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Assessing climate change vulnerability and local adaptation strategies in adjacent communities of the Kribi-Campo coastal ecosystems, South Cameroon
Abstract
This study assesses vulnerability to climate change and local adaption strategies in the Kribi-Campo coastal area. Variables of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity are described and assessed based on the community's perception and biophysical evidence. Historical changes in rainfall and temperature variables, mangrove cover and occurrence of extreme climatic events are taken as indicators of exposure. Losses of property and income structure are used as indicators of sensitivity. Human, natural, social, financial and physical assets are used as elements of adaptive capacity. Focus group discussions were held with key informants in 12 settlements, and a survey was conducted with 150 household representatives (14 Bagyeli pygmies and 136 Bantou) to gather perceptions on climate change and adaptation strategies. Results show evidence of increased -vulnerability due to decreasing rainfall and irregular rainfall patterns, increasing occurrences of extreme climatic events and increased levels of coastal erosion. These have resulted in several effects, most significantly in the decline of agricultural production, reported by 57% of respondents, and damages to housing reported by 30% of respondents. Adaptive capacities are low. >. 60% of respondents do not use any adaptation strategy. All sectors considered, the identified responses to climate related phenomena include early harvesting of crop, farm abandonment, change of productive activity, change of farm location, house reinforcement. The study concludes that households living here are susceptible to the possible impacts of climate change. Income diversification, mangrove afforestation and climate education should be considered as priorities for adaptation in this area.
... Slum settlements as a physical built environment is a place for people whose income is lower than the minimum wage standard [2]. Regarding priorities, the most important order of discussion regarding the implementation of slum upgrading is on the housing and self-help settlements side first [9,10,17,18,19], and then on the improvement of settlements and low-cost housing [10,12,13,14,17,18,19]. The physical aspects of slum upgrading includes improving the quality of liveable housing and access of housing to various urban services. ...
... Slum settlements as a physical built environment is a place for people whose income is lower than the minimum wage standard [2]. Regarding priorities, the most important order of discussion regarding the implementation of slum upgrading is on the housing and self-help settlements side first [9,10,17,18,19], and then on the improvement of settlements and low-cost housing [10,12,13,14,17,18,19]. The physical aspects of slum upgrading includes improving the quality of liveable housing and access of housing to various urban services. ...
... The physical aspects of slum upgrading includes improving the quality of liveable housing and access of housing to various urban services. The upgrading is aiming at two scales: micro level on building quality upgrades [9,13,14,16,10,17] and meso level on urban reblocking or urban transformation process [17,2]. Regarding building upgrades, the indicators found improved materials, adding toilets, clean water, electricity access, health facility, and sanitation also waste facilities. ...
Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) no.11: make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable; the slum is the main target for this effort. All around the world, slums are becoming the only option for low-income communities to settle within city boundaries. This paper presents a literature review aimed to provide a more detailed understanding of knowledge related to the literature on two things, namely slum upgrading and climate change adaptation of Low-Income Communities (LIC), and also on its interrelations. The literature review uses a semi-systematic methodology, using the web of science search engines combined with google scholar. We use keywords such as slum upgrading, climate adaptation, and participatory. The search engine proposed 482 papers, 75 as data and 66 public access journal articles. Out of these numbers, we narrow down the perimeters of research scope to 71 linked to SDGs. However, only 11 are relevant to urbanized areas. This finding shows that not much literature regarding these interrelations is produced. This review explains assumed interrelationships that influence each other and exist between slum upgrading on urban riversides and forms of adaptation to climate change in urban areas. The definition of slum upgrading is an integrated and comprehensive intervention aimed to improve the physical characteristics of the environment and its inhabitants quality of life, divided into in-situ and ex-situ efforts. Climate adaptation is a process rather than a program or pattern of action by the LIC in dealing with climate change impacts comprehensively and substantially within the context of social and environmental. Their interrelations of the two themes are the physical and non-physical efforts, but also on the participatory levels. Participation determines the level of climate resiliency for the LIC. Based on the descriptions of theories related to the theme of this research, there are propositions for the field study as follows. (1) slum upgrading with adaptation sensitivity to climate change will ultimately increase the resilience of low-income communities to be more prepared to face climate change. (2) The specificity of land ownership status and cultural strength can enrich locality and social closeness. (3) The level of community participation in slum upgrading affects the climate resiliency level of the LIC.
... Farmers in poorer nations are especially vulnerable to the negative consequences of climate variability and change due to their low or nonexistent resilience, poor governance, and weak institutions (Marini, 2018;Meybeck et al., 2018;Odame Appiah et al., 2018;Partey et al., 2020). High temperatures, irregular and limited rainfall, a lack of information, prolonged droughts, the absence of weather/climate forecasting systems, limited drought forecasting, and a lack of contingency and preparedness plans, for example, have been shown in studies in Sub-Saharan Africa to contribute to smallholder farmers' vulnerability to the effects of climate variability and change Fongnzossie et al., 2018;Funwi et al., 2020;Rurinda et al., 2014;Serdeczny et al., 2017). However, climate change and variability, in particular, have a significant influence on farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa, making them very vulnerable (Rurinda et al., 2014;. ...
... Family farmers in Cameroon are already experiencing the negative effects of climate change and variety (Chimi et al., 2022;Fongnzossie et al., 2018). The northern part of the Centre Region of Cameroon is susceptible to and vulnerable to climate change due to its predominantly rural and agricultural population (Chimi et al., 2022). ...
... It should be noted that the linked formula was utilized to calculate the index of smallholder susceptibility to climate change and fluctuation. This resulted in the use of (Fongnzossie et al., 2018)'s classification. Susceptibility was classified into two categories: "high" and "medium." ...
... Meanwhile, the first specific hypothesis of the study which states that -recurrent extreme weather events are the main driver of smallholder farmers' vulnerability to climate variability and change in Mezam division, North-West Region of Cameroon‖ was inspired by the research works of Rurinda et al. (2014), Innocent et al. (2016), Fongnzossie et al. (2018) and . All these research works have in one way or the other proofed that reccurrent extreme weather events play some part in smallholder farmers' vulnerability to 7 climate variability and change. ...
... To start with, social capital consists of farm organizations (the number of farmers in organized agriculture). It is hypothesized that social capital positively influences adaptive capacity (resilience) to climate variability and change (IPCC, 2001;Awazi, 2016;Fongnzossie et al., 2018;Quandt, 2018;Quandt, 2019;. This is because smallholder farmers who belong to farm organizations are more aware of environmental changes and new agricultural technologies owing to information sharing during meetings which helps to beef-up resilience. ...
... Last but not the least; physical capital embodies infrastructure and access to markets. It is hypothesized that good infrastructural facilities help to beef-up famers' adaptive capacity to climate variability and change (Deressa et al., 2009;Fongnzossie et al., 2018;Awazi and Tchamba, 2018;Quandt, 2018;. This is because, improved infrastructure reduce transactions costs, and strengthen the links between labour and product markets. ...
Climate variability and change is today one of the greatest existential threats facing humanity. The ravaging effects of this scourge spell doom for stakeholders involved in climate dependent sectors like agriculture. Promoting climate-smart practices that reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience becomes incumbent. It is within this framework that this study sought to assess the contributions of agroforestry practices towards the attenuation of vulnerability and the enhancement of resilience of smallholder farming systems in Cameroon in general and Mezam division, north western Cameroon in particular faced with climate variability and change. Both secondary and primary data were collected for the study. Secondary data collected included mainly climate data (temperature and rainfall). Primary data on its part was collected through household surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and inventories on smallholder farmers’ agroforestry and non-agroforestry plots. Data collected was analyzed on SPSS 20, Excel 2007 and STATA 13 making use of descriptive and inferential statistics. From the results obtained, both smallholder farmers’ perceptions and analyzed climate data revealed an increase in temperature and a marked reduction in the total quantity of rainfall in recent decades. It was also found that smallholder farmers perceived recurrent extreme weather events (99%) and poverty (96%) as the main drivers of vulnerability to climate variability and change. Household size, age of household head, household income, access to information, and access to land had a significant negative causal relationship (p<0.05) with smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability and change demonstrating that these variables have a high propensity to reduce smallholder farmers’ vulnerability. The main agroforestry practices of smallholder farmers were home gardens with livestock (53%), trees on croplands (48%), and home gardens (44%); with agroforestry practices categorized under the agrosilvicultural agroforestry system (with 7 practices) being the most dominant. The findings equally revealed that five agroforestry practices (home garden with livestock, trees on croplands, trees on grazing lands, coffee-based agroforestry and Taungya) had a strong negative causal relationship (p<0.05) with smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability and change, which shows that these agroforestry practices play a major role towards reducing smallholder farmers’ vulnerability. It was also found that four agroforestry practices (home garden with livestock, home gardens, trees on grazing lands and coffee-based agroforestry) had a significant positive causal relationship (p<0.05) with smallholder farmers’ resilience to climate variability and change, which proves that these agroforestry practices play a major role towards enhancing smallholder farmers’ resilience. Thus, agroforestry practices play a significant role towards reducing vulnerability and enhancing resilience of smallholder farmers faced with climate variability and change. Based on the findings of this study, it is highly recommended that agroforestry practices and systems be integrated into the mainstream as a best practice owing to its ability to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience to climate variability and change especially for smallholder farmers.
... Tingem et al. (2008) studied the impact of climate change on crop production, whilst Brown and Sonwa (2015) investigated rural local institutions and climate change adaptation in Cameroon's forest communities. These studies did not tackle the issue of climate change vulnerability, with the exception of Fongnzossie et al. (2018). Their study assessed vulnerability of coastal dwellers to climate risks in the Campo-Kribi area of Cameroon. ...
... The vulnerability of each community was categorised using five ranking classes, as used by Fongnzossie et al. (2018), as follows: ...
... The greater number of wild plant species available for food reduces the vulnerability of farmers. This result is supported by the findings of Fongnzossie et al. (2018) who observed that farmers resort to the collection of non-timber forest products as strategies to adapt to the impacts of climate change. Since there are limited forestlands Forbi Preasious Funwi et al. in the Bokito area, there appears to be greater pressure facing these resources from local populations. ...
Climate change is a global phenomenon that indiscriminately affects all sectors of the economy and social life-support systems. New trends in climate change will leave high impacts on rural populations, whose livelihoods depend on agriculture and natural resources, leaving them increasingly vulnerable. Agrobiodiversity management is a promising method of facilitating adaptation to climatic changes. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the vulnerability of farmers and assess agrobiodiversity in Southern Cameroon in the context of adaptation. Focus groups and surveys were conducted in 31 villages in Ayos and Bokito in Southern Cameroon. The vulnerability index was computed for selected indicators of different components of vulnerability (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity). Data analysis revealed that in the two communities, the majority of villages were moderately vulnerable to climate change. However, Bokito community appeared to be more vulnerable than Ayos community. Farmers adopted several climate adaptation strategies such as crop replacement, replanting, planting of trees, cultivation of crops in swampy areas, and the expansion of cocoa cultivation in savannahs. Rich agrobiodiversity was identified in both sites; however, Ayos was richer than Bokito for wild plants, wildlife, and fisheries resources. The Bokito community also had a higher dependence on agriculture. Sustainably managing the rich agrobiodiversity of the landscape can provide a critical method to build the resilience of farmers.
... A number of techniques have been used to study vulnerability considering two major areas: first, the biophysical parameters (Gornitz, 1990;Vittal Hegde and Reju, 2007;Rao et al., 2008) and second, the socio-economic parameters (Mahapatra et al., 2015;Ahsan and Warner, 2014;Duriyapong, and Nakhapakorn, 2011;Vincent and Cull, 2010;Huynh and Stringer, 2018). Also, there are studies which have combined both biophysical and socio-economic factors in their studies (Hahn et al., 2009;Shah et al., 2013;Piya et al., 2016;Debortoli et al., 2017;Panthi et al., 2016;Pandey et al., 2017;Maiti et al., 2017;Huong et al., 2018;Evariste et al., 2018).The major intention of these assessment is to generate information on the impacts of climate change events that have a significant value to the community groups, policy makers and the other stakeholders for informed decision making. ...
