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Feelings of pride are associated with grit in student-athletes and recreational runners
Abstract
Grit is an adaptive trait that predicts achievement outcomes in various contexts. However, little is known about the factors that predict grit in achievement domains such as sport and exercise. Using the broaden-and-build theory as the guiding framework, we sought to test a model whereby feelings of pride predicted grit across two separate samples. Undergraduate athletes (N = 109) and recreational long-distance runners (N = 116) completed questionnaires at a single time-point. In study 1, state pride was positively associated with grit (r = 0.26, p =.003). No gender differences were observed. In study 2, both global and fitness-related pride were assessed to determine their association with grit. Inverse associations between global pride and grit were noted for authentic (β = 0.33, p <.001) and hubristic (β = −0.26, p =.003) pride. Only fitness-related authentic (β = 0.42, p =.003), but not hubristic (β = 27, p =.053), pride was a significant predictor of grit. Findings provide initial insight into pride and grit in sport and exercise contexts. Partial support for the broaden-and-build theory was found. Specifically, experiences of pride are associated with grit, but only when success is attributed to one's own effort. Attributing success to innate ability or superiority may result in reduced persistence and interest toward goal attainment. Given these findings, it may be important to create opportunities to experience authentic pride to develop grit.
... La importancia de los aspectos psicológicos en el rendimiento deportivo ha sido ampliamente reconocida en la literatura. Estos aspectos juegan un papel crucial en la preparación mental, motivación, concentración y determinación en los atletas, los cuales son elementos relevantes para el desempeño y éxito deportivo (Abdullah et al., 2016;Castilla & Ramos, 2012;Gilchrist et al., 2018). ...
... Investigadores, deportistas y entrenadores concuerdan en que la eficacia del deporte está influenciada directamente por el aspecto psicológico (Abdullah et al., 2016;Castilla & Ramos, 2012;Gilchrist et al., 2018;Nagle et al., 1975;Silva et al., 1981). Siempre se ha dicho que los aspectos físicos son uno de los factores más relevantes en el deporte, dado que pueden favorecer el rendimiento entre un 45% y 48%; sin embargo, las variables psicológicas resultan ser incluso más determinantes, llegando a favorecer dicho rendimiento hasta un 85% (Nagle et al., 1975;Silva et al., 1981). ...
... En este mismo sentido, uno de los aspectos psicológicos más estudiados y fundamentados en el rendimiento deportivo es la personalidad, ya que esta puede incidir en la motivación, la perseverancia, la resiliencia y la capacidad de enfrentar desafíos en los atletas (Abdullah et al., 2016;Castilla & Ramos, 2012;Gilchrist et al., 2018;Esmaeilnejad et al., 2023). Además, diversos estudios han explorado la relación entre la personalidad y el rendimiento deportivo, proporcionando una amplia evidencia de su importancia en este ámbito (Parker et al., 2020;Tang et al., 2019). ...
El propósito de este estudio fue evaluar la relación entre el rendimiento anaeróbico y la personalidad Grit en taekwondistas estadounidenses, su grado de influencia, así como las diferencias que puedan existir entre sexos. Este estudio tuvo una metodología cuantitativa, descriptiva-correlacional, realizada en una población de (n=121) taekwondistas, vinculados a la USAT. La personalidad Grit fue medida mediante la escala Grit, y el rendimiento anaeróbico a través de la prueba del sprint anaeróbico basado en la carrera (Rast). De acuerdo con los resultados se pudo identificar en hombres, una correlación positiva y significativa entre la capacidad y potencia anaeróbica con el Grit (p<0.005 y p<0.007 respectivamente). Asimismo, estas dos variables se relacionaron significativamente con el Grit (p<0.001) en el total de la muestra. En el caso de las mujeres, no hubo relaciones significativas. El índice de fatiga no presentó correlaciones significativas. La personalidad Grit influyó hasta un 14% en la capacidad y potencia anaeróbica en hombres (p<0.001 y p<0.002, respectivamente) y un 12% en estos dos mismos aspectos para la muestra total (p<0.000 en ambos casos). Finalmente, los hallazgos indican una relación entre la potencia, capacidad anaeróbica con la personalidad Grit en hombres y en el total de la muestra, con una influencia significativa del Grit en el rendimiento anaeróbico. No se encontraron tales relaciones en mujeres. Aunque no se hallaron diferencias significativas por sexo en el Grit, capacidad y potencia anaeróbica, sí que se encontró en el índice de fatiga, indicando una disparidad en la resistencia a la fatiga entre sexos.
