THE'SALAR DE UYUNI'AS A SIMULATED MARS BASE HABITAT IN SOUTH AMERICA

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THE ‘SALAR DE UYUNI’ AS A SIMULATED MARS BASE HABITAT IN SOUTH AMERICA
Natalia I. Vargas-Cuentasa*, Avid Roman-Gonzalezb
a International School, Beihang University of Aeronautics and Astronautics - BUAA, 37 Xueyuan Rd, Haidian Qu,
Beijing Shi, China, 100191
b Image Processing Research Laboratory (INTI-Lab), Universidad de Ciencias y Humanidades - UCH, Av.
Universitaria 5175, Los Olivos, Lima, Peru, Lima 39
* Corresponding Author
Abstract
The first man to step on Martian soil must be prepared and trained for everything he will face on the Red Planet,
knowing what difficulties he will encounter, knowing where to explore, and what actions to take. All these aspects
have to be learned here on Earth. That is why it is critical to have analog bases simulating Mars here on Earth. The
primary objective of this work is to propose the ‘Salar de Uyuni’, located in Bolivia, as an analog base to simulate
exploration missions on Mars. Uyuni's environmental characteristics make it a good alternative when one need to
simulate exploration of other planets. In the present work, we can observe a comparison of the main features of the
different simulation stations of Mars and the environmental characteristics of Uyuni.
Keywords: Analog Mars, Mars, Uyuni, Planet Exploration, Human Exploration, Simulation
1. Introduction
The growing interest to explore the Universe,
discover new planets, has led us to develop scientific
and technical projects, to discover the unknown.
The exploration of Mars has been a project that has
emerged since the beginning of the cold war, the
reasons for exploring the red planet are several, for
example, ancient astronomers have evidenced the
presence of furrows on the surface of the red planet that
would be an indication of the existence of water. On the
other hand, Mars would have a strategic position respect
to the Sun, contemplating the red planet for human
expansion in the future. Finally, the existing technology
of space exploration can take us to that planet.
In the last years, different projects have come up to
make the exploration of Mars come true, first by
sending rover explorations like Spirit, Opportunity,
Curiosity and others. On the other hand, there have also
been projects to develop human exploration, with
initiatives such as Mars500, MarsOne, and others.
To crystallize the human explorations on Mars, it
has been understood that the first thing to do is to
understand the necessary considerations for a manned
space mission, for this, the Mars Society launched the
Mars Analog Research Station (MARS) project. A
global program of Mars operations research that
includes four simulated Mars base habitats located in
Australia, Iceland, the Canadian Arctic, Australian and
the American Southwest. This mission is designed to
understand on earth aspects such as the conditions of
life that would have to be faced on Mars for exploration,
also carried out geological, biological, electronic and
even psychological investigations.
In this paper, we want to make a comparison of
environmental conditions, geologic features, and
biological attributes that we can see in the four
simulated Mars base habitats, and we want to propose a
location for the existence of a fifth simulated Mars base
habitats located in the 'Salar de Uyuni’ in Bolivia. The
‘Salar de Uyuni' is a place that has the climatic, and
geological conditions that are required and also has a
quality of radiation. The salt and lithium that exist in the
territory affect the correct functioning of electronic
components, a quality that we would find interesting to
simulate in search of a future human exploration
mission to Mars.
This paper is structured as follow. Section 2 presents
some characteristics of the Mars environment. In
Section 3 one describe different analog Mars station
around the world. Section 4 shows the advantages of
Uyuni to be considered an analog Mars station. In
Section 5 one shows the results. In Section 6 one
interprets the results although the discussion. Section 7
present the arrived conclusion of this study.
2. Environmental conditions on Mars
2.1 General environmental conditions on Mars
Mars is the fourth inner planet in the solar system,
the most distant planet belonging to this group, is
mainly composed of rock and metal and have two
natural satellites Deimos and Phobos.
The red planet is the second smallest planet in the
solar system, and it is smaller than the Earth, the
Martian year lasts 687 days.
The Martian atmosphere was destroyed by the solar
wind; therefore it is now composed mostly of carbon
dioxide, and the red color of this planet comes from iron

oxide in its soil. [1]
Its surface is peppered with volcanoes, such as
Olympus Mons, which reaches a height of 21,129
meters, on the other hand, is also composed of valleys
such as Valles Marineris.