... In this context, a holistic approach which is often used is the Sustainable livelihood framework. This approach has been used in this study in order to assess household capacity to cope/adapt by analysing the status of five "capital assets" or essential resources -financial, human, social, physical and natural (DFID, 1999;Chambers & Conway, 1992;Pandey et al., 2017;Maiti et al., 2017;Evariste et al., 2018;Ahsan and Warner, 2014). This framework has been also applied in multi-dimensional understanding of livelihood vulnerability (O'Brien et al., 2009;Pandey et al., 2017;Maiti et al., 2017;Ahsan and Warner, 2014;Evariste et al., 2018). ...
... This approach has been used in this study in order to assess household capacity to cope/adapt by analysing the status of five "capital assets" or essential resources -financial, human, social, physical and natural (DFID, 1999;Chambers & Conway, 1992;Pandey et al., 2017;Maiti et al., 2017;Evariste et al., 2018;Ahsan and Warner, 2014). This framework has been also applied in multi-dimensional understanding of livelihood vulnerability (O'Brien et al., 2009;Pandey et al., 2017;Maiti et al., 2017;Ahsan and Warner, 2014;Evariste et al., 2018). ...
This research was conducted to assess the concentration of six heavy metals i.e., chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in different foods associated with health hazard inference in Bangladesh. The range of Cr, Ni, Cu, As, Cd, and Pb in food samples were 0.45-47.7, 0.22-38.6, 0.43-47.4, 0.72-6.05, 0.001-6.70 and 0.21-35.9 mg/kg, respectively. The estimated daily intake (EDI) values of all the metals except Cu were higher than the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI). The target hazard quotients (THQs) of all metals were higher than 1 through consumption of cereal and vegetables, indicating significant health risks to both adult and children. The total carcinogenic risk (CR) of As (9.84E-01) was higher the threshold level (1.0E-06) and 9.84E-01 for Pb clearly revealed that consumption of these food items definitely poses cancer risks to the Bangladeshi population.
... A number of techniques have been used to study vulnerability considering two major areas: first, the biophysical parameters [25,55,66] and second, the socio-economic parameters [21,30,3,38,65]. Also, there are studies which have combined both biophysical and socio-economic factors in their studies [17,22,27,29,39,48,50,54,60]. The major intention of these assessment is to generate information on the impacts of climate change events that have a significant value to the community groups, policy makers and the other stakeholders for informed decision making. ...
... In this context, a holistic approach which is often used is the Sustainable livelihood framework. This approach has been used in this study in order to assess household capacity to cope/adapt by analysing the status of five "capital assets" or essential resources -financial, human, social, physical and natural [13,18,22,3,39,48]. This framework has been also applied in multi-dimensional understanding of livelihood vulnerability [22,3,39,47,48]. ...
... This approach has been used in this study in order to assess household capacity to cope/adapt by analysing the status of five "capital assets" or essential resources -financial, human, social, physical and natural [13,18,22,3,39,48]. This framework has been also applied in multi-dimensional understanding of livelihood vulnerability [22,3,39,47,48]. ...
The study assesses household livelihood vulnerability and adaptive capacity in a flood prone area of the eastern Indian state of West Bengal. The analysis is based on the primary data collected from two administrative blocks of Murshidabad district of the state where frequent occurrences of floods cause damages to both human lives and property. In order to develop a comprehensive livelihood framework to measure the degree of livelihood vulnerability of the flood affected households, the study uses both vulnerability framework proposed by the IPCC and Sustainable Livelihood Framework developed by the DFID. A composite Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVIs) is estimated by combining the household level data, and a comparative analysis is carried out between two administrative blocks and overall district level scenario. The results suggest that Jiaganj block is more vulnerable than Berhampore block; the overall adaptive capacity of the households was less than the exposure and sensitivity to flood events. Vulnerability elements such as exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity are found to be significantly influenced by age of the household head, household income, land holding size and family size. Some of the key household coping and adaptation strategies to floods identified in the study area include borrowing money from friends/relatives, money lender, selling assets and livestock, diversification of livelihoods, migration, elevation of the height of houses, preserving food and fuel stocks.
... 80,93 Furthermore, poor mangrove cover and the lowland elevation are the main factors explaining high exposure to sea level rise and coastal erosion for communities of the Kribi-Campo coastal ecosystems, South Cameroon. 107 By their nature, compound climate events are associated with intensity or magnitude of climate hazards regardless of their temporal or spatial characteristics. 108,109 One example which demonstrates the effect of the intensity of impact from the level of exposure is shown in the increased average day and night temperature of the heat wave that affected multiethnic and low-income urban communities in Western Sydney, Australia. ...
... 153,154 Examples from this review highlight that human responses depend on healthy and functioning ecosystems. 86,97,107,127 Deeper understanding of how such interactions affect climate risk and adaptation therefore merits further research. ...
This article provides a stocktake of the adaptation literature between 2013 and 2019 to better understand how adaptation responses affect risk under the particularly challenging conditions of compound climate events. Across 39 countries, 45 response types to compound hazards display anticipatory (9%), reactive (33%) and maladaptive (41%) characteristics, as well as hard (18%) and soft (68%) limits to adaptation. Low income, food insecurity, access to institutional resources and finance are the most prominent of 23 vulnerabilities observed to negatively affect responses. Risk for food security, health, livelihoods and economic outputs are commonly associated risks driving responses. Narrow geographical and sectoral foci of the literature highlight important conceptual, sectoral and geographic areas for future research to better understand the way responses shape risk. When responses are integrated within climate risk assessment and management there is greater potential to advance the urgency of response and safeguards for the most vulnerable.
... In Cameroon, climate change is already causing problems in the agricultural sector which is the backbone of the economy (Fongnzossie et al., 2018). The adverse impacts of climate change are already being felt in Cameroon, including recurrent floods, prolonged dryness, pest and disease attacks, bushfires, water scarcity, and many others (Tume & Kimengsi, 2021). ...
... Variations and changes in climate and impact on farmers Variations and changes in climate have been reported by different studies carried out across sub-Saharan Africa (Awazi & Tchamba, 2019;Balehegn et al., 2019;Gordon, 2009;Nelson & Stathers, 2009;Tabi et al., 2012) and Cameroon (Fongnzossie et al., 2018;Molua, 2008;Molua & Lambi, 2002;Tume & Kimengsi, 2021). These studies have shown that climate change seriously threatens agriculture in general and the survival of smallholder farming systems in particular. ...
Growing scientific and policy interests in sub-Saharan Africa suggest the need to strengthen the resilience of livelihood systems, especially in one of the key sectors–agriculture. However, there is still a growing debate on the extent to which livelihood systems shape climate resilience – accounting for policy and practice fragmentation, and for less optimal agricultural outcomes. Using the Household Livelihood Resilience Approach (HLRA), we shed light on this issue, taking the case of the Western Highlands of Cameroon. Specifically, we collected 350 household surveys in order to: (i) assess the levels of resilience of farmers to climate change; and (ii) examine the extent to which farmers’ endogenous livelihood assets (natural, physical, human, social, financial) affect livelihood resilience. Findings showed that, farmers’ levels of resilience varied with respect to different livelihood assets, with farmers currently relying on natural, financial, and social assets. Based on the parameter estimates of the multiple linear regression model, it was found that, the most important endogenous assets affecting farmers’ livelihood resilience to climate change were ownership of farm equipment and use of local irrigation systems (physical capital), as well as indigenous knowledge (human capital). Policy focus should be directed towards these endogenous human and physical assets as well as strengthening financial, natural, and social assets in order to improve the resilience of farmers in the Western Highlands of Cameroon.
... It is also undeniable that many lowincome sectors lived in coastal communities where fishing is the main source of livelihood and survival and other related activities. There is ample evidence supporting the vulnerability of coastal communities since income diversification is low (Evariste et al., 2018) and their adaptation options are only to rely on family and friends for support (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2021). Because of this, people's livelihood activities, health, and food security are at stake when calamities and disasters are due to climate change impacts. ...
... Like other vulnerable coastal communities, one of the adaptation strategies is to rehabilitate mangrove areas (Evariste et al., 2018). Currently, there is no MPA in the area but due to a decrease in fish catch, the prohibition of fishing in the marine protected area should be implemented. ...
Adaptation to climate change is seen as the immediate response of people anywhere in the world. However, there is still a problem in its implementation as no solution fits all problems. Coastal communities’ vulnerable situation is not exempted from climate change impacts, but the fact that it has numerous ecosystems provide basic life support. Thus, this paper is guided by the following objectives 1) determine ecosystems and socioeconomic sectors reliant and dependent on strategies and policies of coastal communities; and 2) examine the current adaptation strategies and activities. Focus group discussions among key officials and document analysis were carried on. After a rigorous examination, it was discovered that coastal communities are reliant on fishery and water resources ecosystem services. In this regard, adaptation options are geared toward the protection of these services to continually provide to local communities. Alternative livelihoods are also seen as a long-term response to climate change adaptation apart from policy and ordinances to protect and conserve the ecosystems. Keywords: Climate Change Adaptation, Ecosystem Services, Adaptation Strategies, Climate Environmental Protection Laws And Policies, Coastal Communities.
... Oбразовање je кључни друштвени и економски фактор у смањењу угрожености на ванредне ситуације (Evariste, Jean, Victor, & Claudia 2018). Верује се да формално образовање може промовисати смањење угрожености јер образовање побољшава индивидуалне когнитивне вештине, као и вештине учења и приступ самим информацијама. ...
... Oбразовање се у литератури о природним катастрофама третира као кључан друштвени и економски фактор у смањењу угрожености (Evariste, Jean, Victor, & Claudia 2018), при чему је факултетско или занатско образовање повезано са повећаном вероватноћом поседовања хитних потрепштина (Najafi, Ardalan, Akbarisari, Noorbala, & Jabbari 2015) и уопште предузимања превентивних мера и већим нивоом припремљености (Cvetković 2016). Са друге стране, преклапање нижих нивоа образовања са ниским примањима, незапосленошћу или боравком у изнајмљеном смештајудодатноусложњава штетан утицај поплава на њихову способност опоравка (Malgwi, Fuchs & Keiler 2020). ...
Polazeći od sve učestalijih prirodnih i antropogenih vanrednih situacija na području Srbije, cilj naučnog istraživanja predstavlja naučna deskripcija i eksplikacija uticaja demografskih, socio-ekonomskih i psiholoških faktora na percepciju građana o nivou ugrožavanja bezbednosti lokalnih zajednica u vanrednim situacijama izazvanim poplavama. Metodom slučajnog uzorkovanja, po principu snežne grudve, anketirano je 248 punoletnih građana na području grada Beograda. Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da ne postoji statistički značajna povezanost između pola, nivoa obrazovanja ispitanika i percepcije o različitim dimenzijama ugrožavanja bezbednosti. Nasuprot tome, utvrđeno je postojanje statistički značajne povezanosti percepcije ugrožavanja bezbednosti lokalnih zajednica sa starošću ispitanika. Sprovedeno istraživanje doprinosi unapređenju teorijskog i empirijskog fonda naučnog saznanja u oblasti upravljanja u vanrednim situacijama. Implikacije istraživanja su višestruke i one omogućavaju donosiocima odluka da osmisle, razviju i implementiraju strategije i kampanje usmerene na unapređenje bezbednosti lokalnih zajednica od posledica prirodnih vanrednih situacija.
... In Cameroon, smallholder farmers are already experiencing the adverse effects of climate variations and changes [17] . The Western Highlands of Cameroon with its predominantly rural and agricultural population is therefore highly sensitive and vulnerable to climatic variations and changes [4 , 7 , 6 , 44] . ...
... With respect to smallholder farmers' perception of their degree of vulnerability faced with the adversities of climatic variations and changes, a majority of them perceived that they were highly vulnerable. Although studies carried out in Cameroon by Kimengsi and Botanga [26] , Fongnzossie et al. [17] , Awazi and Tchamba [4] , Awazi [3] , as well as across sub-Saharan Africa by Kasulo et al. [25] , Belaineh et al. [10] , Tessema et al. [42] , Burney et al. [11] , Kuwornu et al. [28] , Rurinda [35] , Rurinda et al. [36] , Temesgen et al. [41] , Feleke [16] , have indicated that smallholder farmers are vulnerable to climate change adversities, limited research has been done assessing the degree of vulnerability of smallholder farmers to adverse climatic variations and changes. The findings of this study have filled this knowledge gap. ...
