills, which challenges the idea of a critical
period for second language acquisition (SLA). By contrast, research on
elderly people who begin the relevant language learning process in old age
is still in its infancy (but see Linhart-Wegschaider, 2010; Mackey & Sachs,
2012). When it comes to FL learning and senescence (sometimes referred
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 49
to as FL geragogy), Singleton (this volume) points to two main research
questions: (1) How good are older adults at additional language learning?
and (2) How good is additional language learning for them? In this chapter,
we are going to focus on the former, discuss the possible implications for
the latter and, in particular, address the question as to what we measure
and how we measure it. As a point of departure, we will present the results
of a longitudinal study of German learners (aged 65+) who took part in an
intensive English course for beginners. This study constitutes the first to
investigate how general cognitive capacities affect the learning outcome of
L2 training in older adults, and corroborates previous research arguing that
age is only one of many factors to be considered in FL geragogy.
On Old Dogs and New Tricks
The question as to whether you can ‘teach an old dog new tricks’ in
SLA is particularly timely in light of the early L2 – especially early L2
English – instruction hysteria that is currently sweeping the globe, which
has led to an escalation of English language education, an increase in the
numbers of children attending formal pre-school educational programs
and a worldwide trend to bring forward the starting age of FL instruction.
These developments send the message to the general public that language
instruction should be started before it is ‘too late’.
However, these commonly held beliefs run into empirical obstacles
from diverse sources. As Murphy and Evangelou (2016) quite rightly note in
their edited collection for the British Council, ‘there is no research carried
out in the instructed foreign language learning context that unequivocally
demonstrates advantages for younger over older learners’. On the contrary, the
‘earlier=better’ view has been rejected by extensive research, and there is now
a consensus that there are very few linguistic and extra-linguistic advantages
to an earlier start, either in relation to the rate of learning or in relation to
attainment (see e.g. Al-Thubaiti [2010] for Saudi Arabia; García Mayo and
García Lecumberri [2003] and Muñoz [2006, 2011] for Catalonia (Spain);
Larson-Hall [2008] for Japan; Myles and Mitchell [2012] for Great Britain;
Pfenninger [2014a, 2014b, 2016] for Switzerland; Unsworth et al. [2012] for
the Netherlands). Researchers have increasingly been seeing age as a very
complex factor, a ‘macrovariable’, and most have been calling for dimensions
other than maturation to be taken into consideration in this context.
Furthermore, as Genesee (2016) cautions, commonly held beliefs
about how easily young learners can acquire an L2 do not take into
account the complexities of language learning in the context of schooling.
In their longitudinal project on earlier vs. later starters of English as a
foreign language (EFL) in Switzerland, Pfenninger (2017) and Pfenninger
and Singleton (2017) show that school/classroom context and climate,
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50 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
motivation, extracurricular exposure to the L2, prior FL knowledge,
L1 literacy skills and intensity and type of instruction are all stronger
predictors of long-term FL outcome than starting age. The quality of
learners’ day-to-day experiences, relations in particular FL classrooms and
attitudes to the FL represent an important microlevel that shapes learners’
affective engagement with, and motivation to learn, English and can thus
make up for a later start.
This is important inasmuch as older learners (60+ years) have often
been found to exhibit self-defeating preconceptions regarding their
learning abilities, probably influenced by widely held notions regarding
old age or, equally important, infelicitous contextual factors. Ramírez-
Gómez (2016) observed that, fuelled by social stereotypes about the
elderly population, many FL instructors believe that older learners’
primary motivations to study an FL are socializing and leisure: ‘This belief
may lead these instructors to adopt a rather patronizing attitude toward
the learners’ abilities, and to aim at rather undemanding performance
goals’. Similarly, Andrew (2012) discusses how the biological processes
of decline and decrement concurrent with age have been appropriated
as the social view of aging, which has led to both ageist and non-ageist
views. In Gómez Bedoya’s (2008) study, in which 251 Japanese learners
of Spanish in multi-aged classes were interviewed (40 of whom were
older than 60 years), only half of the participants felt that age had a
negative effect on their L2 attainment, while the other half reported not
noticing any effect at all. Also, the older learners were more motivated
and dedicated than the younger learners, and the individual differences
discerned pertained to personality traits (e.g. shyness) rather than to
age. If participants noted a disadvantage of age, they mostly referred
to decreased memory capacities, but even so, none of the participants
supported the idea of age-separated learner groups. Thus, older learners
do not necessarily want to be lumped together with other older learners
(see Singleton, this volume).
It needs to be borne in mind, however, that little research has been
conducted on individual differences among older learners, and the few
existing studies have particularly focused on aptitude/intelligence, field
dependency, educational level and working background (see Ramírez-
Gómez, 2016). We know from cognitive neurosciences that aging entails
a number of anatomical and functional changes in the brain that imply
a decline in cognitive capacities. To our knowledge, there is only one
study (Mackey & Sachs, 2012, see below) that investigates the influence
of cognition in FL geragogy. As we will see in the next chapter, however,
our understanding of the L2 learning process in older adults should also
take into consideration how the brain changes over the lifespan and,
in particular, how this can affect an individual’s ability to acquire new
knowledge, such as a new language.
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 51
Brain Plasticity and SLA
A large number of neuroscientific studies characterize aging by a decrease
in cognitive functions, such as working memory, attention and processing
speed (Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; Reuter-Lorenz & Park, 2010). Such
age-related cognitive decline has been shown to be preceded by structural
changes, such as cortical thinning or the decline of white matter (WM)
integrity (Fjell et al., 2009a; Raz, 2005; Salat et al., 2004; Sowell et al., 2003).