... Perfectionism is commonly recognized by sport scientists as a personality disposition that plays an important role in the achievement-striving process for athletes in sport (e.g., Hill, 2016;Hodges et al., 2017;Lizmore et al., 2019;MacNamara & Collins, 2015). 1 Although perfectionism has been studied extensively in the context of sport over the last 20 years (for reviews see Gotwals et al., 2012;Jowett, Mallinson, et al., 2016), researchers and theorists have continued to debate whether perfectionism, and its constituent dimensions/facets, play adaptive and/or maladaptive roles for athletes in sport. This study attempts to shed some light on this issue by exploring relationships between dimensions of perfectionism and a personality disposition that researchers typically associate with adaptive functioning in sport-namely, grit (Gilchrist et al., 2018;Hodges et al., 2017;Newland et al., 2020;Tedesqui & Young, 2018). Given that perfectionism and grit are both linked to the achievement-striving process in sport (Hodges et al., 2017;Jordet, 2015;Martin, 2018), identifying theoretically interpretable relationships between the two constructs also serves to accomplish the important scientific goal of developing/linking the nomological networks that surround both constructs (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955;Preckel & Brunner, 2020). ...
... Tedesqui and Young (2018) also demonstrated that higher consistency of interests corresponded with a reduced tendency for athletes to contemplate changing sports or quitting their sport entirely. Gilchrist et al. (2018) proposed that grit should primarily be viewed as an adaptive personality characteristic in sport because it has the potential to "facilitate [athletes'] achievement, retention, and maintenance of effortful behaviors…[underpinning] the number of hours that must be spent developing sportspecific skills" (p. 1). ...
... The combination of high perfectionistic strivings with low perfectionistic concerns has been labeled as an "adaptive profile" of perfectionism in sport (Dunn et al., 2020;Vaartstra et al., 2018), and higher levels of grit are generally viewed as having adaptive roles in the achievement-striving process for athletes (Fawver et al., 2020;Gilchrist et al., 2018;Tedesqui & Young, 2018. It therefore seems reasonable to suggest that the combination of high perfectionistic strivings, low perfectionistic concerns, high consistency of interests, and high perseverance of effort in athletes might be a particularly adaptive personality profile that facilitates talent development and the pursuit of high achievement in sport. ...
This study investigated the degree to which perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns were associated with two dimensions of grit-namely, consistency of interests and perseverance of effort-in a sample of 251 intercollegiate varsity athletes (M age = 20.34 years, SD = 2.0). Perfectionism and grit were both conceptualized and measured as multidimensional domain-specific constructs. Results of structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses revealed that perfectionistic strivings was positively associated with consistency of interests (β = .49, p < .001) and perseverance of effort (β = .92, p < .001). In contrast, perfectionistic concerns was negatively associated with both consistency of interests (β =-.47, p < .001) and perseverance of effort (β =-.66, p < .001). Results highlight the importance of differentiating between athletes' perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns in sport, as well as the importance of treating consistency of interests and perseverance of effort as separate components of grit. The results indicate that perfectionistic strivings more closely align with adaptive correlates for athletes in sport whereas perfectionistic concerns more closely align with maladaptive correlates in sport. Future research that examines the combined effects of perfectionism and grit on the achievement-striving process in competitive sport is recommended. 200
... Perfectionism is commonly recognized by sport scientists as a personality disposition that plays an important role in the achievement-striving process for athletes in sport (e.g., Hill, 2016;Hodges et al., 2017;Lizmore et al., 2019;MacNamara & Collins, 2015). 1 Although perfectionism has been studied extensively in the context of sport over the last 20 years (for reviews see Gotwals et al., 2012;Jowett, Mallinson, et al., 2016), researchers and theorists have continued to debate whether perfectionism, and its constituent dimensions/facets, play adaptive and/or maladaptive roles for athletes in sport. This study attempts to shed some light on this issue by exploring relationships between dimensions of perfectionism and a personality disposition that researchers typically associate with adaptive functioning in sport-namely, grit (Gilchrist et al., 2018;Hodges et al., 2017;Newland et al., 2020;Tedesqui & Young, 2018). Given that perfectionism and grit are both linked to the achievement-striving process in sport (Hodges et al., 2017;Jordet, 2015;Martin, 2018), identifying theoretically interpretable relationships between the two constructs also serves to accomplish the important scientific goal of developing/linking the nomological networks that surround both constructs (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955;Preckel & Brunner, 2020). ...
... Tedesqui and Young (2018) also demonstrated that higher consistency of interests corresponded with a reduced tendency for athletes to contemplate changing sports or quitting their sport entirely. Gilchrist et al. (2018) proposed that grit should primarily be viewed as an adaptive personality characteristic in sport because it has the potential to "facilitate [athletes'] achievement, retention, and maintenance of effortful behaviors…[underpinning] the number of hours that must be spent developing sportspecific skills" (p. 1). ...