Agriculture is highly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climatic variations and changes (CVC). Smallholder farmers in particular bear the brunt of adverse climate variations and changes. It was within this background that this paper assessed climatic variations and changes, and the drivers of smallholder farmers' vulnerability to adverse climatic changes in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. Secondary data (temperature and rainfall data) and primary data (obtained through a household survey of 350 smallholder farmers) were used for the study. Data analysis was done using descriptive and inferential statistical tools. It was found that, smallholder farmers perceived relatively high temperatures, intense sunshine, and erratic and scanty rainfall. Rising temperature, intense sunshine and scanty rainfall recurred annually. Recurrent extreme weather events and poverty were perceived as the major causes of vulnerability to climatic variations and changes. Most smallholder farmers (57.43%) rated their degree of vulnerability to CVC as "highly vulnerable". A strong non-cause-effect relationship existed between vulnerability to CVC and hypothesized socioeconomic , institutional and environmental explanatory variables (p<0.01). A statistically significant inverse causal relationship existed between smallholder farmers' vulnerability to CVC and five explanatory variables: household size (β =-1.815, p<0.01), age of household head (β =-0.695, p<0.05), household income (β =-6.321, p<0.01), access to information (β =-5.387, p<0.05), and access to land (β =-4.239, p<0.05). It can therefore be concluded that, these five explanatory variables are the main determinants of smallholder farmers' vulnerability to climatic variations and changes. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that good land tenure practices be implemented, more financial support, and adequate and reliable information be provided to smallholder farmers in order to reduce their vulnerability to CVC.
... To start with, social capital constitutes membership in farm organizations. It is hypothesized that social capital influences resilience to climate variability and change (IPCC, 2001;Fongnzossie et al., 2018;. This is because farmers who belong to farm organizations are more aware of environmental changes and new agricultural technologies owing to information sharing during meetings which goes to influence their capacity to take to different resiliency choices faced with climate variability and change. ...
... Last but not the least, physical capital embodies infrastructure and access to markets. It is hypothesized that good infrastructural facilities help to enhance famers' resilience to climate variability and change (Deresa et al., 2009;Fongnzossie et al., 2018;Awazi and Tchamba, 2018;. This is because, improved infrastructure reduce transactions costs, and strengthen the links between labour and product markets. ...
Climate variability and change has continued to wreak havoc on the agricultural sector, with small-scale farmers being the most hard-hit. The limited adaptive capacity of small-scale farmers faced with the impacts of climate variability and change principally explains their high level of vulnerability. It is within this framework that this study sought to examine the specific resiliency choices of small-scale farmers faced with climate variability and change in Cameroon, and the plausible policy implications. Data was collected through a survey of 300 small-scale farmer household heads as well as climate data collected from meteorological stations. Data analysis was run on Microsoft Excel 2007 and SPSS 20, employing descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings showed significant fluctuations in climate parameters in recent years. The main resiliency choices of small-scale farmers faced with climate variability and change were on-farm practices (23%), off-farm practices (19%), and agroforestry practices (28%); with 30% of the sampled farmers taking to the no resiliency option. A statistically significant (p < 0.01; p < 0.05; and p < 0.10) causal and non-causal relationship was found to exist between
independent variables (household size, age of household head, number of farms, farm size, household income, farm experience, gender, experience of extreme weather events, access to weather information, access to extension services, access to credit, distance to market, access to land, and membership in farming group) and
small-scale farmers' practice of different resiliency options faced with climate variability and change. This shows that small-scale farmers' practice of different resiliency options faced with climate variability and change is determined by past experience of extreme weather/climate events as well as socio-economic and institutional
factors. On the basis of these findings, it is recommended that policy makers factor in these determinants when taking actions geared towards enhancing small-scale farmers’ resilience to climate variability and change.
Keywords:
Resiliency options
Climate variability and change
Small-scale farmers
Determinants
Policy
Cameroon
... To start with, social capital constitutes membership in farm organizations. It is hypothesized that social capital influences resilience to climate variability and change (IPCC, 2001;Fongnzossie et al., 2018;. This is because farmers who belong to farm organizations are more aware of environmental changes and new agricultural technologies owing to information sharing during meetings which goes to influence their capacity to take to different resiliency choices faced with climate variability and change. ...
... Last but not the least, physical capital embodies infrastructure and access to markets. It is hypothesized that good infrastructural facilities help to enhance famers' resilience to climate variability and change (Deresa et al., 2009;Fongnzossie et al., 2018;Awazi and Tchamba, 2018;. This is because, improved infrastructure reduce transactions costs, and strengthen the links between labour and product markets. ...
Climate variability and change has continued to wreak havoc on the agricultural sector, with small-scale farmers being the most hard-hit. The limited adaptive capacity of small-scale farmers faced with the impacts of climate variability and change principally explains their high level of vulnerability. It is within this framework that this study sought to examine the specific resiliency choices of small-scale farmers faced with climate variability and change in Cameroon, and the plausible policy implications. Data was collected through a survey of 300 small-scale farmer household heads as well as climate data collected from meteorological stations. Data analysis was run on Microsoft Excel 2007 and SPSS 20, employing descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings showed significant fluctuations in climate parameters in recent years. The main resiliency choices of small-scale farmers faced with climate variability and change were on-farm practices (23%), off-farm practices (19%), and agroforestry practices (28%); with 30% of the sampled farmers taking to the no resiliency option. A statistically significant (p < 0.01; p < 0.05; and p < 0.10) causal and non-causal relationship was found to exist between independent variables (household size, age of household head, number of farms, farm size, household income, farm experience, gender, experience of extreme weather events, access to weather information, access to extension services, access to credit, distance to market, access to land, and membership in farming group) and
small-scale farmers' practice of different resiliency options faced with climate variability and change. This shows that small-scale farmers' practice of different resiliency options faced with climate variability and change is determined by past experience of extreme weather/climate events as well as socio-economic and institutional
factors. On the basis of these findings, it is recommended that policy makers factor in these determinants when taking actions geared towards enhancing small-scale farmers’ resilience to climate variability and change.
Keywords:
Resiliency options
Climate variability and change
Small-scale farmers
Determinants
Policy
Cameroon
... L'Organisation des Nations unies pour l'Habitat (Onu-habitat, 2007) a dressé un profil de la ville Kribi ressortant cet aspect grouillant du paysage où règne une certaine cacophonie dans l'usage et l'organisation de l'espace. C'est ainsi que sur la forêt de la bande Kribi-Campo, une forte pression anthropique locale y est relevée, notamment par les communautés de pêcheurs (Fongnzossié et al., 2013). Il s'en suit alors une dégradation et une déforestation par endroits, laquelle rime avec l'érosion côtière (Mouliom, 2012). ...
... Impacts actuels des causes sous-jacentes de la dégradation du paysage sur le littoral kribien. (Fongnzossié et al., 2013). ...
Landscape problematic concern many of disciplines : sociology, anthropology and geography, etc. It inspired writers who analyzed it following the disciplinary colorations. In geography, the landscape is convened to describe and understand spatial dynamics ; in this case, the coastal zones which, because of their situation, are at the center of multiple stakes and subject to important modifications. It shows a considerable fragilization of which the main actors are agro-industrial and urbanization. This is the case in Kribi. In the aftermath of independence, several agro-industrial plantations were created. This is the case of the Cameroonian Society of Palmeraie (Socapalm) in 1968, Hevea of Cameroon (Hevecam) in 1975. A strong and rapid population growth is in progress, closely related to major large industrial projects undertaken recently in this region (Deep water port of Kribi, the gas station, Pipeline Chad-Cameroon...). These developments bring about remarkable transformations of the landscape and the physiognomy of the original environment. The shoreline now alternates between natural ecosystems, agricultural development and other equipment. This work analyzes the dynamics of the Kribian littoral landscape in the light of the various developments underway. The methodology articulates three points : the processing of satellite images (Landsat 1984, 2000 and 2016), the analysis of sociological data, and mobility and their consequences on the Kribian coastline. Socio-economic surveys complement people's perception of their landscape as mutations. It appears that between 1984 and 2016, the Kribian littoral landscape experienced a strong dynamic that must be curbed. Faced with this situation, the State has set up a legal and institutional mechanism favorable to the protection of coastal areas with fragile ecology.
... Climate change now-a-days is recognized as one of the most challenging and complex problem facing the agricultural development globally [1]. However, the vulnerability of climate change on this sector in Africa is more than any other socioeconomic activities [1][2][3][4]. The production of crop yield in Africa will decrease up 50% due to climate change [1]. ...
... Climate change indicators are mentioned in many literatures even though there are spatial temporal variability of the study [3,4,7,9,11,[17][18][19] Erratic rainfall, drought, flood and change in temperature are the common climate change indicators in many studies. ...
... Climate change now-a-days is recognized as one of the most challenging and complex problem facing the agricultural development globally [1]. However, the vulnerability of climate change on this sector in Africa is more than any other socioeconomic activities [1][2][3][4]. The production of crop yield in Africa will decrease up 50% due to climate change [1]. ...
... Climate change indicators are mentioned in many literatures even though there are spatial temporal variability of the study [3,4,7,9,11,[17][18][19] Erratic rainfall, drought, flood and change in temperature are the common climate change indicators in many studies. ...
Abstract
This study presents analysis of farmer’s perceptions and adaptation strategies to climate change, its determinants
and impacts in Qwara district. The study aims to assess the causes, indicators and determinants of climate change based
on smallholder farmers’ perception. Systematic random sampling method was used to select 100 sample households.
Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were distributed for these sample households for interview. The analysis
of data was done by using a descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis. This study revealed that 90% of the
respondents perceived that there is a change in climate parameters overtime. Temperature and rainfall variation are the
dominant climatic variables in the study area. The most commonly climate change indicators observed by smallholder
farmers were high temperature (90%), high rainfall (87%), and high wind (65%). 92% of the respondents perceived
that, the agricultural production dramatically decreased due to excess rainfall at harvesting time and less rainfall at
its growing time. The results of this study also showed that the significant deterministic factors for implementing the
adaptation strategies are lack of information, poverty, low level of technology, shortage of input labor, poor soils, lack
of adequate water and shortage of land for cultivation. Therefore, this study suggested that introducing and integrating
the various adaptation techniques considering the determinants can enable smallholder farmers to design best climate
change adaptation strategies.
... It is also undeniable that many lowincome sectors lived in coastal communities where fishing is the main source of livelihood and survival and other related activities. There is ample evidence supporting the vulnerability of coastal communities since income diversification is low (Evariste et al., 2018) and their adaptation options are only to rely on family and friends for support (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2021). Because of this, people's livelihood activities, health, and food security are at stake when calamities and disasters are due to climate change impacts. ...
... Like other vulnerable coastal communities, one of the adaptation strategies is to rehabilitate mangrove areas (Evariste et al., 2018). Currently, there is no MPA in the area but due to a decrease in fish catch, the prohibition of fishing in the marine protected area should be implemented. ...
Vulnerability assessment usually focused on ecosystem services however, climate change does not only affect ecosystems but also human beings who greatly rely on the ecosystems services. This paper tries to discuss the different ecosystem services and socioeconomic sectors that are reliant on the strategies and policies of the organization (barangay) which is also affected by different climatic variability overtime.
A survey was conducted in the coastal communities to know the vulnerability of households to climate changes and also to design adaptation measures.
It shows that from all of the coastal communities are highly vulnerable. Adaptation options to these vulnerable communities should also be focused on alternative livelihood especially to the people who rely most on fishing. Other livelihood activities should also be encourage so that people who are into quarrying may shift to another livelihood activity.
In planning for local climate change plan, four areas of sustainable development should be look into such as social, economic, environmental and governance which is already embedded in the computation of vulnerability index using vulnerability index management system.