However, the Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition (Park & Reuter-
Lorenz, 2009) suggests that there may also be compensatory mechanisms
that allow for a higher level of cognitive functioning despite structural
decline. The theory points to brain compensatory characteristics, such as
recruitment of frontal brain regions during difficult tasks, dedifferentiation,
neurogenesis and lateralization of functioning (Park & Reuter-Lorenz,
2009). Furthermore, cognitive capacities not only vary as a function of age
and genetics, but are influenced in large part by an individual’s lifestyle
and the extent to which intellectually stimulating exercises are included
therein (see Stern and Munn [2010] for a review). Experiences like learning,
engagement, exercise and cognitive training may positively influence the
level of cognitive functioning (Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009).
The question of cognition in SLA and senescence is of importance
inasmuch as language learning itself is a cognitive process that requires
memorization, inhibition of L1, sustained attention in classroom settings,
rule learning and application, pattern recognition, metacognition, etc. It is
therefore not surprising that older L2 learners experience different degrees
of ‘struggle’ during the learning process. Mårtensson et al.’s (2012) study of
younger adults found that struggling learners showed a stronger increase
of gray matter (GM) in frontal areas compared to more successful learners
across a period of three months of intense language study. Increased frontal
activation or frontal GM increase may therefore be considered a correlate
for the need of more cognitive control during SLA. Given the age-related
cognitive decline and cortical thinning over the lifespan in frontal areas (Fjell
et al., 2009b), in particular, it is to be expected that this struggle increases
with age.
But what happens in the long term when adults learn a new language?
Importantly, it has been acknowledged for many years now that (language)
learning requires dendritic and synaptic plasticity that is known to continue
into adulthood (Draganski et al., 2004; Lövdén et al., 2013; Scholz et al., 2009;
Uylings, 2006). For example, a functional magnetic resonance imaging
study (fMRI) by Wong et al. (2007) trained young adults to discriminate
pitch patterns in a FL (Mandarin) to examine the neural basis of this
phonetic learning process. They showed that good learners revealed plastic
changes in auditory-related cortical areas that reflected competence in
speech processing, whereas less successful learners displayed diffuse and
more widespread frontal activity, which indicates enhanced cognitive effort
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52 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
(Wong et al., 2007). This finding matches very well with the results of the
abovementioned study by Mårtensson et al. (2012), in which struggling
learners showed a stronger GM increase in frontal rather than auditory
areas, meaning that struggling may be related to the stronger involvement
of cognitive control as compared to the sole reliance on auditory functions
during SLA. Evidence of auditory plasticity has been replicated in the
context of Japanese learners, who were taught how to distinguish between
the American /r/ and /l/ perceptually. Consistent with the behavioral
improvements, the neural sensitivity in auditory areas increased, as measured
by magnetoencephalography (MEG) (Zhang et al., 2009). Together these two
studies provide evidence for substantial neural plasticity in auditory brain
areas during L2 learning in adults and for increased auditory sensitivity to
formerly undetectable acoustic properties. Thus, one important modality
enabling progress in L2 learning in adulthood is the auditory domain.
More ecologically valid studies tested young adults before and after
a longer and more comprehensive L2 training that stretched over several
months, and investigated auditory as well as non-auditory neural plasticity
in cognitive-related brain areas after language learning. For instance, Schlegel
et al. (2012) followed young adults monthly, assessing WM structural
plasticity using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) during intensive L2 training
of Modern Standard Chinese, and compared them to controls who did
not participate in any L2 training. Relative to the controls, participants
learning Chinese exhibited higher integrity in language-relevant WM
connections between auditory-related and frontal brain regions in the left
and right hemisphere as a function of the training (Schlegel et al., 2012).
Furthermore, the increase of this integrity in the WM connections was
higher for those participants who exhibited a greater development in their
L2 grades (Schlegel et al., 2012). Interestingly, a further study investigating
GM structural plasticity pointed to a similar connection between
the increase in cortical thickness in the left inferior frontal gyrus and
the increase in proficiency in SLA, showing that it was independent of the
absolute SLA proficiency level (Stein et al., 2012). Such correlations suggest
that it is mainly inter-individual changes in L2 proficiency rather than
initial or resulting proficiency levels which are reflected in brain plasticity.
To complement this, electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have found that
effects measured during sentence comprehension became more similar
between native speakers and adult L2 learners as a function of proficiency
(Dowens et al., 2010; Soskey et al., 2016). Thus, there is conclusive evidence
for substantial structural and functional neural plasticity in adulthood as a
function of inter-individual trajectories of learning during L2 training. As
a consequence, L2 learning has even been proposed as a cognitive training
intervention in old adulthood (Antoniou et al., 2013) – a hypothesis that has
so far not been investigated systematically.
AU: cogni-
tive training
invention
has been
changed to
cognitive
training
intervention.
Please verify.
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 53
However, the strong involvement of auditory functions during SLA
may cause several problems for older adults who want to learn an L2.