Also on the planet are the famous dust storms, which
have a duration of weeks or even months that come to
darken the sky completely and have winds that can
reach a speed of more than 150 km / h.
Comparing the most relevant environmental
conditions between our planet Earth and the red planet,
we have the following table:
Table 1. Environmental conditions on Mars and Earth
Parameters
Mars
Earth
Mass ( Kg)
0.639
5.97
Gravity (m/s)
3.7278
9.81
Solar UV radiation (nm)
λ≥200
λ≥290
Solar particle events (Sv/h)
~ 0.1
-
Cosmic ionizing radiation (mSv/a)
100 to 200
1 to 2
Pressure (mbar)
4 - 7
1013
Temperature range (°C)
-140 to 20
-90 to 60
Atmosphere Composition
CO2 (%)
95.3
0.33
N2 (%)
2.7
78.1
02 (%)
0.1
20.9
Ar (%)
1.6
0.9
The environmental conditions of Mars are extreme
because as mentioned earlier this planet is farther from
the sun than the Earth, it has an average temperature of -
63 °C, also because of its tenuous atmosphere and the
absence of magnetic field the radiation in the red planet
is very high. [2]
Experts indicate that the environmental condition
that would most affect the human being in a future
mission on Mars would be the high radiation.
2.2 Radiation on Mars
To talk about radiation on the red planet, we must
first consider that there are two types of radiation:
Ionizing radiation: this radiation carries enough
energy to remove an electron from its orbit. Within this
kind of radiation, we can see the following:
● Wave radiations: X-rays and gamma rays.
● Corpuscular radiations: Alpha radiation, beta
radiation, neutron radiation.
Non-ionizing radiation: this radiation does not emit
photons with enough energy to cause that an electron is
removed from its orbit. Within this kind of radiation, we
can see the following:
● Microwave radiation
● Infrared radiation
● Ultraviolet radiation
● Visible light
● Laser
● Radio Frequency Fields
In the following figure, we can observe more clearly
the division of the mentioned two types of radiation, the
first constituted by particles and the second with an
electromagnetic nature. [3]
Fig. 1. Radiation spectrum
In this research, we will focus on the ultraviolet
(UV) radiation about non-ionizing radiation.[4] Inside
the ultraviolet radiation we can find the following three
bands:
● UVA: It is the closest to the visible spectrum and
is not absorbed by the ozone. Its range goes from
320 to 400 nm. This type of radiation damages the
skin in the long term.
● UVB: It is a more dangerous type of radiation,
although it is absorbed almost completely by the
ozone, its spectrum goes from the 280 to the 320
nm. It affects DNA and also causes melanoma and
other types of skin cancer.
● UVC: They have more energy than other types of
UV rays, which is why this kind of radiation is
extremely dangerous but is completely absorbed
by the ozone and oxygen of our planet. Its
spectrum is less than 280 nm.
Because the atmosphere of Mars is composed
primarily of carbon dioxide (CO2), the UV radiation
can reach the Martian surface.

Fig. 2. UV radiation in Mars and in Earth
As can be seen in Figure 2, the cut-off point for UV
radiation on Mars is given at 200 nm; the primary cause
is provided by the existence of the majority of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere of the red planet.
On the contrary, in the case of the Earth, oxygen and
ozone cause the cut-off point of UV radiation in the
Earth's atmosphere at 290 nm. [5]
The spectral difference indicates that the surface of
Mars is exposed to UVC and UVB radiation, which is
very harmful to any organism.
In Figure 3, we will observe the spectrum of
biological action, which quantifies the sensitivity of
organisms to UV radiation. We also can see several
examples of the action spectra of the most important
biological targets:
Fig. 3. UV radiation
One can see that for any action range if the
wavelength of the radiation received is low, the damage
will be greater. Therefore UVC radiation is the most
harmful in all processes.
3. Mars analog research stations in the world
For many years, an important mission for space
exploration has been the arrival of humans to Mars, for
many reasons, but the most important are: the search for
water and possible life on Mars, another important
strategic reason is the possibility of contemplating the
red planet for human expansion in the future, due to its
position in the habitable zone of our solar system.