However, further studies on household vulnerability should be conducted to locate those people who are really affected by climate change.
... In Cameroon, climate variability and change are already causing problems in the rural communities where most people depend on nature for survival (Kongnso et al. 2020;Molua 2006;Fongnzossie et al. 2018). The impacts of climate variability and change are already being felt across the entire country-recurrent floods, prolonged dryness, pest and disease attacks, bushfires, food insecurity, water scarcity, conflicts, and many others (Molua and Lambi 2006;Molua 2008)-which necessitates the uptake of indigenous and modern mature-based adaptation measures (Bate et al. 2019). ...
Climate change is a major threat to the survival and livelihood of rural communities. Most of these rural communities which predominate in the developing world are involved in climate-dependent sectors like agriculture and livestock rearing. In Cameroon, most of the population involved in agriculture and livestock rearing activities live in rural areas. Their livelihoods are increasingly being threatened by climate change, and their survival would depend on their ability to withstand the stresses and shocks induced by climate change which is only possible through proper adaptation measures. This paper which is based on an in-depth review of 43 empirical research works conducted in the Bamenda highlands of Cameroon sought to assess the impacts, vulnerability, resilience, and nature-based adaptation to climate variability and change in rural communities in the Bamenda highlands of Cameroon. From the findings uncovered, the main impacts of climate variability and change on rural communities in the Bamenda highlands of Cameroon are falling crop yields, water scarcity, floods, wildfires, pests and diseases, food insecurity, and recurrent conflicts, especially inter-village and farmer-herder conflicts. Rural communities in the Bamenda highlands of Cameroon are highly vulnerable to climate change owing to their high level of exposure to extreme weather events; their high level of sensitivity owing to the presence of many smallholder farmers, high rural population density, and limited practice of climate-smart practices like agroforestry; and their limited adaptive capacity owing to limited human, financial, social, physical, and natural capital. The resilience level of rural communities in the Bamenda highlands is low owing to recurrent stresses and shocks triggered by climate change and the limited adaptive capacity of rural dwellers. Rural communities are increasingly resorting to different nature-based adaptation measures including the practice of agroforestry, conservation agriculture, apiculture, tree planting, community forestry, and community-based watershed management, to improve their adaptive capacity in the face of climate change. Rural communities’ interest in adopting nature-based climate adaptation measures is hampered by economic, social, environmental, and institutional barriers. The study recommends that governmental and nongovernmental stakeholders take adequate measures to mitigate the barriers hampering the adoption of nature-based adaptation measures by rural communities in the Bamenda highlands of Cameroon as this will go a long way to improve the living conditions of rural masses.
... The South-West coastal location of Bangladesh is one of the maximum susceptible areas to the terrible effects of weather alternate [6]. The location has a drastically high populace density, greater livelihoods which are sensitive to the modifications in weather, and a exceedingly bad infrastructure for managing growing sea tiers, extended salinity intrusion, and more frequent extreme weather events [7]. ...
This paper seeks to address the methodological deficiency in assessing the adoption of climate change adaptation practices within fishing and farming communities in a coastal upazila of Khulna district, Bangladesh. The derivation of an adaptation index is elucidated, considering the weight of adaptation practices based on their effectiveness, feasibility, and sustainability, as well as the number of practices adopted by households in farming and fishing communities. From the data collected through the Focus Group Discussion, household questionnaire survey, and workshop, the average household adaptation index value was established. A total of 123 household surveys were conducted within the fishing community, alongside 125 household surveys from the farming community. Additionally, 8 focus group discussions and 8 workshops took place in Dacope upazila. Sutarkhali shows the highest adaptation index among fishing communities, while Bajua leads among farming communities. Multiple regression analysis indicated that there are 5 variables that significantly impact the adoption of climate change adaptation practices among farming communities, while 6 variables were identified for fishing communities. A sustainable climate change adaptation plan was proposed emphasizing simple access to loans, climate change training, government and non-government aid, livelihood diversification, and four implementation techniques.
... Changing of food regimes, and belonging to local institutions also constitute salient adaptation measures among farmers in forest zones (Brown and Sonwa, 2015;Sonwa et al. 2012). In the Coastal areas, Evariste et al. (2018) show that the adaption strategies are more reactive than protective and include early harvesting, change of crops, and resowing. However, they also show that most of the adaptation strategies were ineffective and most farmers do not employ any adaption strategies at all. ...
Climate change has been shown to affect different aspects of society, with agriculture and the food system taking the highest hit. Several initiatives have been put in place to dampen such effects. Climate education could play an important role in the fight against climate change. Climate education ensures that farmers understand the anthropogenic causes of climate change and the principles underlying adaptation measures, hence informing adoption of sound adaptation measures. Although such theoretical underpinnings are clear, empirical evidence is lacking. We employ a multivariate probit model to empirically investigate the role of climate education in adoption of climate adaptation practices using data from Cameroon, whose humid tropical agroecology and forests are crucial to climate change mitigation in the Congo basin. Employing a linear model, we similarly evaluate the role of climate education on farm incomes as well as the role of perception of climate change. Our results show that climate education influences adoption of adaptation measures, especially simple and cost-effective measures. However, climate education does not affect farm income, neither does farmers’ perception of climate change. These results suggest that indigenous farmers may be more willing to choose a simple low-cost adaptation measure. The generated results are crucial for influencing climate change policy related to awareness building, education, and training for optimal adaptation efforts.
... Due to the overdependence of economies on climate-sensitive sectors, Sub-Saharan Africa is chiefly vulnerable to climate change (AGRA, 2018). The majority of developing countries, expressly those in Africa, rely mostly on rain-fed agriculture for their food, making them particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change (Evariste et al., 2018;Serdeczny et al., 2017). ...
Climate change has a greater influence on agricultural production due to the effects of floods, droughts, and crop pests. The objective of the study was to explore farmers’ perceptions of climate change, adaptation strategies, constraints to adaptation strategies, and identify factors affecting the choice of climate change that affect adaptation strategies for agricultural production. Data was collected from 303 households selected using a multistage sampling technique to collect data using structured questionnaires. Descriptive statistics, Mann–Kendall statistical test, the weighted average index, and a multivariate probit model were used. The result shows that farmers used multiple adaptation strategies, mostly improved varieties, improved livestock, and mixed farming. Farmers’ choices of adaptation strategies were affected by education, household size, cooperative membership, extension services, climate information, perception of climate change, and farm income. Thus, efforts to create awareness about climate change through mass media, extension services, and enabling cooperative unions are essential.
... Changes in precipitation and temperature, mangrove cover, and the occurrence of extreme weather events are used as indicators of exposure. Losses in property and income structures are used as sensitivity indicators, and human, natural, social, financial and physical assets are used as components of adaptive capacity (Evariste et al. 2018). Alberto et al. (2016) used remote sensing to measure geophysical changes in the coastline and rivers of Zambales Province, Philippines. ...
The Philippines is one of the countries most affected by climate change. As an archipelago country, coastal areas are at high risk of sea level rise due to climate change. This study investigated the vulnerability of coastal areas to sea level rise in selected municipalities in Zambales province, Philippines. The results showed that the coastal barangay of Iba City has a “moderate” to “high” level of vulnerability, while Botolan City has a “high” to “very high” level of vulnerability. Limited areas of nature reserves, such as mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef ecosystems, are one of the key factors contributing to high vulnerability. Concerted efforts of the local government units and the residents play a vital role to mitigate impacts of climate change including regular mangrove tree planting, coastal clean-up drive, and strict implementation of environmental policies. While there are many tools used in vulnerability assessment, a simpler yet reliable is recommended as an appropriate for barangay levels. With the identified vulnerability of the communities in sea level rise, possible mitigation measures to cope with the fast-changing climate could now be established.
... Es necesaria la buena organización dentro de la asociación de pescadores, así como una buena comunicación entre comunidades pesqueras, para intercambiar información y experiencias sobre temas relacionados al cambio climático con la finalidad de buscar las mejores estrategias (Ruíz-Díaz et al., 2020;Sowman & Raemaekers, 2018). Además, en comunidades alejadas se debe implementar sistemas de comunicación para mantener informada a la comunidad y para que puedan prepararse ante un evento climático extremo (Evariste et al., 2018); así, resulta indispensable el uso de telefonía móvil para una atención rápida (Dunstan et al., 2018;Hanich et al., 2018). ...
El estudio de los indicadores de exposición, sensibilidad y capacidad adaptativa sobre la vulnerabilidad al cambio climático tiene como finalidad conseguir una mayor comprensión sobre los principales indicadores que repercuten en las comunidades y facilitar a las autoridades responsables implementar acciones de mitigación. El objetivo del estudio fue identificar los principales indicadores de vulnerabilidad al cambio climático en las comunidades pesqueras de la región Tacna. Se consideró una muestra de 255 pescadores artesanales, que se encontraban debidamente registrados en las asociaciones pesqueras ubicadas en el litoral de Tacna, organizados en ocho comunidades pesqueras: Santa Rosa, Los Palos, Yarada Baja, Llostay, Boca del Río, Vila Vila, Morro Sama e Ite. Se utilizó información de fuente primaria a través de la aplicación de un cuestionario conformado por 32 indicadores. Los hallazgos de la presente investigación señalan que el principal indicador es la dependencia de la pesca, por lo que al incrementar la no dependencia de la pesca se reduce el nivel de la vulnerabilidad al cambio climático de estas comunidades; asimismo, que las variables exposición y sensibilidad no influyen sobre la vulnerabilidad y que a mayor capacidad adaptativa disminuye la vulnerabilidad.
... The existing studies on climate change adaptation at the municipality scale are mainly focused on the assessment of vulnerabilities for the establishment of adaptation policies (Evariste et al., 2018;Prudent et al., 2016), awareness surveys (Cobbinah & Anane, 2016;Shameem et al., 2015), and policy prioritization (Lee et al., 2014;Ndamani & Watanabe, 2017). They are all about preliminary planning for policy formulation and studies on post-assessment of already-formulated adaptation policies are insufficient. ...
p>This study aims to analyze the gap between the level of heat wave adaptation policies and heat wave effects in South Korean municipalities. First, the types of industries in municipalities were classified using factor analysis and cluster analysis. Second, the level of heat wave adaptation policy in the municipalities was assessed using a fuzzy analytic hierarchy process analysis. Third, the gap between the level of heat wave adaptation policy and the heat wave effect was analyzed. The results show that the heat wave adaptation policies were established in accordance with the heat wave effects to at least some degree. However, closer to the long-term future (2095), the policies have not sufficiently matched the level of heat wave effects. The proportion of municipalities with insufficient levels of heat wave adaptation policies against the heat wave effects was higher among urban-type municipalities. The analysis results suggest two policy implications. First, the heat wave adaptation policies of municipalities should be established through continuous feedback on the predictions of future heat wave effects. Second, urban-type municipalities should strengthen their planning authority and competence by securing a professional workforce and budgets for the establishment of heat wave adaptation policies. </p
... This findings are in line with those reported by Awazi, Tchamba [10] in which they found that farmers in the Western Highlands of Cameroon perceived extreme weather events and poverty as the major causes of their vulnerability to climatic variations and changes. Other studies conducted in other regions of Cameroon also provided evidence of increased vulnerability due to decreasing and irregular rainfall [41][42][43][44][45]. Variability of rainfall could have several implications. ...
OPEN Abstract Climate change and variability contribute to exacerbating poverty and social unrest in poor countries. Therefore, it becomes important to assess vulnerability and adaptation measures to raise awareness and monitoring of climate change adaptation policy for better decision-making. This research examines how farmers perceive their vulnerability and how they respond to climate change in the semi-arid Far North Region of Cameroon. Using both quantitative and qualitative approaches, data on perceptions with regards to vulnerability and adaptation responses to climate change related hazards were collected based on expert opinions, individual farmers' interviews, and focus group discussion. The qualitative data were triangulated with direct observations in the field. The results reveal that farmers are mostly concerned about drought and decrease in rainfall. Thus, they have mainly implemented behavioral and locally-made options such as short-cycle varieties, terrace farming, half-moon, and bunds, among others, to overcome water shortages. Nevertheless, these measures were not solely driven by vulnerability; the socioeconomic context might play a role. Moreover, farmers perceive a limited capacity to adapt to climate change, which suggests that the government and policy-makers should focus, not only on implementing planned adaptation strategies, but also on the improvement and promotion of farmers' autonomous adaptation strategies.