This is due to the high prevalence of age-related hearing loss (presbycusis)
in older adults. For example, in European countries, about 30% of men
and 20% of women at the age of 70 years have at least mild hearing loss
(i.e. 30 dB or more; Roth et al., 2011). This prevalence increases considerably
with age, leading to 89.5% of individuals older than 80 years suffering from
age-related hearing impairment (Cruickshanks et al., 1998). This implies
that performing L2 proficiency tests in the auditory modality may lead to
constrained results (see below). Furthermore, if these older adults have to
rely more on cognitive control mechanisms during SLA due to their hearing
problems, SLA may, on the one hand, be very effortful cognitively but, on
the other hand, serve as both auditory as well as cognitive training. So far,
the only behavioral study investigating the relationship between SLA in
older adults and cognition made use of L2 training based on communicative
tasks and interactional feedback (Mackey & Sachs, 2012); its results reveal
that participants’ listening span capacities were more predictive of their L2
progress than age. However, as pointed out above, using training and test
settings that mainly rely on auditory functions may limit older adults to
use their full capacity because of age-related hearing loss. Therefore, more
ecologically valid studies are required (see Chapter 4).
In summary, the neurocognitive aging literature not only indicates a
huge variance in SLA in older adults based on inter-individual differences in
cognitive functioning, hearing loss and also hearing loss treatment (Giroud
et al., under review, 2017), but also emphasizes the learning capability
of the plastic brain into old age. What is more, it suggests that learning
(e.g. L2 learning) may enhance the scaffolding of the aging brain to support
a higher level of cognitive functioning in old age. Thus, SLA may be a
strategy in old age to maintain and enhance ‘healthy’ aging. It is therefore
of utmost importance to study the predictors for successful SLA in older
adults in more detail. In the following, we will present data of a study of our
own group, and discuss potential inter-individual differences in cognitive
skills that may impact the success of SLA in older adults. Furthermore, we
will provide recommendations for future studies investigating this issue.
A Longitudinal Study on L2 Learning in Old
Adulthood
Aim
In order to address the various learner differences in the context of SLA
and senescence, we developed and conducted a small longitudinal study
involving three-week training of English as an FL for older adults in order
to investigate successful language learning in old age. Our focus was not so
AU: Should
‘ may limit
older adults
to use their
full capacity’
read ‘ may
limit older
adults’ use
of their full
capacity’?
AU: Should
‘a study of
our own
group’ read
‘a study by
our own
group’?
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54 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
much on determining how L2 learning differs in older adults as compared
to younger adults, as on exploring the factors that account for the individual
differences between older learners themselves. The reason for this is, as
pointed out above, that age is only one of many predictors of an L2 learning
outcome, and it cannot explain individual differences that persist in a group
of age-matched learners (Gómez Bedoya et al., 2008; Linhart-Wegschaider,
2010; Mackey & Sachs, 2012).
However, despite converging evidence on neural plasticity in adulthood
through training interventions listed in the literature review above, research
on FL geragogy in the context of cognitive capacities and neuroplasticity is
surprisingly scarce. Therefore, this project ventures into interdisciplinary
territory, integrating insights and methods from both linguistics and
cognitive neuroscience in order to determine mutual constraints and interests
not yet addressed in previous studies. Our research questions enquired
(1) whether significant L2 growth could be made by older learners (age
65–75) following a three-week language course, and (2) whether cognitive
fitness predicts successful L2 learning, compared to other factors such as
age, motivation, time dedicated to self-study, educational background,
etc. On the one hand, we know that aging is associated with a decline in
cortical thickness and that, as a consequence, younger adults outperform
older adults on a number of cognitive skills (see e.g. Fjell & Walhovd [2010]
for a review). On the other hand, lifestyle, cognitive activity, genetics and
nutrition play a decisive role in how well these capacities are preserved in
old age, which creates large effects of inter-individual variability (e.g. Fjell &
Walhovd, 2010; Mora, 2013; Wilson et al., 2002). We thus assume that (1)
cognitive fitness varies among individuals; (2) working memory plays a
decisive role in the L2 learning outcome; and (3) L2 learning is a complex
process tapping into a variety of different cognitive skills. Accordingly, we
hypothesize that cognitive performance in old age constitutes a major factor
explaining the variance in L2 development. In the following, we will briefly
present the methodology and a selection of our results, before proceeding
to a critical discussion of the instruments used in order to make suggestions
for directions for future research.
Methodology
Participants
For this study, 10 participants between the ages of 65 and 74 were
recruited (see Table 4.1). The group size was restricted in order to allow the
L2 instructor to monitor all students individually, and provide sufficient
opportunities for students’ participation during class. All participants
were monolingual German native speakers and reported no or only very
rudimentary knowledge of English. Participants were retired by the time
they participated in the study, and did not report any neurological or
AU: Gómez
Bedoya et al.
2008 is not
mentioned
in ref list
[only Gómez
Bedoya
2008]. Please
ad to ref list
or delete this
citation
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 55
Table 4.1 Participant characteristics
Participant Gender Age Years in
education
Other languages
QP01 Female 73 10 Italian (basic), French (basic),
English (basic)
QP02 Male 67 8 None
QP03 Male 68 20 French (basic)
QP04 Female 68 9 Italian (basic), French (basic)
QP05 Female 69 10 French (basic)
QP06 Male 65 11 French (very good)
QP07 Male 71 9 French (good), Italian (good)
QP08 Male 68 9 None
QP09 Male 68 18 Russian (basic)
QP10 Female 65 13 Russian (basic)
Mean (SD) 68.20 (2.44) 11.7 (4.11)
psychiatric disorders or learning disabilities, such as dyslexia. Further, we
excluded participants who suffered from moderate hearing loss (i.e. pure-
tone thresholds above 40 dB in the better-hearing ear) or worse (see above)
and who played an instrument for more than two hours a day.
