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Journal of Promotion Management
ISSN: 1049-6491 (Print) 1540-7594 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjpm20
Attractiveness, Purchase Intention, and
Willingness to Pay More for Global Brands:
Evidence from Turkish Market
Ulun Akturan & Zehra Bozbay
To cite this article: Ulun Akturan & Zehra Bozbay (2017): Attractiveness, Purchase Intention, and
Willingness to Pay More for Global Brands: Evidence from Turkish Market, Journal of Promotion
Management, DOI: 10.1080/10496491.2017.1408522
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10496491.2017.1408522
Published online: 27 Dec 2017.
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Attractiveness, Purchase Intention, and Willingness to Pay
More for Global Brands: Evidence from Turkish Market
Ulun Akturan, Assoc. Prof.
a
and Zehra Bozbay, Assoc. Prof.
b
a
Department of Business Administration, Galatasaray University, Istanbul, Turkey;
b
Department of
Marketing, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Emerging markets (EMs) are increasingly becoming significant in
income growth for Multinational corporations (MNCs). Therefore,
what affects the consumer perceptions and behaviors toward glob al
brands in EMs is a fundamental question to answer for MNCs. There
is a remarkable literature on global brands in EMs however there is
little evidence specifically upon bandwagon effects. This study
aims to fulfil this gap and examines the effects of bandwagon
consumption, conspicuous value and social value on consumer
attitudes towards the global brands. In the study, data were
collected via face-to-face questionnaire from a sample of 458
university students, and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was
used to test the research hypotheses. As a result, it was found that
bandwagon consumption, conspicuous value, and social value have
positive impacts on brand attractiveness, purchase intention and
willingness to pay more for global brands.
KEYWORDS
bandwagon consumption;
social value; conspicuous
value; emerging markets;
global brands; promotion
Introduction
Today, the business environment is challenged by the global market opportunities
and global competitive threats. Globalization can be regarded as a fundamental
business driver (Vassileva & Nikolov, 2016), and as developed countries are getting
saturated, MNCs have increasingly set their sights on the EMs (Kotabe & Helsen,
2014). EMs are important for branding activities for several reasons (Roberts,
Kayande, & Srivastava, 2015): first of all, EMs provide opportunities for growth in
despite of the pressure in developed markets. Second, a large proportion of the
earning of the global firms is coming from those markets, and growth rate is higher
in those markets. In the case of branding, brands are still aspirational in EMs.
Moreover, there is an unequal distribution of new wealth and that drives the rejec-
tion of “cheap”options. But, there is also room for strong private labels.
CONTACT Ulun Akturan uakturan@gsu.edu.tr Galatasaray University, Ciragan Cad. No. 36, Ortakoy, Istanbul,
Turkey; Zehra Bozbay zehrat@istanbul.edu.tr Istanbul University, Universite Mah. Avcilar Kampusu,
Isletme Fakultesi, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/wjpm.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT
2017, VOL. 0, NO. 0, 1–18
https://doi.org/10.1080/10496491.2017.1408522
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Consumers of EMs such as BRIC countries including Brazil, Russia, India, and
China and MIKT countries including Mexico, Indonesia, South Korea, and Turkey
are subject to study in order to find out the drives of consumers’likelihood of pur-
chasing global brands in presence of local brands. Especially Turkey has become
an attractive, competitive, and fast growing market for global companies in recent
years. Turkey, similar to China is ranked as the most important market in the
world with growing market size as well as consumer wealth and sophistication
(Kaynak & Kara, 2002).
In the literature, global brands are associated to higher esteem (Johansson &
Ronkainen, 2005), brand quality and prestige (Steenkamp, Batra, & Alden, 2003),
and having the ability of enhancing the consumer’s self-image as being cosmopoli-
tan, sophisticated and modern (Thompson & Tambyah, 1999). Global brands are
also perceived as symbols of global identity (Holt, Quelch, & Taylor, 2004). Even
some of these brands have attained the status of global icons, and created their
own cultural systems (Merino and Gonzales, 2008). Researchers agree that status
display is more important in developing countries (Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden,
Steenkamp, & Ramachander, 2000), and consumers in EMs prefer foreign brands
in order to obtain social status, social conformity, and to express wealth
(Alden, Steenkamp, & Batra, 1999; Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, &
Ramachander, 2000; Ger, Belk, & Lascu, 1993). In addition, global brands are per-
ceived as having higher level of quality and prestige, and they provide a way to
become a global culture (Steenkamp, Batra, & Alden, 2003; Ponte & Gibbon, 2005;
Wang, Li, Barnes & Ahn, 2012; Wang & Chen, 2004). They are higher in aspira-
tional value and are associated with status, modernity, cosmopolitan sophistica-
tion, and technology (Ozsomer, 2012), in other words, they are perceived as more
valuable than the local brands.