... At the current site of the Kribi Sea Port, despite the construction of a dyke, erosion is still locally threatening. These inappropriate human interventions currently constitute a worrying and significant threat to the environment [82,88]. ...
For more than four decades, the Gulf of Guinea’s coasts have been undergoing a significant phenomenon of erosion, resulting from the pressures of both anthropogenic and marine weather forcings. From the coasts of West Africa (Senegal, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, Togo, and Nigeria) to those of Central Africa (Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Cameroon), the phenomenon has been growing for more than four decades. The southern Cameroonian coastline from Kribi to Campo has become the scene of significant environmental dynamics that render it vulnerable to coastal erosion, which appears to be the major hazard of this coastal territory and causes a gradual degradation of the vegetative cover, thereby leading to the degradation of the coast’s land/ground cover and human-made infrastructure. The objective of this work is to analyze the kinematics of the Kribian coastline between 1973 and 2020; to quantify the levels of retreat, accretion, and stability; and finally, to discuss the factors influencing the evolution of the coastline. The methodological approach is based on the large-scale processing of Landsat images with a spatial resolution of 30 m. Then, small-scale processing is carried out around the autonomous port of Kribi using Pléiades and Google Earth images from the years 2013, 2018, and 2020 with a 0.5 m spatial resolution. The Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) version 5 and ArcMap 10.5® tool are used to model coastal kinematics. In addition, the dynamics of the agro-industrial plantations are assessed via satellite images and landscape perception. Environmental degradation is measured with respect to the entire Cameroonian coastline through the supervised classification of Landsat images (1986–2020). The results show that erosion is in its initial phase in Kribi because significant retreats of the coastline are noticeable over the period from 2015–2020. Thus, between 1973 and 2020, the linear data present a certain stability. In total, +72.32% of the line remained stable, with values of +1.3% for accretion and +26.33% for erosion—obtained from Landsat images of 30 m resolution—with an average retreat of +1.3 m/year and an average accretion of 0.9 m/year between 1973–2020. Based on high-resolution images, between 2013 and 2019, the average retreat of the coastline on the Kribian coast was −8.5 m/year and the average accretion was about 7 m/year. Agro-industrial plantations are responsible for environmental degradation. Thus, at SOCAPALM in Apouh, there has been a clear growth in plantations, which has fallen from 53% in 1990 to 78% in 2020, i.e., an increase of 25% of its baseline area. This is linked to the fact that plantations are growing significantly, with increases of 16% in 1990, 28% in 2000, and 29% in 2020, for old plantations.
... e vulnerability of Cameroon's mangrove ecosystems in the Wouri estuary has been investigated. While the mangroves of the Douala estuary in Cameroon have an overall resilience, some inherent vulnerability due to the low tidal amplitude of the area has been reported [22]. ere is evidence of increased vulnerability due to decreasing rainfall and irregular rainfall patterns, increased occurrence of extreme climatic events, and increased levels of coastal erosion, resulting in several effects, including low adaptive capacity [23]. ...
This study was conducted on Manoka Island (Littoral Region of Cameroon) with the aim of analyzing climate change vulnerability and local adaptation strategies based on the local community’s perceptions and biophysical evidence. We used household surveys, focus group discussions, field observation, GIS, and remote sensing to collect data on variables of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Historical changes in rainfall and temperature, mangrove cover, and the occurrence of extreme climatic events were used as indicators of exposure. Property losses and income structure were used as indicators of sensitivity, while human, natural, social, financial, and physical assets represented adaptive capacity. 89 households were interviewed in the nine settlements of the island. Results show that Manoka Island is experiencing irregular rainfall patterns (with average annual values deviating from the mean by −1.9 to +1.8 mm) and increasing temperature (with annual values deviating from the mean by −1.2 to +3.12). The dynamics of the coastline between 1975 and 2017 using EPR show average setbacks of more than ±3 m/year, with erosion levels varying depending on the period and location. The number of households perceiving extreme climatic events like seasonal variability, flood, and rain storm was higher. From respondents’ perception, housing and health are the sectors most affected by climate change. The reported high dependence of households on fishing for income, their overall low livelihood diversification, and their poor access to climate information reported by 65% of respondents portray their poor adaptive capacity. Local response initiatives are ineffective and include among others constructing buildings on stilts and using car wheels to counter the advancement of seawater inland. The study concludes that households on Manoka Island are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Income diversification, mangrove reforestation, the development of sustainable supply chains for wood fuel, and sustainable fish smoking devices are the main pathways for adaptation planning in this area.
... The hypothesis of the study is that Manoka Island, like other localities of Douala 6th subdivision and its mangrove forests, is under natural and anthropogenic influences [24,25,[33][34][35][36], which reduce the carbon storage potential and exacerbate the vulnerability of this ecosystem and populations to climate change [37][38][39]. To help provide a database on the subject, it is necessary to study the dynamics of land use on Manoka Island using remote sensing in order to better understand its vulnerability to climate change. ...
Land and resource use patterns in coastal areas play a key role in the resilience of ecosystems and populations to climate change. Knowing their spatiotemporal dynamics therefore constitutes a strategic tool to help decision-makers. Based on documentary research, geographic information system (GIS), image processing, and field work, this article maps land use on Manoka Island between 1986 and 2018 and identifies the drivers of change and avenues for intervention with a view to strengthening climate change mitigation. The results show a decrease of 4% in forest area on Manoka Island, representing an average of 112 ha of inland forest and 267 ha of mangrove converted between 1986 and 2018. This increases the degraded forest area by 268% (degraded mangrove and degraded inland forest) and exposes some camps to erosion and flooding. Reduction in forest area is mainly linked to the harvesting of fuelwood and the conversion of forests into farmland and residential areas. Settlements have increased in area from 15 ha in 1986 to 90.4 ha in 2018 to the detriment of natural spaces.
... However, this may not be the case at the monthly time scale, given the strong variability in monthly precipitation in the study area. Precipitation climatology also showed that there is no precipitation-free month in the study area, which is consistent with the analysis from the other regions of Cameroon (Evariste et al. 2018). However, unlike the rest of the southern portion of Cameroon with a bimodal rainfall, our analysis revealed a unimodal rainfall regime over Anglophone Cameroon. ...
Water security assessments often rely on outputs from hydrological models that are applicable only in gauged regions where there are river discharge data to constrain the models. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore new methods for assessing water security in ungauged regions. This study proposes the use of the water balance and water footprint concepts and satellite observations to assess water security in Anglophone Cameroon, which is an example of a typically ungauged region. Specifically, the study assesses demand-driven water scarcity in terms of blue and green water scarcities and population-driven water scarcity quantified using the Falkenmark index across all districts in Anglophone Cameroon. The study also performs a spatiotemporal trend analysis of precipitation and temperature in the study area using the Mann–Kendall test. Precipitation trend analysis returns varying strengths and magnitudes for different districts unlike temperature which demonstrates an upward trend in all districts. The water security assessment shows that blue water scarcity is substantially low across most districts, whereas population-driven water scarcity is observed in densely populated districts (<1,700 m3/capita/year). The results from this study suggest that the proposed method may be used to assess water security in ungauged regions irrespective of climate or population size.
... Climate variability and change is a reality in Cameroon evidenced by different indicators and adverse impacts on farmers in particular and agriculture in general [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] . Cameroon's diverse climatic, agro-ecological and relief regions have been experiencing recurrent extreme weather events in recent decades. ...
The adverse impacts of climate variability and change are felt mostly by smallholder farmers and smallholder farming systems where rainfed agriculture is predominant. Continuous dependence on rain-fed agriculture has led to declining crop productivity and crop failure in most cases as weather patterns shift which is very problematic for crop growth. Agroforestry which is one of the climate-smart, environmentally benign and agroecological practices has been found to mitigate climate change adversities while fostering adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability especially in smallholder farming systems. However, in Cameroon, limited empirical research has been done to ascertain the role played by agroforestry in climate change adaptation, resilience enhancement and vulnerability attenuation. This paper which is based on an in-depth review of literature was undertaken to uncover what has been done so far in terms of empirical studies tackling the role played by agroforestry in climate change adaptation, resilience and vulnerability attenuation in Cameroon. It was found that most of the empirical studies have been carried out in one agroecological zone – the western highlands of Cameroon, showing that smallholder farmers adopt different agroforestry practices in the face of climate change with the most common being home gardens with livestock, home gardens without livestock, scattered trees on croplands, improved fallows, live fences/hedges and windbreaks, coffeebased agroforestry, cocoa-based agroforestry, apiculture-based agroforestry, fodder banks, and plantation crop-based agroforestry practices. These agroforestry practices provide a plethora of ecosystem services categorized into provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural which play an important role towards fostering climate change adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability in smallholder farming systems. From the findings uncovered by this study, it is imperative for more empirical studies to be carried out in the other four agroecological zones of Cameroon where there is a paucity of information regarding the role played by agroforestry towards fostering climate change adaptation, enhancing resilience and attenuating vulnerability in smallholder farming systems.
... Agriculture has always been a vital economic sector and source of employment across Africa (Webersik & Wilson, 2009), with food security remaining a concern in much of the continent and 57% of the population of Africa still living in rural areas (UNDESA, 2019). Yet over 90% of African food production is rainfed, rendering many regions and livelihoods vulnerable to food insecurity due to climate change (Bang et al., 2019;Evariste et al., 2018;Fuller et al., 2018). The agricultural sector has contributed the largest economic losses from climate change in Africa (Acevedo et al., 2017), with climate variables such as extreme heat negatively affecting outdoor labour productivity and agricultural supply chains (Fanzo et al., 2018;Graff Zivin & Neidell, 2014). ...
Africa has only contributed a small fraction of global greenhouse gas emissions yet faces disproportionate risks from climate change. This imbalance is one of many inequities associated with climate change and raises questions concerning the origin, distribution and thematic prioritization of funding for climate-change research on Africa. This article analyses a database comprising USD 1.51 trillion of research grants from 521 organizations around the world and covering all fields of research from 1990 to 2020. At most 3.8% of global funding for climate-change research is spent on African topics-a figure incommensurate with Africa's share of the world population and vulnerability to climate change. Moreover, institutions based in Europe and North America received 78% of funding for climate research on Africa, while African institutions received only 14.5%. Research on climate mitigation received only 17% of the funding while climate impacts and adaptation each received around 40%. Except for Egypt and Nigeria, funding supported research on former British colonies more than other African countries. The findings highlight the need to prioritise research on a broader set of climate-change issues in Africa and to increase funding for Africa-based researchers in order to strengthen African ownership of research informing African responses to climate change.
... Africa is repeatedly cited as one of the regions in the world less prepared to deal with the impacts of climate change and extreme cyclical events, and it is also the region that will suffer the most due to the global dynamics caused by the increase in greenhouse gases (Masipa 2017;Filho et al. 2020;Tegegne et al. 2020). The dimensions of the shocks are expected to vary from region to region (Ayanlade et al. 2018;Baarsch et al. 2020;Dube and Nhamo 2020), but also to socio-economic groups, with rural communities being mostly affected (Nkomwa et al. 2014;Evariste et al. 2018;Adzawla et al. 2019;Assan et al. 2020). ...