Experimental procedure
Figure 4.1 provides an overview of the overall study procedure. As
pre- and post-tests, we administered L2 proficiency tasks and cognitive
tests. In order to account for the socio-affective dimension of FL learning
in a classroom setting, we also evaluated learning experiences. At either
measurement, all tests were pseudo-randomized between individuals and
performed in one session. Between the two tests, three weeks of intensive
L2 English training took place (see below). In addition, at the end of the
study we conducted an EEG experiment. The data of this EEG experiment
will be reported elsewhere (Kliesch et al., in prep.).
L2 training
Participants took part in an intensive English course for beginners,
taught by a qualified English teacher in a setting particularly designed for
this study. In total, the training consisted of 60 lessons distributed over
the course of three weeks. One lesson per day was dedicated to self-study,
so that no additional homework had to be done after the course. In doing
so, we controlled for the time that each participant would dedicate to the
training. Nevertheless, via questionnaires, we assessed how much additional
time the participants spent on studying English between lessons. Over
the course of the training, participants practiced the four essential skills
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56 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
in L2 learning, namely speaking, listening, writing and reading, based on
the textbook and workbook Next A1 for German adult learners of English
(Hueber Verlag). Our aim was to emulate a learning situation that would
be as realistic as possible in terms of how older people would learn a new
language in real life.
Language tests
To assess participants’ general proficiency in English, three different
language tests were administered before the course (at T1) and immediately
thereafter (T2): (1) C-Test; (2) Hueber assessment test Next A1; and (3) oral
translation test. The C-Test is an established and validated test designed
as a language proficiency assessment tool (both L1 and L2), and consists of
five randomly chosen texts in which every second word is missing half its
letters, as in the following example:
(1) The Aran Islands are a group of three islands near the west coast of
Ireland. The wea____ on t__ islands i_ mild i_ the win___, but al__
not ve__ warm i_ summer…
The C-Test can be completed in 25 minutes and provides a reliable measure
of L2 proficiency, as it has been shown to correlate with other measures,
such as school grades in language subjects, self-evaluation procedures and
other language tests and batteries (Raatz & Klein-Braley, 2002). To improve
reliability, we also had participants complete the online assessment test
provided by Hueber Verlag, which tests vocabulary, reading as well as digit/
Figure 4.1 Overview of experimental design
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 57
letter listening skills from Levels A1 to A 2 (Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages [CEFR]) based on the textbook’s content. In addition,
we asked participants to translate 12 sentences from English into German,
one from each unit in the course book, conceding two points per sentence
for correctly translated content and form, which yielded one final score for
each participant (see Appendix A). This test was added to complement the
listening skill tasks of the Hueber test, which only consisted of letter and digit
comprehension. By asking participants to translate as much of the sentences
as they could rather than asking comprehension questions, we wanted to gai n
a more accurate understanding of the number of words and forms that were
understood. In addition, at the end of each week, participants completed a
10-minute vocabulary test on words that were studied in the respective week
in order for us to track their individual progress.
T he C -Tes t a n d H ue ber a ss es s me nt te st at T1 cor r el at e d w it h ov er r>0.80,
while the oral translation task correlated with r≥0.60. An exploratory factor
analysis indicated that all language tests loaded on the same factor. At T2,
all L2 tests correlated with over r≥0.80 so that we calculated proficiency
as the means of all three tests. We used this collapsed value as a measure
of global L2 proficiency to assess whether or not their L2 skills improved,
rather than measuring exactly which skills improved. In order to calculate
each participant’s improvement from T1 to T2, we decided to calculate the
percentage of the maximum attainable improvement (MI) after T1 (see
Table 4.2), rather than merely calculating the difference between T2 and T1.
Cognitive tests
In an attempt to explore the influence of various cognitive factors,
we tested participants before training on a range of cognitive skills that
are known to deteriorate due to age-related cognitive decline and that
were shown to either diverge between bilinguals and monolinguals or are
involved in L2 learning, language comprehension or production. Wherever
there was a verbal and a non-verbal version of a test, we performed both
so as to determine whether there was a difference in their effect on L2
learning. In Table 4.3, we list the respective skills tested, their relevance for
Table 4.2 Defi nition of corrected L2 improvement
Type of score Calculation
Maximum score (MS) =100
Actual improvement (AI) =T2 score–T1 score
Maximum improvement (MI) =MS–T1 score
Corrected improvement (CI) = AI´MI
100
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58 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
Table 4.3 Summary of assessed cognitive skills and used tests
Skill Defi nition Relevance Test Description of test Literature
Inhibition Here: The ability to
suppress a behavioral or
verbal response despite
the presence of the
stimulus for a response.
Inhibition skills are
enhanced in early
childhood, adulthood
and old adulthood in
bilinguals as compared to
monolinguals.a
(1) Stroop Task
(Tatool-Web)
(2) Eriksen Flanker
Task (Tatool-Web)
(1) PC-Test. See Stroop
(1935) for or iginal
version.
(2) PC-Test. See Er iksen
and Eriksen (1974)
for original version.
Bialystok and DePap e
(2009)
Bice and Kroll (2015)
Filippi et al. (2012)
Linck et al. (2012)
Zied et al. (2004)
Shifting
(sw itching)
The ability to switch/
shift between one task
and another.
Bilinguals who frequently
switch between languages,
such as simultaneous
interpreters, seem to
exhibit smaller (non-ver-
bal) task-switching costs
than monolinguals.a
(1) Categorical
Shifting Task
(Tatool-Web)
(2) Figural Shift ing
Task (Tatool-Web)
PC-Test: Participants are
asked to classify stimuli
according to changing
rules, either paying
attention to size or ani-
macy (categorical), or to
shape or color (fi gural).