On the other hand, the perceived value is accepted as a strategic imperative tool
for marketers. Consumer value is a fundamental issue to be addressed in every
marketing activity (Holbrook, 1994,1999).
It is mostly analyzed by its social, emotional, functional, epistemic, and condi-
tional value dimensions in relation to consumer decision-making and behavior.
The perceived value is one of the important factors for gaining competitive
advantage whereas a crucial indicator of repurchases intention, brand loyalty
intention, and consumer satisfaction (Petrick, 2002; Woodruff, 1997; Sirohi,
McLaughlin, & Wittink, 1998; Chapman and Wahlers, 1999; McDougall and
Levesque, 2000).
The evolution of consumer behavior in EMs is explained by two contrasting the-
ories—convergence theory and divergence theory (Dholakia & Talukdar, 2004).
For the convergence theorists, product innovations and cultural symbols are gener-
ated by the developed markets and distributed and communicated to the EMs via
communication channels and as a result the consumption in EMs became more
similar to the developed markets. However, for the divergence theorists, the
consumer behavior in EMs is highly influenced by the different and diverse
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aspirations of citizen and that posits a homogenization of consumer behaviours
which will be eventually evolve as locally unique consumption practices and pat-
terns (Ger & Belk, 1996). The primary mechanism under the convergence theory
is social influences, which lead EM consumers to imitate the consumption behav-
ior in the developed markets. In particular, aspirational reference groups have
been widely used to set the standards of consumption behaviour (Dholakia &
Talukdar, 2004). While the primary mechanism under the divergence theory is the
diverse needs and wants.
There is a growing literature on the global brands in emerging countries,
however, since the 1980s, the explosion of information technology, particularly
telecommunications, has changed the nature of consumption. Digitization,
e-commerce, and easy access to information created an era of more rapid disper-
sion of trends and shorter product life cycles in global markets. Moreover, EM
companies are learning quickly from their developed market counterparts and
local brands are becoming strong competitors for global brands. Therefore, what
affects the attractiveness of global brands in EMs, and what are the drivers of
purchase intention and willingness to pay more for global brands in EMs should
be re-analysed in this digital era. This study particularly, aims to answer whether
bandwagon consumption, conspicuous value, and social value do affect the con-
sumption of global brands in emerging countries. By doing so, this research aims
to highlight that the consumers in EMs do motivated by imitating the others in
order not to be “left behind.”
Conceptual framework and hypotheses
Global brands and EMs
The global standardization of branding activities resulted in consistent and well-
defined brand images across markets (Keller, 2008). Even the process of economic
globalization may slow down because of financial and social upheavals, global
movement of capital, labor, and production will continue to grow over the long
term, and hence the demand for global brands seems to remain strong. Moreover,
there is an orientation toward the acculturation to global consumer culture and
the existence of the individual difference construct-global consumption (Akaka &
Alden, 2010).
Global brands are the brands that “consumers can find under the same name
in multiple countries with generally standardized and centrally coordinated mar-
keting strategies”(Ozsomer, 2012 p. 72). Consumers perceive a brand as global if
that brand is marketed and recognized in multiple countries. There are two main
sources of that perception (Merino and Gonzales, 2008): (1) corporate marketing
communications, and (2) external-based communication, i.e., media exposure,
word-of-mouth.
Global marketing literature provides evidence that consumers perceive global
brands as having more value either physical through better quality or affective
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through self-perception and self-esteem. Global brands are widely available and rec-
ognized and more than that they belong to a global community (Alden, Steenkamp,
& Batra, 1999; Kapferer, 1997), they are prestigious (Steenkamp, Batra, & Alden,
2003), they provide self-esteem (Johansson & Ronkainen, 2005), they have quality
and they behave social responsible (Holt, Quelch, & Taylor, 2004). On the other
hand, consumers evaluate global brands less risky based on their familiarity with
global brands. It is explained that when familiarity with the brand increases, per-
ceived risk decreases (Quinthal and Phau, 2014). Globalization has caused an ever-
expanding purchase options for consumers, including an increasing proportion of
foreign products and global brands especially for emerging countries (Tjiptono,
Arli, & Rosari, 2015). For the global brands, emerging countries are important mar-
kets because of their potential for economic growth and population. The multina-
tional corporations (MNCs) are bringing their global brands to EMs to succeed and
benefit from the opportunities (Ozsomer, 2012). EMs present significant socioeco-
nomic, demographic, cultural, and regulative differences from Western countries
(Burgess & Steenkamp, 2006), and experience a rapid change in socio-political and
economic environment (Steenkamp & Burgess, 2002). Therefore, more research is
required in relation with the EMs (Burgess & Steenkamp, 2006).