Global climate change challenges the lives and survival of rural communities. Mozambique is one of the Southern African countries most vulnerable to extreme climatic events, such as floods, storms, cyclones, and droughts. The future of rural communities and their generations could be jeopardised if sustainable and long-term actions are not implemented to alleviate local shocks. Nevertheless, barriers and failures in implementing winning actions are relatively related to (1) lack of scientific studies and knowledge regarding risk perceptions, responses, and adaptation strategies; (2) Standardisation of strategies without before understanding the complexities, characteristics, and the specific realities of rural communities. In this study, we investigate the sensitivity to climate change, the perception of Cabo Delgado communities and attitudes towards adaptation that influence their decisions to adopt adaptation strategies. Through structured interviews with 1000 (F = 31%, M = 69%) community respondents, we collected both qualitative and quantitative data. We provided useful information to increase local social understanding, with the aim of providing tools for local planning and natural resources management for risk and vulnerability reduction to climate change/extreme events. We found that perceptions of climate change vary substantially between gender and education. The study found that communities have noticed changes such as reduced rainfall, increased droughts, storms, cyclones, and increased temperature. The gradual loss of income, properties, declining agricultural production, and increased hunger were identified as indicators of sensitivity to climate change. Even so, adaptive capacities are low and about 90% of respondents do not use any adaptation strategy to deal with climate changes. We conclude that communities are very susceptible to possible shocks from climate change. Therefore, income diversification, strong education system, awareness on climate change matter, and advanced agricultural policy should be considered as priorities for adaptation strategies. © 2021, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
... Africa is repeatedly cited as one of the regions in the world less prepared to deal with the impacts of climate change and extreme cyclical events, and it is also the region that will suffer the most due to the global dynamics caused by the increase in greenhouse gases (Masipa 2017;Tegegne et al. 2020). The dimensions of the shocks are expected to vary from region to region (Ayanlade et al. 2018;Baarsch et al. 2020;Dube and Nhamo 2020), but also to socio-economic groups, with rural communities being mostly affected (Nkomwa et al. 2014;Evariste et al. 2018;Adzawla et al. 2019;Assan et al. 2020). ...
Sustainable Land Management (SLM) is one of the transformative pillars for agricultural development and environment conservation for food, forage, fuel and fibre security. It aims at the tripartite benefits of high yields, environment protection and income security. The success of SLM is a function of adopting appropriate nutrients and water management practices. Several land management practices have been practiced by smallholder farming systems in great lakes region in Africa. However, there is still limited understanding of the level of acceptability of the various technologies in mitigating soil water shortage and nutrient depletion. This paper evaluates the SLM concept with focus on assessing sustainability in the use of various soil water and nutrient management technologies and practices. Nutrient management measures assessed included a range of common inputs and practices in tropical farming systems. Soil water conservation technologies assessed included the physical, biological and agronomic measures. Analysis conducted suggest that few land users can afford to adopt most of the technologies that define a full package for realization of the pillars of SLM. The integrated use of technologies is an appropriate approach to respond to alarming challenge of land degradation. The inclusion of social-cultural and economic factors in the use of these soil, water and nutrient technologies is fundamental for increasing the adoption rate in communities. Policies should target integrated technologies that are community and/or people centered in SLM if the goal of enhanced agricultural productivity, environment conservation and income is to be realized in the great lakes region of Africa.
... Africa is repeatedly cited as one of the regions in the world less prepared to deal with the impacts of climate change and extreme cyclical events, and it is also the region that will suffer the most due to the global dynamics caused by the increase in greenhouse gases (Masipa 2017;Tegegne et al. 2020). The dimensions of the shocks are expected to vary from region to region (Ayanlade et al. 2018;Baarsch et al. 2020;Dube and Nhamo 2020), but also to socio-economic groups, with rural communities being mostly affected (Nkomwa et al. 2014;Evariste et al. 2018;Adzawla et al. 2019;Assan et al. 2020). ...
Fire is a disturbance factor in the gallery forests and palm swamps of the Orinoco
region of Colombia, due to the recurrent burnings of the surrounding savannas.
Since fire is used as a cost-effective land-management tool, savannas are usually burned once a year in the dry season.
This chapter evaluates how fire frequencies impact the regeneration of M. flexuosa,
by comparing seedling and sapling density in palm swamps with different time
since last burn in the department of Vichada, Orinoco region of Colombia. It
attempts to give recommendations for fire management in the savannas of the
region.
... The level of education of a household head was important in determining whether vulnerability was underestimated or not. Earlier studies have shown education to be a key social and economic factor in reducing vulnerability to natural disasters (Evariste et al., 2018;Striessnig et al., 2013). A minimum of college education, particularly among female headed households would enhance coping strategies in the aftermath of a natural disaster. ...
There is a current upsurge of climate-related disasters globally with urban centres emerging as hotspots for climate risks such as floods, underlain by population growth and urbanization challenges. Yet, the literature on urban floods suggests limited estimates of "perceived vulnerability", the latter increasingly gaining acceptance in climate change and disaster knowledge communities. Subsequently in this article, the effects of socio-demographic characteristics of households in underestimating their perceived vulnerability to flooding in Ghana is analysed, for informed flood disaster risk reduction. The findings show female headed households and those with college education as relatively more likely to underestimate their vulnerability to floods, compared to male headed households and those with no education, respectively. The age of male household heads determined their underestimation of floods yet the relation was non-linear. Additionally, the perceived vulnerability of a household to floods and ability to estimate its status depends on the sex of household head, to potentially influence decision-making and choice of adaptation. In conclusion, differences in the effects of households' background characteristics on perceived vulnerability and capacity to estimate the outcome suggest context specific measures or social interventions in addressing attitudes towards floods disaster risk, and subsequently in formulating disaster risk reduction strategies and policy interventions.
... A dose-response approach was adopted to determine the sensitivity indicators of households to natural disaster. In this study, demographics and livelihood were considered as sensitivity indicators, as they reflect the degree of population [57] and income [37] structure of the households. These indicators were considered to potentially and significantly affect the households. ...
This study developed a comprehensive framework for vulnerability assessment as a tool to measure vulnerability at three levels of geopolitical units in the Philippines. This is a comprehensive multi-disaster framework that can provide information to a decentralized type of government system like the Philippines. The vulnerability assessment framework (VAF) that has been developed was anchored upon the IPCC model and used the integration of community-based monitoring system (CBMS) data, expert inputs, and a series of community-based activities such as consultative fora, focus group discussions, workshops, and risk reduction immersion activities. The developed VAF for the assessment of vulnerability indices (VIs) is a system framework composed of a vulnerability scoping diagram (VSD) and an expanded vulnerability assessment model (VAM). The VSD is composed of three dimensions (e.g., exposure, sensitivity, resiliency), seven identified hazards, with 26, 27, and 29 sub-indicators for household, barangay, and municipal levels, respectively. Measuring vulnerability can be an effective strategy for assessing the potential impact/s of natural disasters on society. The continuous occurrence of natural disasters in the Philippines requires enhancement of public understanding of vulnerability. This would provide transparent understanding and enhance community competency leading to the development of methodologies and tools to assess various factors and indicators of vulnerability. The information extracted from using the VAF and VSD are helpful to the local government units, especially in preparing budgets, strategies, and programs for disaster risk reduction.
... Both high prevalences of chronic disease and high malaria incidence might have caused members of households to miss work. For example, Evariste et al. (2018) reported high incidence of malaria, typhoid, and cholera as one of the major issues affecting the livelihood of people of Kribi Coastal region, Cameroon. Therefore, proper environmental sanitation and provision of adequate medical centers by the local government as adaptation measures will reduce malaria incidence and chronic diseases in ASN, and BIW, respectively. ...
Climate variability poses serious livelihood problems in most developing countries, especially in farming communities. This study assessed the vulnerability to climate change in two cocoa growing districts in Ghana. A total of 400 households from both districts were surveyed. Data were collected on socio-demographics, livelihoods, social networks, health, food, water, and natural disasters and climate variability. The composite index, differential, and integrated approach were used to aggregate the data, and differential vulnerabilities of the two districts were compared. The contributing factors (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) were integrated to estimate livelihood vulnerability index (LVI)-IPCC. Results show that Asunafo North (ASN) had LVI–IPCC score of − 0.0236 compared to Bia West (BIW) of 0.0073. The results suggest that BIW may be more vulnerable regarding socio-demographics, social networks, health, food, water, natural disasters, and climate variability while ASN may be vulnerable to only livelihood strategies. The study also found that BIW was highly vulnerable to average receive–give and borrowed–lend money ratio. This assessment highlights how climate variability is affecting the livelihood of the cocoa-producing districts in Ghana. The study will be beneficial to the government of Ghana and non-governmental organizations in developing programs and projects to reduce vulnerabilities and enhance adaptive capacities in both ASN and BIW districts. Diversifying sources of income and livelihood could be the alternative to ameliorate vulnerability in both districts.
Central Africa’s coastal zones, notably in Cameroon and Gabon, are home to significant mangrove ecosystems that provide vital ecological and socio-economic services. Mangroves in this region are essential for coastal protection, biodiversity support, and the sustenance of local fisheries, which are crucial for the livelihoods of coastal communities. However, industrialization, deforestation, and the expansion of oil exploration and coastal development pose serious threats to these vital ecosystems. Despite these challenges, local communities have shown resilience by adopting traditional ecological knowledge and engaging in community-led mangrove conservation initiatives. These efforts highlight the potential for integrating indigenous practices with modern conservation techniques to ensure sustainable mangrove management. This study explores the biodiversity of Central African mangroves, focusing on species such as Rhizophora spp., Avicennia spp., Laguncularia racemosa, and Bruguiera spp., and their role in carbon sequestration and environmental health. Additionally, it examines case studies of community-driven mangrove restoration projects in Cameroon and Gabon, demonstrating the effectiveness of grassroots involvement in conservation efforts. The study emphasizes the importance of strengthening community resilience through ecosystem-based adaptation and providing policy recommendations for the sustainable management of mangrove forests. Ultimately, this research underscores the necessity of multi-stakeholder approaches, involving governments, NGOs, and local communities, to safeguard the future of Central Africa’s mangrove ecosystems and ensure their long-term resilience against environmental and socio-economic challenges.
In the current context of climate and anthropogenic change, assessing the adaptive capacity of coastal communities , i.e., their ability to adapt, navigate and/or recover from the impacts of change is key in coastal management and decision-making processes. Framing in adaptive capacity assessments (i.e., what is highlighted) influences how coastal communities' adaptive capacity is perceived and understood, carrying profound ethical and political implications for governance. The significance of framing within assessments of adaptive capacity has been acknowledged, yet limited research delves into the dynamics of this process, particularly within coastal-social ecological settings. Through a systematic literature review, we address this knowledge gap by exploring how scholarly assessments frame adaptive capacity in social-ecological systems and analyzing their potential implications in coastal adaptation governance. We focus on adaptive capacity assessments using indicators, given their prominence as a frequently employed methodology by policy makers. Our results reveal that assessments are predominately framed under vulnerability frameworks, focusing on how adaptive capacity moderates the impact of climate-related variability using single-level data from individuals or households. Typically, these assessments rely on attributes related to socioeconomic factors, access to assets and livelihood diversity to assess present adaptive capacity, with researchers and their paradigms playing a significant role in framing these assessments. We propose that this prevailing perspective may not support coastal communities in meeting the complex challenges they are facing. By providing this comprehensive review on the scientific framing of adaptive capacity assessments in coastal social-ecological systems, we contribute towards advancing frame-reflective adaptive capacity research.
El cambio climático, es un problema que se ha acentuado en los últimos años a nivel mundial, porque afecta a los sectores económicos primarios, siendo uno de ellos el sector pesca, el cual afecta la distribución de los recursos hidrobiológicos y de manera indirecta la calidad de vida de las poblaciones dependientes a estos recursos. El objetivo de la investigación fue presentar los estudios relacionados a la vulnerabilidad al cambio climático de las comunidades pesqueras, para conocer los indicadores involucrados en este sistema dinámico y complejo. El tema de investigación, se enfocó en responder a la interrogante problema ¿qué indicadores son utilizados para evaluar la vulnerabilidad
al cambio climático en las comunidades pesqueras?. La metodología utilizada, consistió
en la búsqueda y revisión de artículos científicos, considerando criterios de inclusión y exclusión. Se analizaron 22 estudios, publicados entre el año 2012 y abril del 2022. Los estudios, muestran coherencia al utilizar indicadores sociales y económicos para medir la sensibilidad y capacidad adaptativa, considerando que estos dependen de cada comunidad pesquera, mientras que el factor exposición se ve directamente influenciado por los cambios climatológicos inevitables. Los hallazgos del presente estudio, presentan relevancia científica y teórica porque brindan información fundamental sobre las investigaciones científicas que abordan la coyuntura del cambio climático, enfocados en el estudio de la vulnerabilidad de comunidades pesqueras.