Green and Abutalebi
(201 3)
Linck et al. (2012)
Macnamara and Conway
(2014)
Prior and Gollan (2011)
Soveri et al. (2011)
Immediate
recall (work-
ing memory)
Immediate recall
skill s include working
memory and short-term
memory, and refer to
the ability of holding
small amounts of verbal
or nonverbal informa-
tion in mind for a short
period of time (a few
seconds up), ready to be
recalled upon request.b
Working memory skill s
have been shown to be
implied in L2 learning,
and appear to improve
by training simultaneous
translation.
(1) Reading Span Task
(RST)
(2) Digit Span
(Tatool-Web)
(3) Verbaler Lern- und
Merkfähigkeits-
test (Sum
Dg1-Dg5)
(1) See van den Noort
et al. (2008)
(2) PC-Test: Participants
have to memorize
a list of two-digit
numbers and recall
them in correct serial
order. The length of
each list can vary
between 3 and 5
items.
(3) S ee Helmstadter et
al. (2001)
Alptekin et al. (2014)
Bialystok (2009)
Luo et al. (2013)
Mackey and Sachs (2012)
Macnamara and Conway
(2014)
Service et al. (2002)
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 59
Delayed recall Delayed recall refer s to
the ability to recall a
list of memorized short
(verbal) items after a
delay period of approxi-
mately 25 minutes.
Delayed recall is known to
decline w ith age. No study
– to our knowledge – has
invest igated the concept
in relat ion to L2 learn-
ing or bilingualism, i.e.
explorator y approach.
Verbaler Lern- und
Merkfähigkeits-test
(Dg6)
See Helmstadter et al.
(2001)
Greenaway et al. (2006)
Lamar et al. (2003)
(Phonetic)
Verbal fl uency
Verbal fl uency refers
to the rate at which
a person can produce
words (usually star t-
ing with a particular
letter or belonging
to a spec ifi c semant ic
category, measured
in a timef rame of 60
seconds).
Verbal fl uency is known
to decline with age. High
verbal fl uency in old age
has been shown to cor-
relate with a preser ved
abilit y to use context in
sentence comprehension
predictively.
Regensburger
Wort fl üssigkeits-Test
(RWT)
See Aschenbrenner et al.
(2000)
Federmeier et al. (2002)
Kemper et al. (2001)
Kemper and Sumner
(2001)
McDowd et al. (2011)
a The bilingual advantage is heavily discussed in current research, and appears to be less conclusive than prev iously assumed (Duñabeit ia & Carreiras,
2015; Paap et al., 2015; Vaughn et al., 2015).
b In a recent paper published after the data collection for our study (Wayne et al., 2016), it was shown that the RST does not measure – as assumed to
date – working memor y skills only, but also episodic visual memory and inhibit ion, which is why we decided to refrain from implying a concept of pure
working memory when referring to the RST. However, for the sake of convenience and due to the close proximit y of the concepts of immediate recall and
working memory as well as the terminology commonly used in the literature, we will henceforth use ‘working memory ’ as a cover term for the short-term/
immediate recall/working memory skills tested here.
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60 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
L2 learning as shown by previous research, and descriptions of the tests we
used to assess them.
Individual differences and learner voices
In addition to the linguistic and cognitive parameters, we also sought
to explore the role of participants’ educational background, IQ, motivation
as well as their investment during the course. Educational background
was measured through years in education, while IQ was assessed via the
KAI (Kurztest für allgemeine Informationspsychologische Basisgrössen),
which is used to measure the basic capacity of information processing and
biological intelligence (see Lehrl et al., 1991).
Learners’ motivation and investment were assessed qualitatively by
asking participants at the beginning of each week:
(1) what it is that motivates them to attend the course each day;
(2) whether they feel motivated to attend the course;
(3) whether they feel obliged to attend the course;
(4) whether they think that the course will meet their personal
expectations;
(5) whether their motivation has dropped since enrolling in the study;
(6) whether their progress corresponds with their expectations before the
course.
In an evaluation session, we enquired:
(7) whether they feel that their English skills have improved;
(8) how much time they spent on self-learning outside of course lessons;
(9) whether they feel more motivated to use English in their daily life;
(10) whether they felt highly motivated during the course;
(11) whether they feel cognitively fitter than before the course.
Measurements and data analysis
We applied non-parametric tests where normal distribution was not
evident. In order to increase the reliability of our data despite the low
number of samples, we performed exploratory factor analyses to determine
whether the language and cognitive tests could be collapsed into fewer
factors. To inquire into the relationship between L2 development and other
parameters (i.e. cognition, age, IQ, education), we calculated Pearson’s
R for parametric data, and Spearman’s Rho for non-parametric data.
Learner voices will be reported descriptively from the results of the above
questionnaires in an exploratory attempt to determine additional factors
that might be worth pursuing in future studies.
Results
Our results show that participants improved their English over the
course of the training, with a significant average improvement between
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 61
T1 and T2 (t(9)=6.33, p<0.001). Figure 4.2 displays the test results of each
participant at T1 and T2 averaged over the three language tests.
As Figure 4.2 shows, the slope of the improvement varies between
participants, ranging from 16.56% to 91.86%, which means that the
effectiveness of the training was influenced by additional factors other
than the training itself.