Bandwagon consumption
The consumer behaviour literature highlights that products and brands are not
only purchased for utilitarian reasons but also for non-utilitarian reasons such as
symbolic acquisitions and status that has its roots in the concept of conspicuous
consumption. Conspicuous consumption is defined as the tendency to “consume
highly visible goods to display wealth and gain social status”(Truong & McColl,
2011 p.556).
Veblen (1899) was the first to shed light to conspicuous consumption and
highlighted that, as wealth increases and spread over society, some individuals tend to
consume conspicuously. Veblen (1899) distinguished between two motives for con-
suming conspicuous goods: (1) “invidious comparison”and (2) “pecuniary emula-
tion.”Invidious comparison refers to “situations in which a member of a higher class
consumes conspicuously to distinguish himself from members of a lower class,”while
pecuniary emulation occurs “when a member of a lower class consumes conspicu-
ously so that he will be thought of as a member of a higher class”(Bagwell & Bern-
heim, 1996, p. 350). In other words, there are two motives affectingthe demand.
Morgenstern (1948) was among the first authors, who determined “non-additiv-
ity”of demand curves, which is derived from certain nonmarket interactions
between consumers. For example, the demand for fashion has a non-additivity
curve since “where one person buys because another is buying the same thing.”
(Carare, 2012, p.719). On that ground, Leibenstein (1950) stated that the demand
for goods and services may be classified according to motivation and defines two
types of demand in general: (1) functional demand, and (2) nonfunctional
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demand. Functional demand is a function of qualities inherent in the commodity
itself, while nonfunctional demand is a function of external effects on utility. That
is, “the utility derived from the commodity is enhanced or decreased owing to the
fact that others are purchasing and consuming the same commodity, or owing to
the fact that the commodity bears a higher rather than a lower price tag”(Leiben-
stein, 1950, p. 189).
There are three main motives creating the external effects on utility. These are
(1) Veblen effect, (2) snob effect, and (3) bandwagon effect. Veblen effect is the
phenomenon of conspicuous consumption; therefore the demand for goods and
services is increased because it bears a higher rather than a lower price. Snob effect
represents the desire of people to be exclusive, and to dissociate themselves from
the “common herd.”In that case the demand for a consumers’good is decreased
owing to the fact that others are also consuming the same commodity. The differ-
ence between the snob and the Veblen effect is that the former is a function of the
consumption of others, while the latter is a function of price. Bandwagon effect,
represents the desire of people to purchase a commodity in order to get into “the
swim of things”; in order to conform with the people they wish to be associated
with; in order to be fashionable or stylish; or, in order to appear to be “one of the
boys”and therefore the demand for a commodity is increased due to the fact that
others are also consuming the same commodity (Leibenstein, 1950, p. 189). Band-
wagon purchasing is primarily driven by a desire to secure horizontal (within
group) rather than vertical (between group) status gains”(Mason, 1992 p. 49). The
demand for a product increases because others are consuming that product. In
other words, “consumers jump on the bandwagon so they won’t be left behind”
(Ko & Megehee, 2012, p. 1395). Compared to the Veblen and Snob effect, band-
wagon effect is not much studied in the literature (Schalkwyk, 2014). Extant
research on bandwagon consumption is mostly from economics (Bagwell & Bern-
heim, 1996; Corneo & Jeanne, 1997; Katz & Shapiro, 1985; Leibenstein, 1950), lux-
ury branding (Husic & Cicic, 2009; Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2012; Tsai Yang, &
Liu, 2013; Tynan, McKechnie, & Chhuon, 2010; Vigneron & Johnson, 1999), and
fashion marketing (Coelho & Mcclure, 1993). A bandwagon good is sold at an
increasing price to a large portion of the population (Corneo & Jeanne, 1997). In
the case of demand, optimal sales are small for a snobbish good, while it is close or
equal to the whole market for a bandwagon good. And in the long-run price is
higher for snobbish case, because restricting the market enhances its reputational
value. On the contrary, for the bandwagon case, when the number of consumers
exceeds a large critical value, the good becomes more desirable (Corneo & Jeanne,
1997). The bandwagon effect is purely psychological and may generate consump-
tion externalities (Katz & Shapiro, 1985). For bandwagon consumers, price is less
important as an indicator of prestige, but the effect they make on others has a
greater significance for them (Husic & Cicic, 2009). Social approval is sought for
bandwagon consumption (Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2012). Consumers communi-
cate their desires of belonging to a class by purchasing a brand over another.