Reducing vulnerability to climate change is fundamental if small-scale farming systems across the world are to address current and predicted climate change. With small-scale food production systems satisfying over half of the world’s nutritional needs, ensuring their sustainability in the face of adverse climatic conditions is vital. This study examined the contribution of agroforestry systems in reducing vulnerability to climate change among small-scale farmers. The study made use of a mixed method approach consisting of household surveys, inventories, and direct field observations. Findings revealed that climatic variations have been extreme, and small-scale farmers adopt different systems of agroforestry in order to avert risks from recurrent climatic extremes. Agroforestry’s ecosystem services (food, fuelwood, building materials, income generation, shade, windbreak, erosion control, soil fertility improvement, medicinal products, pollination) were frequently cited by small-scale farmers as aiding in the reduction of vulnerability to climate change. Correlation and regression coefficients revealed a strong inverse relationship (p < .01) between small-scale farmers’ vulnerability to climatic changes and the practice of agroforestry, indicating that agroforestry contributes significantly in reducing vulnerability to climate change among
small-scale farmers. Thus, we recommend that existing agroforestry systems should be intensified and new agroforestry technologies should be introduced in order to aid small-scale farmers reduce vulnerability to climate change.
This study is aimed at investigating the differentiating factors underlying the intention to migrate from a flooded and inundated community in suburban areas; in this case, the community is the Sayung subdistrict of Demak Regency. Previous studies have observed a variety of self-mitigation and patterns of local migrations among the communities in the city of Semarang. The suburban case, however, is frequently overlooked by local governments, which often focus more on handling city centre problems. In this study, we employed a quantitative approach using statistical descriptive analysis and Discriminant Analysis. In addition, an in-depth interview with key informants provided a complementary qualitative approach, to deepen understanding of the quantitative findings. The results suggested the factors distinguishing the residents’ desire to migrate or not were: income, private vehicle possession, community cooperation in maintaining environment cleaning and security, road condition and access, proximity to educational and health facilities and electricity, and the intensity of the flood entering the house. Unlike the urban society, the willingness to move of the suburban society was not only affected by their financial capability, the availability of settlement infrastructures, and the severe level of the flood but also their emotional bonds to the place and the community.
Les changements climatiques actuels, et les risques naturels associés, font du continent africain l’un des plus vulnérables avec des manifestations perceptibles comme : l’assèchement du Lac Tchad, l’avancée du désert, des glissements de terrain, puis, l’aggravation et la multiplication de l’érosion côtière et des inondations en milieu littoral. Ce travail se propose d’analyser la vulnérabilité et l’adaptation des populations de Cap Cameroun aux risques naturels. Cette vulnérabilité sera analysée selon une approche systémique qui prend en compte ses dimensions physique, économique, environnementale et sociale. La consultation des guides méthodologiques d’analyse de la vulnérabilité, les enquêtes de terrain couplées aux données issues de la télédétection et des SIG ont été mobilisées pour mieux appréhender ces bouleversements environnementaux. La superposition des images Landsat (1986, 2000 et 2016), l’observation des vestiges (troncs d’arbres, restes de maisons) sur l’espace intertidal et le témoignage des personnes ayant longtemps vécu à Cap Cameroun constituent les méthodes utilisées pour appréhender la dynamique côtière dans cette localité. Il en résulte que, le trait de côte a connu une dynamique régressive et les pertes en terre sont estimées à 103, 28 ha. La pêche, qui occupe près de 77% de la population a enregistré une baisse significative en termes de capture. Le bois de mangrove couvre 80% des besoins de la population et connait de ce fait une perte importante de sa superficie ; ce qui participe à l’aggravation de l’érosion et des inondations côtières. Les stratégies locales d’adaptation apparaissent inefficaces et limitées. L’accès et le contrôle des ressources sont limités. Les personnes âgées et les enfants constituent les couches les plus vulnérables.
This report is an account of a cross-country study that covered Vietnam, Indonesia and the Philippines. Covering four sites (one each in Indonesia and Vietnam) and two sites in the Philippines, the study documented the impacts of three climate hazards affecting coastal communities, namely typhoon/flooding, coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion. It also analyzed planned adaptation options, which communities and local governments can implement, as well as autonomous responses of households to protect and insure themselves from these hazards. It employed a variety of techniques, ranging from participatory based approaches such as community hazard mapping and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) to regression techniques, to analyze the impact of climate change and the behavior of affected communities and households.
Results show that households in coastal communities face a confluence of risks and often adapt simultaneously to these risks. These risks have the most impact on the sources and types of livelihoods of households. Foregone income due to these risks was in fact found to be higher than the value of damages from loss of assets including damage to houses. Foregone income in the end affected consumption patterns. Using the Vulnerability as Expected Poverty (VEP) as a measure, it was found that the incidence of vulnerable households is highest in Palawan, Philippines (56%), followed by Vietnam (46%), Batangas, Philippines (42%) and then Indonesia (35%). The mean vulnerability estimate for Palawan is 0.51, which means that on average the probability that households will fall below the minimum consumption level (at which they will be considered poor) is 51%. For Vietnam, the mean vulnerability is 0.43, while Batangas and Indonesia have mean estimates of 0.38 and 0.37, respectively.
Various planned adaptation options, which communities and local governments can implement, were studied using cost effectiveness analysis. A consistent and common result across three sites is that ecosystem-based approaches (or natural barriers such as mangroves) are more cost effective than hard infrastructure investments. There also seem to be a preponderance of protective measures when, in fact, the main impact or risk from these hazards is really on the livelihoods of coastal-based communities. In Batangas, for example, it was found that livelihood diversification is a viable planned adaptation measure.
Factors that determine autonomous or private responses to climate hazards were also assessed. It was found that there are geographical and spatial differences in adaptation patterns, suggesting that households react rationally to the degree of threats from the hazards. For instance, households near riverbanks are more likely to employ autonomous adaptation strategies against flooding. Evidence was also found that planned adaptation “crowds out” private or autonomous adaptation. Presence of natural barriers such as mangroves and riverbank rehabilitation schemes result in less likelihood of autonomous adaptation to flooding and saltwater intrusion being pursued. Income from external sources, such as disaster relief, also tends to crowd out autonomous adaptation. Social capital, which was represented by the number of people from whom the respondents can turn to for loans with some level of certainty, had a positive effect on the likelihood of autonomous adaptation. There was also some gender dimension in adaptation. In particular, households with more female members have lower likelihood of pursuing autonomous adaptation to flooding and typhoon, but higher
adaptation to saltwater intrusion. Unfortunately the study did not assess the reasons for this behavior in more detail, as this was not part of the original design.
Rural communities, which depend predominantly on natural resources, are increasingly vulnerable as global climate change makes the weather and extreme weather events more unpredictable. To formulate appropriate policy measures to address their livelihood challenges, assessment of local vulnerability is important. In this study, the vulnerability of Chepang communities in Nepal was analyzed using data collected from 221 households from four villages across four districts. The analysis was based on indices constructed from selected indicators measuring exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The indicators were weighted using Principal Component Analysis. Inter-village analysis of the vulnerability index indicated that exposure in a locality is modified by the inherent adaptive capacity of the households, and this determines overall vulnerability. Inter-household analysis of vulnerability indicated that poor households with low adaptive capacity were vulnerable irrespective of their location. The availability of non-farm livelihood opportunities and community access to formal/vocational education and skill development training will reduce household vulnerability to climate change. Policy interventions should focus on improving the adaptive capacity of households, prioritizing financial and human assets.
The purpose of this addendum is to provide a minimum set of socioeconomic indicators for understanding social vulnerability and social adaptive capacity to climate change. These can be included in a socioeconomic assessment of any site for which climate change impacts are an important issue. The resulting information can then inform coastal management needs and adaptive management. This document is being added to regional socioeconomic monitoring produced by the Global Socioeconomic Monitoring Initiative for Coastal Management
(SocMon)1 and its Pacific counterpart, SEM‐Pasifika, which aim to improve site management of coastal
and marine areas by providing simple, user‐friendly guidelines on how to conduct a socioeconomic
assessment. Such assessments help coastal managers incorporate community views into adaptive
management of marine resources. The intended audience is project managers, NGO staff, and community members who are interested and able to conduct a socioeconomic assessment to help understand a community’s vulnerability to changing climate, and how it might plan to adapt.
This paper statistically evaluated the distribution of mangrove forest distributions in Nineteen (19) countries of Africa where eight major species of mangrove exist. Secondary data about mangrove forest coverage from literature were obtained in respect of 19 countries of West Africa where mangrove forest exists for six years. The data were subjected to ANOVA statistical analysis using STATISTICA software package. The results indicated highest estimates of mangrove coverage in Nigeria with highest total mangrove coverage of 7386km2 and Sao Tome Principe with lowest estimates of 1.4km2. The results indicated that most West African mangroves forests suffer progressive decline particularly the countries that have large mangrove forests. The results also suggest that most West African countries are yet to evolve conservation ethics for their mangrove forests. Of all the countries, the Nigerian mangrove forest is the most threatened by fragmentation, isolation and surface drainage alteration that could be traced to indiscriminate logging, urbanization and recent oil and gas activities in the Niger Delta.
In the context of still uncertain specific effects of climate change in specific locations, this paper examines whether education significantly increases coping capacity with regard to particular climatic changes, and whether it improves the resilience of people to climate risks in general. Our hypothesis is that investment in universal primary and secondary education around the world is the most effective strategy for preparing to cope with the still uncertain dangers associated with future climate. The empirical evidence presented for a cross-country time series of factors associated with past natural disaster fatalities since 1980 in 125 countries confirms this overriding importance of education in reducing impacts. We also present new projections of populations by age, sex, and level of educational attainment to 2050, thus providing an appropriate tool for anticipating societies' future adaptive capacities based on alternative education scenarios associated with different policies.
Intertidal mangrove ecosystems are sensitive to climate change impacts, particularly to associated relative sea level rise. Human stressors and low tidal range add to vulnerability, both characteristics of the Doula Estuary, Cameroon. To investigate vulnerability, spatial techniques were combined with ground surveys to map distributions of mangrove zones, and compare with historical spatial records to quantify change over the last few decades. Low technology techniques were used to establish the tidal range and relative elevation of the mapped mangrove area. Stratigraphic coring and palaeobiological reconstruction were used to show the longer term biological history of mangroves and net sedimentation rate, and oral history surveys of local communities were used to provide evidence of recent change and identify possible causes. Results showed that the seaward edge of mangroves had over two thirds of the shoreline experienced dieback at up to 3 m per year over the last three decades, and an offshore mangrove island had suffered 89% loss. Results also showed low net sedimentation rates under seaward edge mangroves, and restricted intertidal elevation habitats of all mangroves, and Avicennia and Laguncularia in particular. To reduce vulnerability, adaptation planning can be improved by reducing the non-climate stressors on the mangrove area, particularly those resulting from human impacts. Other priorities for adaptation planning in mangrove areas that are located in such low tidal range regions are to plan inland migration areas and strategic protected areas for mangroves, and to undertake management activities that enhance accretion within the mangroves.
Background.
Cyclones have significantly affected populations in Southeast Asia, the Western Pacific, and the Americas over the past quarter of a century. Future vulnerability to cyclones will increase due to factors including population growth, urbanization, increasing coastal settlement, and global warming. The objectives of this review were to describe the impact of cyclones on human populations in terms of mortality, injury, and displacement and, to the extent possible, identify risk factors associated with these outcomes. This is one of five reviews on the human impact of natural disasters.
Methods.
Data on the impact of cyclones were compiled using two methods, a historical review from 1980 to 2009 of cyclone events from multiple databases and a systematic literature review of publications ending in October 2012. Analysis included descriptive statistics and bivariate tests for associations between cyclone characteristics and mortality using Stata 11.0.
Findings.