... The combination of high perfectionistic strivings with low perfectionistic concerns has been labeled as an "adaptive profile" of perfectionism in sport (Dunn et al., 2020;Vaartstra et al., 2018), and higher levels of grit are generally viewed as having adaptive roles in the achievement-striving process for athletes (Fawver et al., 2020;Gilchrist et al., 2018;Tedesqui & Young, 2018. It therefore seems reasonable to suggest that the combination of high perfectionistic strivings, low perfectionistic concerns, high consistency of interests, and high perseverance of effort in athletes might be a particularly adaptive personality profile that facilitates talent development and the pursuit of high achievement in sport. ...
Understanding personality characteristics that help and/or hinder competitive success in sport is of great interest to many sport psychology researchers. Two such personality characteristics that have been linked to the achievement-striving process in competitive sport are grit and perfectionism. While grit—as conceptualized by Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly (2007)—is largely associated with adaptive characteristics and outcomes in sport, perfectionism has been labeled as a 'dual effect' characteristic (MacNamara & Collins, 2015) that has been linked to both adaptive and maladaptive outcomes/processes in sport. The purpose of this study was to examine previously unexplored relationships between facets of multidimensional grit and multidimensional perfectionism in sport. A sample of 251 intercollegiate student-athletes (M age = 20.34 years, SD = 2.0) completed measures of domain-specific grit and domain-specific perfectionism in sport. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that (a) separate facets of perfectionistic concerns negatively predicted grit, and (b) separate facets of perfectionistic strivings positively predicted grit in sport. Canonical correlation analysis produced an adaptive profile of perfectionism (i.e., a canonical variate comprising low perfectionistic concerns and high perfectionistic strivings) that was positively correlated (RC = .61, p < .001) with a grit variate comprising moderate consistency of interests and high perseverance of effort. The results not only reinforce the importance of conceptualizing/measuring grit and perfectionism as multidimensional constructs, but also indicate that the combination of high grit, low perfectionistic concerns, and high perfectionistic strivings may form part of a 'positive personality profile' that might assist athletes in the achievement-striving process in sport.
... Finally, previous research in the field of sport psychology has demonstrated that athletes who compete at higher (or more skilled) levels of competitive sport tend to have higher levels of grit than athletes who compete at lower (or less skilled) levels of sport (for a review see Cormier et al., 2021). Researchers have proposed that higher levels of grit help individuals sustain engagement in deliberate practice (Duckworth et al., 2007;Gilchrist et al., 2018) which, in turn, facilitates development and performance at higher levels of competition (Tedesqui and Young, 2017). Despite the existence of research evidence linking heightened grit with higher competitive levels (Tedesqui and Young, 2017), previous research assessing this relationship has utilized the Grit-O. ...
... Given the rising frequency of grit research in sport over the last 7 years and the position held by many researchers that heightened grit has achievementstriving benefits (Tedesqui and Young, 2017;Gilchrist et al., 2018;Dunn et al., 2021) and health benefits (Pennings et al., 2015;Traino et al., 2019;Cortez et al., 2020), we recommend that researchers carefully consider the measurement approaches they adopt when studying grit in athletes. Our findings make an important contribution to clarify international discussion on the dimension structure and measurement of grit. ...
This paper contributes to the debate as to whether grit is best conceptualized and measured as a domain-specific or domain-general construct. In the field of sport psychology, grit has traditionally been conceptualized and measured as a domain-general construct, with the majority of studies using the Grit Scale-Short (Grit-S: Duckworth and Quinn, 2009) to assess grit and its relationships with an array of personality-, performance-, and health-related outcomes. To date, no studies have compared the predictive validity of domain-general and domain-specific versions of the Grit-S with athletes who operate in different achievement settings. In a sample of United Kingdom student-athletes (N = 326, 214 males, 112 females; Mage = 19.55 years, SD = 1.48 years), we examined the degree to which a domain-general version and two domain-specific versions of the Grit-S accounted for variance in two criterion variables that were either situated in an academic context (i.e., emotional exhaustion) or a sport context (i.e., competitive level). Results obtained from a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that an academic-version of the Grit-S explained unique variance in academic emotional exhaustion beyond the variance explained by the domain-general version of the scale, and a sport-version of the Grit-S explained unique variance in competitive level beyond the variance explained by the domain-general version. Results support the adoption of domain-specific approaches to measure grit in specific achievement contexts. Our findings highlight the need for researchers to carefully consider the measurement approaches they adopt when studying grit in individuals who operate across different achievement settings.
... Sports requires high dedication, many hours of training, and significant effort to develop specific skills required for each modality, as well as to maintain or improve physical condition and performance (Gilchrist et al., 2017;González-Lázaro et al., 2021). ...