When analyzing the cognitive data, we found that the computerized
digit span test was too difficult for most participants, and thus had to
be excluded from the analysis (see discussion below). In contrast, we
observed ceiling effects with respect to accuracy for all four shifting and
inhibition tests, so we used reaction times for all correct trials to reflect
task effort instead (Murata, 2005; Ratcliff et al., 2001). As expected,
exploratory factor analyses revealed that different tests loaded on the
same cognitive factors; thus, we merged the scores from the reading span
test (RST) and immediate recall scores from the verbal learning and
memory test (VLMT) into general working memory skills, and averaged
the figural and categorical shifting tests into general shifting, and
Stroop and Flanker into general inhibition (see Appendix B). Table 4.4
shows how L2 development correlates with cognitive factors after age is
controlled statistically.
Our analysis confirmed our second hypothesis of an existing
relationship between L2 development in older learners and cognitive factors:
participants with higher capacities in verbal fluency (r=0.75, p<0.01) and
better working memory (r=0.62, p=0.03) had a steeper learning curve
than those with lower capacities or slower reaction times. Interestingly,
0
25
50
75
100
T1 T2
Timepoint
Average score in language tests [%]
Subject
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Figure 4.2 Individual language tests results at T1 and T2
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62 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
age had a significant but smaller effect on learning success than either of
the above, in that the training was less effective for older participants than
for younger participants (r=–0.55, p=0.05). Figure 4.3 shows the linear
regressions for all factors that indicated a significant relationship with
learner development.
When looking at learner voices during and after the course, the following
observations provided indications regarding the intertwining of L2 progress
and aspects of learner investment:
(1) While in Week 1, all participants reported that it was mainly their
personal motivation that motivated them to attend the course; by
Week 3, seven of them added their L2 progress as another motivational
aspect.
(2) Four of the participants who in Week 1 said that they were attending
the course because of their own motivation, added in Week 3
‘conscientiousness’ to the reasons for joining.
(3) The two participants who profited least from the course also reported
the least amount of time invested in self-study (i.e. some minutes every
other day).
(4) The four participants with the smallest improvement were also those
who became less convinced after Week 1 that the course would meet
their expectations.
(5) All participants reported feeling more tired and exhausted than usual,
and mainly did so before exams.
(6) Seven of the 10 participants felt that their English had improved
significantly, and this self-assessment was independent of the actually
attained improvement.
Discussion
Our study, first and foremost, showed that learning a new language
in old adulthood is certainly feasible, but that the learning success differs
between individuals. Cognitive factors and motivation appear to play a
decisive role in L2 development, while age only explains a small part of
the inter-individual variance. However, our study also revealed a number
of methodological issues that need to be borne in mind when conducting
Table 4.4 Correlations between L2 progress and cognitive factors
Controlled for
Verbal
fl uency
Working
memory
Delayed
recall
Shifting
(RT)
Inhibition
(RT)
Age L2 progress 0.75** 0.62* –0.54 –0.1 –0.32
df 8 8 8 8 8
Note: df= degrees of freedom.
*<0.05; **< 0.01.
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 63
research in the field of FL geragogy to facilitate the comparability and
feasibility of studies, some of which will be discussed in the following.
Participants and L2 training
It appears that the daily effort of four lessons was demanding for
participants both physically and mentally, causing self-reported tiredness.
This is arguably owing to the fact that age-related reduced cognitive capacity
required increased mental effort. Thus, in future studies, the training
intensity should be weighed against the respective mental and physical
e ff or t ne c es s ar y to ma i nt a in t hi s in ten si ty . A t bo th e xt r em es – if t he t ra i ni n g
is too moderate or too strenuous – the efficiency of the training is likely to
deteriorate (Serrano, 2011). Alternatively, software-based training would
save participants the time of travelling to and from the learning facility,
thus allowing for individualized learning speed. However, when deciding
between classroom instruction and software-based L2 training, it needs to
be borne in mind that for older learners the social aspect and applicability
25
50
75
20 30 40
Verbal Fluency Score
(Corrected) L2 Improvement [%]
25
50
75
66 68 70 72
Age
(Corrected) L2 Improvement [%]
25
50
75
15 20 25 30
Working Memory Score
(Corrected) L2 Improvement [%]
Figure 4.3
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64 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
of a language course might be just as important as the linguistic interest
itself. What is more, Park et al. (2014) showed that in older adults, the
beneficial effect of productive engagement in demanding tasks and a social
setting is highest if combined, thus underlining the importance of social
exchange in cognitive training interventions with older learners. Along
these lines, even though the language input of classroom training and the
use of learning software might be similar, the immediate feedback provided
by an instructor and the interaction between instructor and learner may
also play an essential and beneficial role for both the learners’ motivation
as well as the learning outcome (see Long’s [1981] Interaction Hypothesis).
Language tests
In this study, we used three different language tests to assess L2
proficiency at T1 and T2. Of these three, the C-Test seems most suited to test
general, integrative L2 knowledge, since it has been tested for reliability and
validity, it is easy to perform and it is able to track differences in performance
even after a short training period. Especially with older learners, there are
two advantages in using the written modality to test general L2 skills: first,
the performance in listening comprehension tasks is likely to be affected
by individual differences in hearing loss, which are known to affect even
language comprehension in L1 (see e.g. Giroud et al., under review, 2017), and
would therefore be biased toward learners with better hearing. Second, both
speech comprehension and production rely heavily on processing speed and
working memory capacity, both of which have been shown to be reduced in
older adults (Kim & Oh, 2013; McDowd et al., 2011). Therefore, these factors
are likely to distort the results of auditory and oral L2 tests, especially when
testing oral fluency and complexity. For future studies testing L2 skills in
specific modalities, these aspects need to be controlled experimentally or
statistically before making any statements on individual learner differences.