There were 412,644 deaths, 290,654 injured, and 466.1 million people affected by cyclones between 1980 and 2009, and the mortality and injury burden was concentrated in less developed nations of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. Inconsistent reporting suggests this is an underestimate, particularly in terms of the injured and affected populations. The primary cause of cyclone-related mortality is drowning; in developed countries male gender was associated with increased mortality risk, whereas females experienced higher mortality in less developed countries.
Conclusions.
Additional attention to preparedness and early warning, particularly in Asia, can lessen the impact of future cyclones.
Settlements in coastal lowlands are especially vulnerable to risks resulting from climate change, yet these lowlands are densely settled and growing rapidly. In this paper, we undertake the first global review of the population and urban settlement patterns in the Low Elevation Coastal Zone (LECZ), defined here as the contiguous area along the coast that is less than 10 metres above sea level. Overall, this zone covers 2 per cent of the world's land area but contains 10 per cent of the world's population and 13 per cent of the world's urban population. A disproportionate number of the countries with a large share of their population in this zone are small island countries, but most of the countries with large populations in the zone are large countries with heavily populated delta regions. On average, the Least Developed Countries have a higher share of their population living in the zone (14 per cent) than do OECD countries (10 per cent), with even greater disparities in the urban shares (21 per cent compared to 11 per cent). Almost two-thirds of urban settlements with populations greater than 5 million fall, at least partly, in the zone. In some countries (most notably China), urbanization is driving a movement in population towards the coast. Reducing the risk of disasters related to climate change in coastal settlements will require a combination of mitigation, migration and settlement modification.
Rural communities, who are dominantly dependent upon natural resources, have always been adjusting their livelihood against the vagaries of climate. With the global climate change, these communities have been placed in greater vulnerability as the weather and extreme events have become more unpredictable. In order to formulate suitable policy measures to address their livelihood, assessment of local level vulnerability is very important. This paper analyzes the micro-level vulnerability of rural Chepang community in Nepal utilizing the data collected from 221 Chepang households from four villages located in four different districts. The analysis is based on indices constructed from carefully selected indicators for exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The indicators are weighted using Principal Component Analysis. Inter-village analysis of the vulnerability index indicate that the existing exposure in a locality is often modified at the household level depending upon the inherent adaptive capacity of the households to give the picture of overall vulnerability. Using only the biophysical indicators of vulnerability (exposure and sensitivity) can thus lead to an erroneous policy implication. Furthermore, inter-household analysis of vulnerability indicate that poor households with low adaptive capacity are vulnerable anywhere, irrespective of where they are located. Policy measures and development efforts should be focused towards improving the adaptive capacity of the rural households, while keeping the post-disaster emergency relief measures in place for localities with higher exposure to climate extremes. The poorest households should be the primary target of any interventions.
This article defines social resilience as the ability of groups or communities to cope with external stresses and disturbances as a result of social, political and environmental change. This definition highlights social resilience in relation to the concept of ecological resilience which is a characteristic of ecosystems to maintain themselves in the face of disturbance. There is a clear link between social and ecological resilience, particularly for social groups or communities that are dependent on ecological and environmental resources for their livelihoods. But it is not clear whether resilient ecosystems enable resilient communities in such situations. This article examines whether resilience is a useful characteristic for describing the social and economic situation of social groups and explores potential links between social resilience and ecological resilience. The origins of this interdisciplinary study in human ecology, ecological economics and rural sociology are reviewed, and a study of the impacts of ecological change on a resourcedependent community in contemporary coastal Vietnam in terms of the resilience of its institutions is outlined.
DOLAN, A.H., and WALKER, I.J., 2003. Understanding vulnerability of coastal communities to climate change related risks. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 39 (Proceedings of the 8th International Coastal Symposium), pg – pg. Itajaí, SC – Brazil, ISSN 0749-0208 This paper discusses the concept of vulnerability as characterized in the climate change literature and presents a framework for assessing adaptive capacity. The framework recognizes inherent susceptibilities of human-environment systems exposed to climate variability and change. As climate change impacts are unevenly distributed among and within nations, regions, communities and individuals due to differential exposures and vulnerabilities, the framework highlights determinants of adaptive capacity at the local scale and situates them within larger regional, national and international settings. Determinants include: access and distribution of resources, technology, information and wealth; risk perceptions; social capital and community structure; and institutional frameworks that address climate change hazards. This broader approach contrasts typical impact assessments that focus largely on reducing economic detriments of change. The framework provides a methodological starting point that, as a community-based or 'bottom-up' approach, yields important insight on local responses to climate change. It also recognizes that short-term exposure to variability is an important source of vulnerability superimposed on long-term change. At the community level, perceptions and experiences with climate extremes can identify inherent characteristics that enable or constrain a community to respond, recover and adapt. As such, local and traditional knowledge is key to climate change research and should be incorporated into research design and implementation. This approach provides locally relevant outcomes that could promote more effective decision-making, planning and management in remote areas susceptible to climate change hazards. As part of a larger study, this approach will be refined with local input to study sea-level rise impacts on one of Canada's most sensitive coastlines, northeast Graham Island, Haida Gwaii (Queen Charlotte Islands), British Columbia. Preliminary evidence of changes and responses in this area are identified as a brief case study.
This paper examines the effect of changes in climatic averages on agricultural production at the national level in Cameroon. The empirical results reveal that Cameroon’s agriculture is influenced by climate variables. The economic value of the projected output in 2050 ranges from USD3.5 billion (41% less than the 1961–2001 mean value at 2.5oC increase in temperature and 8.5% increase in precipitation) to US$ 7.1 billion (18.5% greater than the 1961–2001 mean, for a 1.5°C increase in temperature and a 15% increase in precipitation). A 3.5% increase in temperature associated with a 4.5% increase in precipitation in the absence of irrigation facilities would be detrimental to Cameroon’s agriculture, leading to a loss of almost 46.7% in output value. This would negatively affect the economy as a whole, since close to 30% of Cameroon’s national GDP comes from agriculture.
"We survey and evaluate selected participatory tools that have been proven effective in natural resources management and research during our extensive experience with forest communities. We first establish a framework for our analysis by identifying a set of criteria for evaluating each tool. Next we provide a brief description of each tool, followed by an evaluation and comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of all the tools examined and how well they can be adapted to diverse contexts. We also provide suggestions for avoiding common pitfalls. Our findings suggest that most tools are flexible enough to be adapted to a range of applications, and that results are more robust when tools are used in concert. Practitioners should not be disturbed when results are contradictory or unexpected; initial surprises can lead to unexpected discoveries. Given the complexity of natural resources and their management, picking the right tool does not guarantee that the data desired will be produced, but selecting the wrong tool does make success less likely. The tools assessed are Bayesian belief networks and system dynamic modeling tools, discourse-based valuation, the 4Rs framework, participatory mapping, scoring or the Pebble Distribution Method, future scenarios, spidergrams, Venn diagrams, and Who Counts Matrices."
This study examines the impact of climate change on crop farming in Cameroon. The country's economy is predominantly agrarian and agriculture and the exploitation of natural resources remain the driving force for the country's economic development. Fluctuations in national income are due not merely to the decline in world demand for Cameroon's traditional agricultural exports or to mistakes in economic policy making, but also to the vagaries of the weather. Based on a farm-level survey of more than 800 farms, the study employs a Ricardian cross-sectional approach to measure the relationship between climate and the net revenue from crops. Net revenue is regressed on climate, water flow, soil, and economic variables. Further, uniform scenarios assume that only one aspect of climate changes and the change is uniform across the whole country. The analysis finds that net revenues fall as precipitation decreases or temperatures increase across all the surveyed farms. The study reaffirms that agriculture in Cameroon is often limited by seasonality and the availability of moisture. Although other physical factors, such as soil and relief, have an important influence on agriculture, climate remains the dominant influence on the variety of crops cultivated and the types of agriculture practiced.
Global environmental change and sustainability science increasingly recognize the need to address the consequences of changes taking place in the structure and function of the biosphere. These changes raise questions such as: Who and what are vulnerable to the multiple environmental changes underway, and where? Research demonstrates that vulnerability is registered not by exposure to hazards (perturbations and stresses) alone but also resides in the sensitivity and resilience of the system experiencing such hazards. This recognition requires revisions and enlargements in the basic design of vulnerability assessments, including the capacity to treat coupled human-environment systems and those linkages within and without the systems that affect their vulnerability. A vulnerability framework for the assessment of coupled human-environment systems is presented.
Worldwide, millions of people experience coastal flooding each year, with devastating effects especially in rural coastal settlements in tropical developing countries. This paper investigates the vulnerability of local settlements in the Cameroon mangrove forest zone to flooding, and improves understanding of perceptions and responses to past and current coastal flooding. Six communities in the coastal mangrove forest zone of the extreme SouthWest of Cameroon were investigated. A questionnaire was administered to a total of 200 individuals supplemented by other participatory rapid appraisal tools. The ground positions of the sampled sites as well as their altitudes were recorded for subsequent geospatial analysis.Statistical analysis was performed to show trends. The coordinates of the study sites were superimposed on base topographic maps of 1965, to investigate coastal changes over a period of 43 years. Results show that: (1) changes in coastal area have occurred in the past 43 years either through inland retreat or seaward shifts and accordingly, settlements are differentially vulnerable; (2) settlement submergence, house damage, and landscape deformation are the key impacts of flooding; (3) coastal flooding promotes the deforestation of mangrove forest for fuel wood; (4) current adaptive measures include retreat of settlement, abandonment, and house design modifications; and (5) most adaptive strategies are reactive individual actions which are likely inefficient and unsustainable from a longer term perspective given their limited scope of implementation. The paper recommends external support to improve adaptive capacity in mangrove settlements, review and improvement of existing policies, and development of integrated coastal management strategy for the region.
This paper investigates the problem of scientific uncertainty and the way it impedes planning for climate change and accelerated sea-level rise (CC & ASLR) in Pacific Island Countries (PICs). The paper begins by discussing the problems CC & ASLR poses for PICs, and it explores the limitations of the dominant approach to vulnerability and adaptation. Next, the paper considers the way scientific uncertainty problematizes policies aimed at adaptation to CC & ASLR. It argues that the prevailing approach, which requires anticipation of impacts, is unsuccessful, and the paper proposes a complementary strategy aimed to enhance the resilience of whole island social-ecological systems. Recent developments in the theory and practice of resilience are discussed and then applied to formulate goals for adaptation policy in PICs.
"Emerging insights from adaptive and community-based resource management suggest that building resilience into both human and ecological systems is an effective way to cope with environmental change characterized by future surprises or unknowable risks. We argue that these emerging insights have implications for policies and strategies for responding to climate change. We review perspectives on collective action for natural resource management to inform understanding of climate response capacity. We demonstrate the importance of social learning, specifically in relation to the acceptance of strategies that build social and ecological resilience. Societies and communities dependent on natural resources need to enhance their capacity to adapt to the impacts of future climate change, particularly when such impacts could lie outside their experienced coping range. This argument is illustrated by an example of present-day collective action for community-based coastal management in Trinidad and Tobago. The case demonstrates that community-based management enhances adaptive capacity in two ways: by building networks that are important for coping with extreme events and by retaining the resilience of the underpinning resources and ecological systems."
A generally accepted idea consists in systematically linking a low level of adaptive capacity to a low level of development, and then in affirming that the poor have inevitably low adaptive capacities. What we argue here is that this affirmation is biased because adaptation to climate change is not only determined by economic and technological capacities. Many other characteristics of a community could play a major function in its ability to react to and to anticipate climate changes (e.g. the territorial identity or the social relationships). From our point of view, the generally restrictive conception of adaptive capacity is related to a relative immaturity of the science of adaptation to explain what are the processes and the determinants of adaptive capacity. This can be explained by the fact that few frameworks for studying adaptive capacity currently exist. This paper then consists in a proposition of a research framework based upon four main fields of investigation: (i) the influential factors of adaptive capacity and their interactions, (ii) the relevant spatial and temporal scales of adaptive capacity, (iii) the links between adaptive capacity, vulnerability and the level of development and (iv) the theoretical links between adaptation and sustainability. These four fields of research are assumed to be relevant to bring new knowledge on adaptive capacity, and then to feed a more general reflection on the adaptation pathways to deal with climate change.
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