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Hence, consumers may be grouped under two: snobs or “aristocracy”and band-
wagon consumers or “new money”. Either way, they want to enhance their self-
image whether by differentiation or assimilation. However, bandwagon consumers
do it by paying money for the products full of logos, while the snobs do it by pay-
ing higher amount for a hidden brand label. In other words, snobs desire to gain
prestige by purchasing higher priced brands of public or private display, while
bandwagon consumers refer to the visual public display or overt usage of product
(Tynan, McKechnie, & Chhuon, 2010). Today, money seems to be a reflection of
power and happiness, and in the present situation of the luxury market, money is
shown by visible luxury goods. On one side, there are consumers display their
power and success by differing from others through consumption, while on the
other side there are the “new money”group, who imitate the first group in every-
thing, even their aspiration to differentiation (Husic & Cicic, 2009). Bandwagon
luxury consumers do not just follow passively, but they actively use luxury prod-
ucts as a physical evidence of the superior rank they want to be within (Kastanakis
& Balabanis, 2012). Nevertheless, one can always say, “Nouveau riche is better
than no rich at all”(Husic & Cicic, 2009, p.243). One of the major antecedents of
bandwagon luxury consumption is the status consumption. Because status con-
sumption is about to satisfy the both: need for self-recognition and the need for
others’recognition, the bandwagon luxury consumption fulfills both of those needs
(Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2012). Besides to status seeking, it is found that the self-
concept orientation regulates bandwagon consumption. The degree of a consum-
er’s susceptibility to normative influences or need for uniqueness mediates the
influence of self-concept (Kastanakis & Balabanis, 2014).
In developing countries, status symbols are important. This is mainly because in
those countries income disparities and status mobility are high, and the interpersonal
relations are important (Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, & Ramachander,
2000). Consumers in developing countries emulate the Western consumption practi-
ces and lifestyles and purchase the brands they are exposed to through mass media
or personal channels—such as worth-of-mouth, weblogs, and travel. In general, they
choose global brands for conspicuous consumption or aspirational reasons (Batra,
Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, & Ramachander, 2000;Holt,Quelch,&Taylor,
2004), as such they mostly imitate the buying behavior of reference groups to which
they would like to belong (Dholakia & Talukdar, 2004).
Besides aspirational motives, another important outcome of globalization is
the global consumer culture. A shared “world culture”has emerged as a result of
the ‘‘increasing interconnectedness of varied local cultures as well as through the
development of cultures without a clear anchorage in any one territory.”(Hannerz,
1990, p. 237). The acculturation of consumers in EMs caused consumers to acquire
and internalize the symbolic meanings of global brands. Cayla and Eckhardt (2008)
suggested that this is a learning process and a negotiation with the consumers’cul-
ture to persuade them to acquire and internalize the symbolic meaning of global
brands. The diffusion of images through “mediaspaces”and “ethnospaces”cause
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consumers to desire to be a part of the consumer culture and thus, certain product
categories become signs of global cosmopolitanism and modernity (Alden, Steen-
kamp, & Batra, 1999).
Brand attractiveness is the “extent to which a brand is attractive, favorable, and
distinctive”(Sophonsiri & Polyorat, 2009, p. 54). It is important for brand success
(Kim, Han, & Park, 2001) since it affects market share positively (Gonzalez-Benito,
Pilar Mart
ınez-Ruiz, & Molla-Descals, 2008). Also, perceived brand attractiveness
influences the relationship between consumers and brands. To some extent, the
quality of the relationship between consumers and brands appears to be dependent
on the brand’s perceived attractiveness (Hayes, Alford, Silver, & York, 2006).
Brand personality dimensions and brand associations affect brand attractiveness
(Sophonsiri & Polyorat, 2009). And global brands are perceived as more attractive
than the domestic brands (Alden, Steenkamp, & Batra, 1999). It is therefore
hypothesized that:
H1: Bandwagon consumption affects (a) attractiveness, (b) purchase intention, and (c)
willingness to pay more for global brands in EMs.