For these reasons Mars analog research stations have
been created over time for ground research, in order to
be able to develop the knowledge necessary to prepare a
future mission to Mars, performing key activities like a
“living on Mars” simulation wearing a space suit
simulator, developing Extra Vehicular Activities
(EVA), testing the All Terrain Vehicle (ATV). [6]
The most important analog missions and their main
objective are described below.
3.1 The Mars Society’s Mars Analog Research Station
The Mars Society is an american association that
was established in 1998 by Dr. Robert Zubrin, it is an
organization truly dedicated to promote and research
the human exploration in Mars. [7]
Fig.4. Mars Society
This international non-profit organisation developed
the Mars Analog Research Station (MARS) project and
built and operates four Mars surface exploration
habitats, the location and specific details of each of
these stations will be explained in more detail below.
3.1.1 Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS)
FMARS is the first simulated Mars habitat
established for the Mars Society, it was builded in the
year 2000 with the help of different major companies
that sponsorship the final cost of this project which was
US$1.3 million. [8]
The station was designed by architect Kurt Micheels
and design engineer Wayne Cassalls, the infrastructure
of the station is composed of a unique type of fiberglass
honeycomb construction technology.
At this station different missions are conducted and
operated with different main objectives, such as habitat
design tests, design of field exploration protocols,
geological and biological researches under conditions
similar to those found on the red planet. [9]
The location of this analogue station is in Canada on
Devon Island at 75° 25' 52.75"N 89° 49' 24.19" W, its
location is strategic, as it is located on a polar desert, a

few kilometers from the Magnetic North Pole and in the
vicinity of the Haughton impact crater, a crater of 23 km
diameter.
Fig. 5.Location of Devon Island, Canada
The environmental conditions of this island are used
to conduct research for different environmental
characteristics that are similar to those found on the red
planet, for example the average annual temperature is -
16 ° C, because the soil remains frozen for most of the
year.
This base location has an altitude of 1479 masl, an
atmospheric pressure of 985.10 hPa, a UV radiation
index of 4 and its mean temperature is -16 °C.
Another factor used to simulate the conditions of
Mars in the Earth is the desert and barren environment
that is exposed in summer season when the snow
disappears for around 50 days. [10]
Also in the base they can perform geological studies
of erosion in the Haughton crater.
Fig. 6. Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station
(FMARS)
Finally another factor taken advantage of by the
researchers is the psychological factor that affects to the
crew by the isolation of the base, the difference of the
cycle of the day and Arctic night and the impossibility
of communication, since they are factors that will
appear in a space flight of long duration. [11]
3.1.2 Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS)
MDRS is the second simulated Mars habitat
established for the Mars Society, it was builded in the
early 2000s. This station is located on the San Rafael
Swell in southern Utah, United States of America, its
coordinates are 38°48′47″N 110°51′18″W.
This location has the following environmental
conditions: an altitude of 2022 masl, an atmospheric
pressure of 896.14 hPa, a UV radiation index of 10 and
its mean temperature is 11.5 °C.
Fig. 7. San Rafael Swell, Utah
This desert area was chosen for its type of terrain
and appearance similar to those found on Mars, because
you can see valleys, gorges and canyons of sandstone,
shale, and limestone, where you can see rocks eroded by
floods.
Its infrastructure has a center of activities or habitat
of 10 meters of diameter and two floor, where we can
find the laboratories and housing of the analogous
astronauts, the station also has a greenhouse used to
process the water of the habitat and also to raise and
monitor the growth of plants and finally owns an
observatory that have the Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope.
[12,14]
Fig. 8. MDRS infraestructure
In MDRS are directed different research studies are
established by each crew and take advantage of its
environmental characteristics like biological studies of
the extremophile organisms that live in the desert [13].
On the other hand, geological studies are also made

when studying the rocks and the composition of the
terrain to find microorganisms that live inside the rocks.
Finally, there have also been studies of skill tests with
the space suit and test of manipulation of different tools
in the field.