Cognitive parameters
Our study found a significant relationship between participants’ L2
development with verbal fluency and working memory. That is, the better
the participants performed in these skills, and the less effort it took them
to do so, the more successful their L2 training was. Thus, it appears that
success in learning a new language in old adulthood is not merely modulated
by age, but much more so by how well specific cognitive capacities that
are tapped by language training are preserved. When analyzing the effect
of specific training methods, learner investment, linguistic background,
etc., on L2 learning in the elderly, it would be highly advisable to include
these cognitive parameters as control variables in order to avoid confounds.
However, the cognitive skills assessed here are by no means exhaustive.
AU: Park
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 65
For instance, future studies could also investigate the role of attention
span, procedural memory, implicit and explicit learning, divided attention
and rule-application, among others, in the learning process. On the other
hand, of course, our findings open a whole new range of research questions
in the context of neural plasticity, such as whether L2 training has any
transfer effects on cognitive skills (Ramos et al., 2016), whether there is
a cognitive limit to L2 learning in old adulthood or whether L2 training
could be used as cognitive training to preserve against age-related cognitive
decline. Similar protection against dementia has been argued to exist in
bilinguals (see Bialystok et al., 2016, for a review), but no study to date has
investigated this relationship in older language learners.
We would also recommend a number of methodological emendations,
based on the insights gained from our study:
(1) The RST proved too difficult and stressful for participants, as they
became frustrated and self-conscious when they failed to recall any of
the correct answers (also see Wayne et al., 2016). Therefore, we would
caution against using it to assess working memory skills in older
participants, and instead replace it with a less complex test, such as the
working memory test battery by Lewandowsky et al. (2010).
(2) The computerized digit span test we used was too complicated for our
participants, as they had to memorize and type their answers using
a keyboard and press ‘Enter’ in-between answers, which confused
many of them and did not yield any useful data, which is why it was
excluded from the analysis. In this case, we would recommend an oral
or paper-pen test or a computerized test that requires little to no PC
skills to assess non-verbal working memory.
(3) We observed ceiling effects in accuracy for the Flanker, Stroop,
category shifting and figural shifting tests. Although participants
were instructed to react as fast as possible, there were hardly any
slips in accuracy, which is likely due to participants’ effort to score
well (Ratcliff et al., 2001). However, reaction times in these tests did
show greater variance, which indicates that despite the high levels of
accuracy, participants’ efforts differed considerably and can therefore
be used as a measure for shifting and inhibitory effort, respectively.
One needs to bear in mind, however, that one does not assess how
well participants scored in these tests, but rather how much effort it
took them to do so, which might be relevant for the interpretation of
findings.
(4) We chose computerized tests for practical reasons (e.g. because some of
them were not available to us in paper-pen form). However, it would
be desirable to forego computer tests to avoid confounds based on
different PC skills among older learners.
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66 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
Learner investment
Due to our primary interest in the cognitive aspects of FL geragogy,
we restricted ourselves to measuring learner investment in an exploratory
manner. However, since we found that personal motivation, self-study
effort, learning progress and social aspects appeared to be codependent at
least for some participants, it would make sense to include psychometric
tests in a next step that enquire about the learners’ environment, history
and personality (see Norton, 2000). As a point of reference, Linhart-
Wegschaider (2010) found noticeable effects of previous L2 learning
experience, motivational curves over the training, expectancy of success,
goal relevance, self-assessment of L2 skills and learning strategies on the
learning outcome, which might serve as a basis for future questionnaires. It
needs to be noted, howe ver, that lear ner investment – like L2 development –
is likely to interact with the cognitive capacities of older learners, such that
high cognitive demand leads to exhaustion, which in turn may increase
self-defeating conceptions of one’s learning abilities and tiredness, and
eventually reduce the learner’s motivation.
General Conclusions and Outlook
Summarizing the findings of this pilot study, we were able to shed
some interdisciplinary light on the question of older adults’ ability to learn
an additional language: it has become clear that the idea of old dogs not
being able to learn new tricks is too simplified, as age is by far not the only
or even the strongest factor modulating this complex learning process. As
we have seen, even though the efficiency of L2 training decreased with age,
other cognitive factors proved more predictive of the individual learning
success. Understanding the origin of individual differences in cognitive
performance in old age is a challenging undertaking with much yet to
explore, but evidence suggests that the brain’s capacity for neural plasticity
varies greatly between older individuals. This is not to say that learners
with lower cognitive capacities should be discouraged from learning a new
language – quite the contrary! – but that they need to bear in mind that
language can be expected to be more effortful than in young adulthood.
Future studies could then examine whether L2 training can be adapted to
fit individual cognitive profiles, whether there is a cognitive limit to L2
learning, or investigate if learning an L2 in old age can have short-term or
even long-term transfer effects on the general cognitive fitness, or whether
it could be of use in the prevention of dementia, in delaying its onset or in
improving social well-being in general (see Pot et al., this volume).