Value perceptions
In customer value research, buyers’perceptions of value “represent a trade-off
between the quality or benefits they perceive in the product relative to the sacrifice
they perceive by paying the price”(Monroe & Chapman, 1987, p. 193). (Zeithaml,
1988, p. 14) defined perceived value as “the consumer’s overall assessment of the
utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given.”
Dodds, Monroe, and Grewal (1991) suggested that while forming perceptions of
value, consumers use extrinsic cues (i.e., price, brand name, and store name) to
form perceptions of product quality and monetary sacrifice. Teas and Agarwal
(2000) expanded the Dodds, Monroe, and Grewal (1991) model by including the
country-of-origin effect as another extrinsic cue. Definitions considering perceived
value as a trade-off between quality and price represent a one-dimensional value-
for-money conceptualization (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001).
Holbrook (1994) developed a complementary view on value and postulated that
consumption experiences most likely involve more than one type of value simulta-
neously. Holbrook (1994) explained the basis of his thoughts as people do not
desire products but satisfying experiences and defined customer value as “an inter-
active relativistic preference experience”(Holbrook, 1994, p. 27) In other words,
customer value involves an interaction between an object (e.g., a product) and a
subject (e.g., a consumer). “This object–subject interaction is relativistic in at least
three senses (comparative, personal, situational)—“first, involving a comparison
among objects; second, varying from one person to another; and, third, depending
on the situation in which the evaluation occurs”(Holbrook, 2006, p. 715). The per-
ceived value is operationalized in marketing literature with a single-item scale in
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measuring customer perceived value in terms of “value for money”or functional
value. That approach is criticized since the single items cannot address the concept
of perceived value (Al-Sabbahy, Ekinci & Riley, 2004). Sheth, Newman, & Gross
(1991) developed a broader theoretical framework and determined multiple con-
sumption value dimensions for different choice situations. They suggested five
value dimensions (social, emotional, functional, epistemic, and conditional) in rela-
tion to the perceived utility of choice and decision levels (buy level, product level,
and brand level). In this context, Sweeney and Soutar (2001) suggested a four-
dimensional perceived value model: (1) Functional value (price/value for money),
(2) Functional value (performance/quality), (3) Emotional value, and (4) Social
value.
Social value is the utility derived from a product’s ability to enhance social self-
concept (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001, p. 211). It is the perceived utility of an alterna-
tive resulting from its image and symbolism in association, or disassociation, with
demographic, socio-economic, and cultural-ethnic reference groups (Sheth, New-
man, & Gross, 1991). Therefore, social value perceptions are in general outer-
directed consumption preferences and they are related to the instrumental aspect
of impression management (Shukla, 2012). The aspiration to gain status or social
prestige from the acquisition and consumption of goods is one of the important
motivating forces influencing a wide range of consumer behavior (Belk, 1988).
Conspicuous value is “derived from the consumption process which is solely
focused on the display of wealth”(Shukla, 2012, p. 578). Consumer preferences for
many products that are purchased or consumed in the public are shaped by con-
spicuous consumption (Wiedmann, Hennigs, & Siebels, 2009). Vigneron and
Johnson (1999)defined the motivation relying under the conspicuous value as
Veblenian, while for the social value as Bandwagon. The consumption of prestige
brands is viewed as a signal of status and wealth, and whose price, expensive by
normal standards, enhances the value of such a signal and therefore, is a result of
perceived conspicuous value. However, the role-playing aspects and the social
value of prestige brands can be instrumental in the decision to buy (perceived
social value). Consumers believe that global brands connote better quality, provide
status and prestige, and a way to become part of global consumer culture (Steen-
kamp, Batra, & Alden, 2003). The empirical evidence generally suggests that for-
eign brands are associated with a higher level of quality and status than domestic
brands (Chen, Chen, & Lin, 2013; Ponte & Gibbon, 2005; Wang and Chen, 2004).
It is therefore hypothesized that:
H2: Conspicuous value perception affects (a) attractiveness, (b) purchase intention, and
(c) willingness to pay more for global brands in EMs.
H3: Social value perception affects (a) attractiveness, (b) purchase intention, and (c) will-
ingness to pay more for global brands in EMs.
Figure 1 displays the hypothesized relationships in relation to the literature.