Fig. 9. EVA at MDRS - Crew 138
The scientific investigations conducted at this station
are carried out during the winter months of the northern
hemisphere by small voluntary crews selected by the
Mars Society who are installed in the station for short
periods of time and are composed by a multidisciplinary
specialists like geologists, engineers, doctors,
psychologists, astrobiologists, mechanics, journalists
and others.. [14]
3.1.3 European Mars Analog Research Station
(EuroMARS)
This analogue station is the third run by the Mars
Society, initially funded by the UK-based Euro-MARS
scientific program, but operated by the chapters of the
European Mars Society which also comprises France,
the Netherlands, Italy, Belgium and Spain. [15]
The geographic location selected for the installation
of this simulation station is classified as an area with
geographic and topographical characteristics similar to
those found on the red planet, because it is possible to
observe furrows produced by water and characteristics
produced volcanically similar to those found on Mars.
Euro-MARS will be located in the volcanic rift
called the Krafla in northern Iceland in the region of
Mývatn, its coordinates are located in a volcanic crack
with the following coordinates 65 ° 46 '7.18 "N 16 ° 45'
30.50" W.
This location has the following environmental
conditions: an altitude of 625 masl, an atmospheric
pressure of 1006.10 hPa, a UV radiation index of 3 and
its mean temperature is 1.5 °C.
Fig. 10. Krafla Iceland
Taking advantage of the characteristics of the terrain
that are similar to Mars, the main purpose of this station
is to conduct geological and biological explorations in
search of anaerobic microbes that are located in
volcanic fissures and fumaroles. [16]
In addition, unlike the first two analogous bases of
Mars simulation, this base has a different habitat design,
as it has three floors instead of two, with more extensive
research and housing facilities and a better designed
separation between them. [17]
Fig. 11. Design of Euro-MARS
Unfortunately after the construction of the habitat, it
was stored until it is expected to acquire the funding to
mobilize it from the United Kingdom to Iceland, during
this period of time and during the mobilization the
structure was irreparably damaged, so for the moment
the project continued at the planning and
implementation stage. [16]
3.1.4 Australia Mars Analog Research Station (MARS
Oz)
It is the fourth station of the Mars Society designed
by the chapter of Mars Society Australia, under the
direction of David Wilson, who is the project manager.
[18]
The selected location for this analogous station is
located in the Arkaroola sanctuary region of South
Australia its coordinates are: 30° 18' 13.91"S 139° 26'

39.55"E.
This location has the following environmental
conditions: an altitude of 347 masl, an atmospheric
pressure of 1035.56 hPa, a UV radiation index of 0 and
its mean temperature is 18.65 °C.
This region contains a variety of geological and
astrobiological features that are interesting for research,
such as dune fields, gravel desertic areas and weathering
surfaces. [19] On the other hand as far as the biology
and paleontology they have fossil bacteria, extremophile
populations in mineralization of uranium and sulphurs
associated with radioactive hydrothermal springs.
Fig. 12. Arkaroola Australia
The habitat of MARS Oz has a very different and
innovative design, as it contemplates the use of a cabin,
a propulsion module, thermal shield, landing engines,
this design is due to the habitat would travel to the
Martian surface directly from Earth. [20]
Fig.13. Design of MARS Oz habitat
In this analogous Mars station, different projects will
be carried out, such as: habitat design test, evaluation of
psychological factors in the crew, design of selection
strategies for crews, study of the effect of EVAs on
heart rates and blood pressures of members of the crew,
geological and astrobiological studies and others. [18]
3.2 Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation
(HI-SEAS)
This base station is located in Mauna Loa, Hawaii [21]
at an approximate height of 2438 masl. The HI-SEAS
was designed mainly for the geological aspect
simulations since HI-SEAS has a geology very similar
to those observed on Mars. Likewise, the
communication system installed in HI-SEAS has
implemented a communication with high latency, to
simulate the fact that a message between Mars and
Earth would be approximately 20 minutes.
3.3 Concordia Research Station
It is a permanent Franco-Italian station located about
3233 masl on the high Antarctic plateau at Dome
Charlie (Antarctic french side). The main research
activities at this location are astronomy and
astrophysics, glaciology, atmospheric sciences,
geophysics, and human biology and medicine. The
average temperature is -51 Celsius degrees [22][23].