If, as we have shown, cognitive fitness and the capacity to learn an L2 in
old adulthood are two sides of the same coin, interdisciplinary approaches
complemented by a neuropsychological perspective could address questions
that would bear significance not only for the field of FL geragogy but also
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 67
for research on the aging brain and neuroplasticity. Having said this, we
would like to emphasize that neurophysiological methods, namely EEG,
may be superior to hemodynamic techniques, i.e. fMRI, as the former
have a better temporal resolution, which is a cardinal advantage when it
comes to investigating subtle processes during the computation of complex
linguistic structures. Furthermore, the EEG approach is much more suitable
for older adults, as it does not confront them with detrimental aspects
of brain scanning, such as exorbitant noise and having to lie still in the
scanner in a supine position for a considerably long period.
The EEG technique is an established approach that is perfectly suited to
investigate neural substrates of speech perception, language comprehension
at elementary and higher levels as well as related cognitive functioning,
that may even change as a function of long-term exposure to an FL. When
neurophysiology entered the realm of psycholinguistics in the 1980s
with the application of event-related brain potential (ERP), it became a
popular approach and led to a series of fascinating discoveries (Kutas &
Dale, 1997). The ERP approach is one application of the EEG technique
and allows computing the transient responses of the language processing
system by averaging time-locked brain activity across a critical mass of
experimental trials. In particular, the processing of semantic incongruence
during written or spoken utterances is flagged by a characteristic
response in the ERP. This response is known as N400 component, and it
demonstrates magnified amplitude when semantically incongruent words
are presented in sentences (‘The soup was too hot to talk’) or in the context
of other semantic language tasks. By means of modulations of various ERP
parameters (latency, amplitude, topography), researchers can investigate
bottom-up rule-based psycholinguistic processing online. Additionally,
the ERP approach also facilitates the investigation of top-down cognitive
processing that characteristically occurs later in the processing pipe.
We recommend utilizing the ERP approach in future studies on L2
learning in older adults for several reasons. First, ERP provides insightful
information about online language processing beyond recording behavioral
responses (accuracy, reaction times) in an experimental setting (see e.g.
Luck, 2014; Rastelli, 2014). Such behavioral measures alone tell us nothing
about whether any forms are statistically or grammatically generated
because they fit the traditional idea that development can be equated with
higher accuracy rates. Second, particular longitudinal changes in brain
plasticity and neural configurations of the language system are clearly
reflected by ERP modulations (Giroud et al., 2 01 7) . T h ir d, t he op ti on to ap pl y
microstate and source estimation approaches that help track the ERP signal
back to its neural origins provides an excellent opportunity to elucidate
the interplay between bottom-up and top-down processes (Giroud et al.,
2017; Meyer et al., 2006; Mulert et al., 2004). Finally, further established
and innovative analyses methods (analysis of changes in EEG frequency
bands, computation of temporal modulations of neural oscillations) offer
AU: Kutas
et al. 1997
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Kutas and
Dale 1997.
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little unclear.
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68 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
additional tools to observe how the brain functions change long term as a
function of learning a new language.
In conclusion, SLA and senescence should be investigated from an
interdisciplinary approach that takes changes of the aging brain and
individual learner differences into consideration; future studies also ought
to assess appropriate and individualized teaching methods, as well as
investigate the possibility of cognitive benefits of SLA in old adulthood.
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74 Part 1: Foreign Language Learning in the Third Age
Appendix A: Listening Translation Task
Instruction:
Im Folgenden werden Ihnen über die Kopfhörer kurze englische Sätze
präsentiert. Übersetzen Sie die Sätze auf Deutsch, und versuchen Sie dabei:
(1) alle Informationen des Originalsatzes beizubehalten
(2) so viele Wörter, wie Sie können, zu übersetzen.
Bitte schreiben Sie die übersetzten Sätze auf das Blatt, das Sie von der
Versuchsleiterin erhalten haben.
Sentences:
(1) Where are you from? Wo kommst du her?
(2) I can speak a little Italian, but not Spanish. Ich kann ein bisschen
Italienisch sprechen, aber nicht Spanisch.
(3) John always has tea in the morning. John nimmt/trinkt morgens/am
Morgen immer (einen) Tee.
(4) What do you do in the afternoon? Was machst du am Nachmittag?
(5) When I was ten, we moved to London. Als ich zehn war, zogen wir nach
London.
(6) Did you have a nice weekend? Hattest du ein schönes Wochenende?
(7) Oliver and Emma don’t have any children, only animals. Oliver und
Emma haben keine Kinder, nur Tiere.
(8) The apartment is near a tram stop. Die Wohnung ist in der Nähe einer
Tramhaltestelle.
(9) Yesterday, they spent a lot of money in a restaurant. Gestern haben sie
viel Geld in einem Restaurant ausgegeben.
(10) What time does the next train to Birmingham leave? Um welche Uhrzeit
fährt der nächste Zug nach Birmingham?
(11) Hi Jessica, do you have any plans for next week? Hallo Jessica, hast du
irgendwelche Pläne für nächste Woche?
(12) The greatest thing a company can have is a healthy and happy worker.
Das Beste, das eine Firma haben kann, ist ein gesunder und glücklicher
Arbeiter.
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Research on Second Language Acquisition in Old Adulthood 75
Appendix B: Exploratory Factor Analysis of
Cognitive Variables
Table B.1 Summary of explorator y factor analysis results for cognitive variables
(n=10)
Test Oblimin rotated factor loadings
Working memory Shifting Inhibition
Reading span 0.96 –0.22 0.16
VLMT (Sum Dg1-Dg5) 0.69 0.29 –0.56
Categorical shif ting (RT) –0.05 0.89 0.17
Figural shif ting (RT) –0.08 0.92 0.05
Stroop (RT) 0.11 0.4 0.93
Flanker (RT) –0.09 0.19 0.68
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