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Method
Sampling and measurement
In the study, data were collected from university students via a face-to-face survey
method. Before the questionnaire was administered, it was pre-tested on 30
respondents and the necessary changes were subsequently incorporated into the
final questionnaire. The size of the pre-test sample is not fixed, although long,
complex instruments seem to require larger pre-test samples compared to short,
simple instruments (Hunt, Sparkman, & Wilcox, 1982). A total of 458 valid and
complete responses were included in the final analysis. There are several reasons to
use a student sample. First of all, youth has been held up as the prototypical exam-
ple of a global segment (Kjeldgaard & Askegaard, 2006). Youth culture emerges
from the development of Western modernity and they are more exposed to a
growing usage of media and other communication channels (Appadurai, 1990). In
Figure 1. Model of Hypothesized Relationships
BC (Bandwagon consumption- 5 items), CV (Con-
spicuous value- 4 items), SV (Social value- 4 items), PI (Purchase intention- 4 items), WtPM (Willing-
ness to pay more- 3 items), ATTR (Brand attractiveness- 3 items).
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the study, a global sneaker brand was chosen since the respondents were university
students. In Turkey, the imports of sports wear increased by 16.4 percent in the
2011–2015 period and reached 15.3 million dollars whereas the imports of sports
shoes increased 15 percent and reached 19.8 million dollars. The total imports for
sports wear and shoes in 2011–2015 period were 138 million dollars (TUIK, 2016).
Top five shoe brands in Turkey are Nike, Adidas, Skechers, New Balance, and
Puma. There are also local brands—Kinetix and Lescon—as well as global brands
This study is focused on consumers in Turkey, which is a fast-growing attractive
emerging market as being the world’s 17th largest GDP by PPP and 18th largest
nominal GDP (World Bank, 2016) with a population of 79 million. The country is
among the founding members of OECD and G-20. Until the 1980s, Turkey’s
development policy was based on the import-substitution model; however, this
model failed to provide sustainable growth, and in the 1980s, Turkey’s develop-
ment strategy changed as liberalization and thus international trade and foreign
investments increased (Kravets & Sandikci, 2014). The apparel industry emerged
as a key engine of economy. Low labor and material costs helped Turkish firms
become major subcontractors of global brands. By 2005, Turkey became the
world’s second-largest clothing exporter, following China (Tokatli and Kizilgun,
2009). In the 1990s, in relation with the increase of importing, Turkey was flooded
by multinational corporations (MNCs), foreign products, shopping malls, five-star
hotels, and gated communities (Kravets & Sandikci, 2014).
In the study, the constructs were measured by using established scales. Emo-
tional value and social value was measured by Sweeney and Soutar’s(2001) scale,
conspicuous value was measured by Shukla (2012) scale, bandwagon consumption
was measured by Kastanakis and Balabanis’s(2012) scale, attractiveness was mea-
sured by Erdem and Swait’s(2004) scale, purchase intention was measured by
Dodds, Monroe, & Grewal (1991) scale, and willingness to pay more was measured
by Miller and Mills’s(2012) scale.
The demographic and socio-economic variables of the respondents indicate that
they are from both genders (with 53.3% being female while 46.7% being male),
and they have an age of 21–23 (64.4%). The majority of the sample has an income
level of 1500 Euro (34.9%) and a four member family size (44.8%). In that sense,
the sample is considered as being representative.
Research findings
In the study, before testing the hypothesized relationships, the reliability of the
scales was evaluated by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. When using multi-item
scales, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is commonly used to calculate the internal con-
sistency reliability. It determines the internal consistency or average correlation of
items in a survey instrument (Santos, 1999). The results of the reliability analysis
are displayed in Table 1 and shows that values are higher than the minimum
required level of .70.
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Structural model testing
The research hypothesis was tested via SEM, mainly because SEM is a powerful
statistical technique since it is a combination of factor analysis and multiple regres-
sion analysis. The most obvious difference between SEM and other multivariate
techniques is the use of separate relationships for each of a set of dependent vari-
able. SEM estimates a series of separate, but interdependent, multiple regression
equations simultaneously by specifying the structural model used by the statistical
program (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998).
The overall fit measures of the structural model indicate an adequate fitofthe
model to the data (Chi-square/df D2,839; CFI D.936; TLI D.925; IFI D.936; GFI
D.894; RMSEA D.063). The results provide strong support for the conceptual
model displayed in Figure 1,andTable 2 presents a summary of the hypotheses tests.
R
2
values represent the explanatory power of the dependent variables and the
overall adequacy of the model. It displays the explained percentage of endogenous
latent construct by exogenous latent variables (Sirohi, McLaughlin, & Wittink, 1998).
For attractiveness R
2
value is .503, for purchase intention R
2
value is .222 and for
willingness to pay more is .270. This is not a high value but there are numerous other
variables affecting purchase intention and willingness to pay more for global brands
and this study only examined bandwagon consumption and value perceptions.