3.4 Mexo-Hab
The Mexo-Hab is a station in a project. The idea is that
it is located at 5000 msnm on the Mexican volcano Pico
de Orizaba (PO) [24][25].
4. ‘Salar de Uyuni’ as a simulated Mars station
4.1 The ‘Salar de Uyuni’
The ‘Salar de Uyuni’, located in Bolivia in the
department of Potosi, located at 20°08′02″S 67°29′21″O
has an altitude of 3692 masl, is the largest salt flat in the
world, with an area of 10582 km2, is the only natural
attraction that can be seen from space. [26]
Fig. 14. Location of the ‘Salar de Uyuni’ Bolivia
It is a tourist destination very famous in the highland
country, because the ‘Salar de Uyuni’, also called "the
Andean jewel", is the place where the sky merges with
the earth, when the salt becomes impermeable and the
water accumulates in the surface, creating a natural
mirror reflecting the sky.[27]

Fig. 15. Reflection effect, ‘Salar de Uyuni’ Bolivia
Its land is composed of lithium, potassium, boron,
magnesium, carbonates and sodium sulfate. In addition
it owns approximately 11 layers of salt with thicknesses
that vary between the two meters and ten meters. Its
depth is of 120 meters composed by lacustrine mud and
dead salt.[28,29]
Stores 10000 million tons of salt and 140 million
tons of lithium, 70% of the world's lithium reserves.
Its formation goes back until 40000 years, when Lake
Michin along with other smaller lakes began to
evaporate. [30]
Fig. 16. ‘Salar de Uyuni’ Bolivia
According to the Uyuni weather station in the salar
the atmospheric pressure is 628.51 hPa, and it is
possible to have an annual average temperature of 8.46 °
C, with a minimum annual temperature of up to -11.7 °
C and a maximum annual temperature of up to 21.4 ° C.
The ‘Salar de Uyuni’ region is cragged, volcanic,
desert with the presence of geothermal waters and
geysers. This adverse climatic conditions is reflected in
a permanent water deficit due to the notorious
imbalance between precipitation and evaporation in the
zone. [31]
Fig. 17. Tunupa volcano, ‘Salar de Uyuni’ Bolivia
We can see important elevations such as the Tunupa
volcano and 32 islands within the salt marsh that are
actually mountain tops on which has given rise to an
impressive ecosystem with varied vegetation and
petrified algae. [32]
Most of the time the skies are clear, so you can see
the milky way without difficulty, Also the salar is used
for the calibration of radiometric sensors, for example
was used to evaluate the accuracy and precision of
ICESat instruments. [33]
On the other hand in the region the winds are intense
almost all the year because they can reach speeds of
more than 90 km / h.
4.2 Characteristics analogous to Mars
4.2.1 Geological
Near to the ‘Salar de Uyuni’ area you can find
different geological formations that can be considered
as analogous to those found in the red planet.
The terrain is made up of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic formations. There is an area close to the
Andean mountain range, which consists mainly of
volcanic rocks, volcanic sedimentary sequences and
lava formations, such as lava flows, pyroclastic
deposits, stratovolcanoes, volcano-sedimentary
successions, and domes. [33]
Fig. 18. Desert of Salvador Dalí, Uyuni Bolivia

On the other hand can also be found saline deposits,
alluvial deposits, fluvial, lacustrine, fluvial glaciers and
dunes. [34]
You can also observe a fossilized coral barrier and
the elevation of giant rock formations resulting from the
erosion of thousands of years of wind and rain.
4.2.2 Biological
The biological characteristics found in the ‘Salar de
Uyuni’ are interesting because they can be found as an
important subject of study in the field of astrobiology.
Because according to the analog field work [35] in
the simulation stations they must include and direct the
investigations towards the field of astrobiology.
The ‘Salar de Uyuni’ has interesting characteristics
for research in this field, such as the study of the
dissolution and formation of salt crystals, the study of
extremophile organisms and cyanobacteria tolerant to
high concentrations of salt, the process of formation of
crust of salt and lacustrine mud , study of formation of
the erosion patterns observed in the salar, study of the
great levels of evaporation and the freezing point in the
salar. [34]
Fig. 19. Ulexite Mineral
Finally an interesting investigation is found in the
analysis of a very curious mineral found in the ‘Salar de
Uyuni’, called ulexite or TV stone that is transparent
and has the property of refracting to its surface the
image of what is underneath it.