Conclusion and discussion
The present article investigates how bandwagon consumption and value percep-
tions affect consumer behavior toward global brands in EMs. Previous research on
Table 1. The results of validity and reliability analyses.
Scales Number of Variable Alfa Coefficients (Reliability Analysis)
Bandwagon consumption 5 .785
Conspicuous value 4 .845
Social value 4 .883
Purchase intention 4 .928
Willingness to pay more 3 .869
Attractiveness 3 .790
Table 2. Regression weights.
Estimate S.E C.R. P
Attract. <—Bandwagon C. ,988 ,118 8,351
H1a supported
Attract. <—Consp. Value ,339 ,057 5,919
H2a supported
Attract. <—Social Value ,115 ,046 2,489 ,013 H3a supported
Purch. Int <—Bandwagon C. ,752 ,111 6,752
H1b supported
Purch. Int <—Consp. Value ,351 ,066 5,311
H2b supported
Purch. Int <—Social Value ,272 ,056 4,838
H3b supported
WtPM <—Bandwagon C. ,368 ,092 3,983
H1c supported
WtPM <—Consp. Value ,329 ,063 5,254
H2c supported
WtPM <—Social Value ,334 ,054 6,151
H3c supported
Attractiveness R
2
D503, Purchase Intention R
2
D.222, WtPmore R
2
D.270
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bandwagon consumption has not focused on global marketing. Studies on band-
wagon consumption are mostly focused on areas such as economics (Bagwell &
Bernheim, 1996; Corneo & Jeanne, 1997; Katz & Shapiro, 1985; Leibenstein, 1950),
luxury branding (Chaudhuri & Majumdar, 2006; Husic & Cicic, 2009; Kastanakis
& Balabanis, 2012; Tsai Yang, & Liu, 2013; Tynan, McKechnie, & Chhuon, 2010;
Vigneron & Johnson, 1999), and fashion marketing (Coelho & Mcclure, 1993).
Apart from that there is also an extant interest on global brands in EMs. Previ-
ous studies have provided valuable theoretical accounts concerning the EMs, and
the attitudes toward global brands. However, EMs are growing and changing con-
stantly, and due to their evolving nature more research is needed to define their
dynamics. This study aims to explore the effects of bandwagon consumption and
value perceptions on consumers’attitudes—purchase intention, brand attractive-
ness, and willingness to pay more. In the study, data were collected via a survey,
which was administered to 458 university students in Istanbul, Turkey. A global
sneaker brand was chosen as a subject to study in order to ensure the fitness with
the sample.
Complementing previous research on the effects of consumers’perceptions of
global brands in EMs (Alden, Steenkamp, & Batra, 1999; Batra, Ramaswamy,
Alden, Steenkamp, & Ramachander, 2000; Ger, Belk, & Lascu, 1993), this research
displays also how the desire to “be in the same wagon”can be relevant to global
marketing in emerging countries. This article advanced three main hypotheses,
which were supported. In sum, the purchase intention, brand attractiveness, and
willingness to pay more for global brands in emerging countries are influenced by
bandwagon consumption, conspicuous value perception, and social value percep-
tion. Three observations are noteworthy.
First of all, bandwagon consumption explains most of the variance in brand
attractiveness, purchase intention and willingness to pay more for global brands
compared to effects of social and conspicuous value. Bandwagon consumption
can be explained by how the customer in EMs intends to buy global products in
order to be associated with an aspirational group. In other words, consumers in
EMs are keen on being in the same wagon and that desire affects their consump-
tion behavior and perceptions. Echoing the studies of Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden,
Steenkamp, and Ramachander (2000)and Holt, Quelch, and Taylor (2004)on
the consumption of global brands for aspirational reasons, and studies of Steen-
kamp, Batra, and Alden (2003)on being a part of global culture, this research
reveals that consumers in emerging countries are influencedbythedesiretoown
the brand that is recognized, chosen and used by many people. In addition to
affecting consumers’attitude, bandwagon consumption also affects the percep-
tion of brand attractiveness in EMs. Previous studies put forward that brand
attractiveness is a result of brand personality dimensions and brand associations
(Sophonsiri & Polyorat, 2009). Moreover,Alden,Steenkamp,andBatra(1999)
highlighted that global brands are perceived as more attractive than domestic
brands. In addition to those studies, this study exposes that bandwagon
12 A. ULUN AND B. ZEHRA
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consumption—a form of non-functional demand—affects consumers to perceive
global brands more attractive.
Second, for the emerging country settlements, value perceptions have an impor-
tant effect on the consumers’attitudes toward global brands (Alden, Steenkamp, &
Batra, 1999; Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, & Ramachander, 2000; Ger,
Belk, & Lascu, 1993). This study supported previous studies on the context that
social value is an important determinant of willingness to pay more for global
brands. If the products provide high social value, status and social prestige, con-
sumers are willing to pay more. In addition, social value perceptions also influence
purchasing intention. Echoing the theory of impression management ( Goffman,
1967), consumers in EMs also purchase products in order to express themselves.
Moreover, social value is positively related to brand attractiveness.
Third, consistent with the literature ( Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, &
Ramachander, 2000; Holt, Quelch, & Taylor, 2004) the effect of conspicuous value
on purchase intention and willingness to pay more for global brands turned out to
play a significant role. The consumption of global brands is viewed as a signal of
status and wealth that enhances the purchasing intention and willingness to pay
more. This is especially true for customers wishing to belong in high status groups
in EMs. As a contribution to the existing literature, it was found that conspicuous
value perceptions also affect brand attractiveness.
To sum up, this study extends the literature in terms of examining bandwagon
consumption as a factor in global marketing. Moreover, this study suggests that
global brand attractiveness is influenced by bandwagon consumption, conspicuous
value perception, and social value perception. If a brand is used by the majority,
and provides social acceptance and status, then a brand is perceived as attractive
by the consumers in emerging countries.
Global marketers should seriously consider the impact of bandwagon consump-
tion and value perceptions on attractiveness, purchasing intention, and willingness
to pay more. Global companies should understand customer’s values and their
consumption behavior while entering in new markets. By understanding the cues
that customers consider in purchasing behavior, companies can initiate activities
aimed at enhancing their standing with customers. Thus, this research provides
companies with key factors for gaining attractiveness, purchase intention, and will-
ingness to pay more by facilitating bandwagon consumption and social and con-
spicuous value. Specifically, managers of global brands should promote their
brands is EMs through several media (traditional or social media, word-of-mouth,
etc.) as fashionable and as a symbol of achievement. Managers can focus on
enhancing their product’status and popularity as stating that “this product is
worn by many celebrities”and “this product is recognized and approved by the
majority.”Moreover, consumers in EMs not only wish for social acceptance and
approval, but also they desire to be perceived as having a higher status. Therefore,
global brands should not only promote “being global”but also should promote
social value and status.
JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT 13
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As is the case with any research, the study presented limitations that should be
considered. First, the study is limited to the identified variables simply because the
focus of the investigation is on bandwagon consumption, social value and conspic-
uous value effects on purchasing intention, brand attractiveness, and willingness to
pay more. Second, the findings may be limited to the sample and the brand investi-
gated in this research. In this study, university students are surveyed and a major
global sneaker brand is chosen. Further research can verify whether these findings
hold for other samples and other product and service categories in different indus-
tries. Third, the data are collected from Turkey, which is an important emerging
market. Therefore, the results of the study should not be generalized for the other
emerging countries. The bandwagon effects and the value perceptions of other
EMs should be examined in order to put forward a general model.
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Appendix Scales
Bandwagon consumption (Kastakanis and Balabanis, 2012)
worn by many celebrities
very fashionable
everyone would approve their choice
recognized by many people
chosen and worn by most people
Conspicuous value (Shukla, 2012)
Owning luxury goods indicates a symbol of achievement
Owning luxury goods indicates a symbol of wealth
Owning luxury goods indicates a symbol of prestige
Owning luxury goods attracts attention
Brand attractiveness (Ohanian, 1990)
This brand is very attractive to me,
This brand is very elegant
I think the image of this brand is very beautiful
Social value (Sweeney and Soutar,
would help me to feel acceptable
would improve the way I am perceived
would make a good impression on other people
would give its owner social approval
Purchase intention Dodds, Monroe, and Grewal (1991)
If I were going to purchase a ….. product, I would consider buying this brand.
If I were shopping for a …….. brand, the likelihood I would purchase this
luxury brand is high.
My willingness to buy this …….. brand would be high if I were shopping for
a luxury brand.
The probability I would consider buying this ……. brand is high.
Willingness to pay a premium (miller & mills, 2012)marka adıkullanılacak
I am willing to pay a higher price for brand X than for other brands of prod-
uct X
Even if the other brands are priced lower, I will still buy brand X
Even though brand X seems comparable to other brands I am willing to pay
more
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