4.2.3 Radiation
As explained in previous sections, the sun emits
different types of radiation, but the component to be
studied in this case is the spectrum of UV radiation.
According to a research carried out in [36] the Uyuni
area has typical factors that make it more vulnerable to
UV radiation, this because it has reflective surfaces, no
clouds and a sandy soil.
On the other hand, it was also observed that radiation
increases in the presence of reflective surfaces such as
the ‘Salar de Uyuni’ and that the intensity of UV
radiation reaching the earth's surface increases by 25%
per 1000 meters of altitude. [37,38]. In fact in Andean
populations like Uyuni the levels of UV radiation leave
the international scale that goes from 0 to 16 and has
reached values of 18 or up to 20 on totally clear days.
[39]
Fig. 20. Radiation level in Uyuni
The Atmospheric Physics Laboratory of the
Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA) was able to
perform measurements of albedo performed by a UV
radiometer for erythremically effective radiation
showing a value of 0.69 ± 0.02. [40], Which means that
the percentage of reflected radiation, relative to the
incident radiation is 69-71%. While the average albedo
of the Earth is 37-39%.
The levels of radiation in Uyuni are a constant
concern so that they have installed “solmáforos” that
have five colors that alert to the population the levels of
ultraviolet radiation present in the day. [39]
Fig. 21. Solmáforo in Uyuni
Finally, it is possible to indicate that, due to the
action of the ozone layer, it is not possible to simulate
the type of radiation UV-C, which is the type of
radiation found mostly on Mars. We can find levels of
UV-A radiation and especially of the radiation
component also found on Mars: UV-B higher than the
common ones due to the large reflective surface that
means the salar and the level of its altitude.
This means the contribution of a number of new life
sciences research on Mars, as well as for the design and
testing of space suits in analog simulation, design of
fieldwork protocols and Extra Vehicular Activities
(EVA) for testing the All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) under
these conditions.

5. Results
As results of this study, it is presented a comparison
of the environmental conditions of the Mars analog
research stations installed in different parts of the world
and the environmental conditions of the ‘Salar de
Uyuni’, which in this work has been proposed as a good
option to be an analog research station in the near
future:
Table 2. Environmental conditions on Mars analog
research stations and the ‘Salar de Uyuni’
A comparison of different parameters such as altitude,
mean annual temperature, pressure and radiation index
can be observed.
6. Discussion
Different criteria make the location of the ‘Salar de
Uyuni’ an appropriate environment to implement an
Mars analog research station, which are described
below:
The geology of the place that contains different
volcanic formations and eroded rock formations.
Another important criterion is the biology of the
place that contains extremophile organisms that live
inside the stones or in volcanic fissures and
cyanobacteria tolerant to high concentrations of salt.
On the other hand an interesting criterion is the
radiation index registered in the ‘Salar de Uyuni’, that
has a high index of UV radiation, due to the altitude of
the place, the reflective surface of the salar and the
desert composition of the terrain.
In addition, the ‘Salar de Uyuni’ is also a propitious
place to be an astronomical observatory, due to its
characteristic clear sky during the majority of the year.
Finally the landscape is a remote place to perform
psychological tests on the crew and there are open
spaces for perform Extra Vehicular Activities (EVA),
testing the All Terrain Vehicle (ATV), testing the rovers
and different tools used in the field tests.
7. Conclusions
On our planet there are areas that are analogous to
Mars, either because of its weather conditions or its
geological characteristics.
This study has indicated that the ‘Salar de Uyuni’ is
one of these areas analogous to Mars because of its
temperature, height, dryness, its geological
characteristics and, above all, the high UV radiation.
All these characteristics, together with the fact that
the field activity and the Mars analog research will be
more frequent in the near future, make it possible to
propose to the ‘Salar de Uyuni’ in Bolivia as a future
Mars simulation station, since this geographic location
would provide an unusual and exotic scene, with
extreme conditions where different types of research
and testing of classic tools of the geological and
biological field could be carried out.
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