... Author ( Research suggests that athletes with higher grit scores -athletes who are grittier-are more likely to invest more time in sport-specific activities (Larkin et al., 2016), and therefore evidence a greater commitment to sports (Martin et al., 2015;Tedesqui & Young, 2017). In samples of long-distance runners, Gilchrist et al. (2017) discovered that a sense of pride was a significant predictor of the ability to persist and show interest in a task. ...
Grit is defined as the tendency to pursue long-term goals with perseveranceand effort, despite adversities or failures. In the context of sports, its effect has been studied using the original Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) without any adaptation. The aim of this study was to analyse the psychometric properties of Grit-S and to adapt to a sample of amateur runners. The sample consisted of 514 middle- and long-distance amateur runners. The results of a confirmatory analysis showed minimally acceptable validity and reliability values for the scale (α=.764), and for each factor (αperseverance=.806; αinterest=.731). Therefore, the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Short Grit Scale-Ru
... Research which has examined grit in relation to college student-athletes has grown in recent years (Cormier, Dunn, & Dunn, 2019;Crane, DaCosta, Webbe, & Logalbo, 2020;Fawver et al., 2020;Gilchrist, Fong, Herbison, & Sabiston, 2018;Meyer, Markgraf, & Gnacinski, 2017;Rhodes, May, Andrade, & Kavanagh, 2018;Tedesqui & Young, 2018). Findings suggest that grit assists athlete sport performance, preparation, and practice above and beyond other similar characteristics such as conscientiousness and self-control (Rhodes et al., 2018;Tedesqui & Young, 2018). ...
... Second, health promotion programming informing athletic staff and athletes should also be considered. This may include psychoeducation on grit (e.g., how to stay focused on long-term goals and maintain perseverance through adversity), coping mechanisms, and potential interventions to increase grit such as engaging in individual and deliberate practice (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2016;Fawver et al., 2020) and increasing an athlete's positive emotionality and authentic pride experiences (Gilchrist et al., 2018). In addition, health professionals can also engage in traditional educational activities which help foster grit such as "sharing the why before the what," talking about the power of attitude and persistence, rewarding hard work and delayed gratification, and taking a strengths-focused approach (Bashant, 2014). ...
Due to demand for high performance inside and outside of the classroom, student-athletes are a unique subsection of college students. Researchers have focused on investigating protective factors, which may enhance student-athlete well-being and academic success in higher education and reduce athlete burnout. The current study examined grit as a mediator between parenting behaviors and academic success, mental health outcomes, and burnout in higher education among National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I and Division II student-athletes ( N = 202). Overparenting behaviors were negatively associated with psychological autonomy granting, mental health outcomes, and athlete burnout. Psychological autonomy granting behaviors were positively associated with grit and negatively associated with mental health outcomes and athlete burnout. Student-athlete grit mediated the relationship between overparenting behaviors and mental health outcomes. Clinical implications include improving student-athlete parent onboarding protocol; student-athlete psychoeducation; and preventative outreach and health promotion among athletes, athletic staff, and university practitioners. In summary, these findings suggest that parenting behaviors and grit are factors that require more attention in fostering student-athlete success.
... Research which has examined grit in relation to college student-athletes has grown in recent years (Cormier, Dunn, & Dunn, 2019;Crane, DaCosta, Webbe, & Logalbo, 2020;Fawver et al., 2020;Gilchrist, Fong, Herbison, & Sabiston, 2018;Meyer, Markgraf, & Gnacinski, 2017;Rhodes, May, Andrade, & Kavanagh, 2018;Tedesqui & Young, 2018). Findings suggest that grit assists athlete sport performance, preparation, and practice above and beyond other similar characteristics such as conscientiousness and self-control (Rhodes et al., 2018;Tedesqui & Young, 2018). ...
... Second, health promotion programming informing athletic staff and athletes should also be considered. This may include psychoeducation on grit (e.g., how to stay focused on long-term goals and maintain perseverance through adversity), coping mechanisms, and potential interventions to increase grit such as engaging in individual and deliberate practice (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2016;Fawver et al., 2020) and increasing an athlete's positive emotionality and authentic pride experiences (Gilchrist et al., 2018). In addition, health professionals can also engage in traditional educational activities which help foster grit such as "sharing the why before the what," talking about the power of attitude and persistence, rewarding hard work and delayed gratification, and taking a strengths-focused approach (Bashant, 2014). ...
Due to demand for high performance inside and outside of the classroom, student-athletes are a unique subsection of college students. Researchers have focused on investigating protective factors, which may enhance student-athlete well-being and academic success in higher education and reduce athlete burnout. The current study examined grit as a mediator between parenting behaviors and academic success, mental health outcomes, and burnout in higher education among NCAA Division – I and Division – II student-athletes (N = 202). Overparenting behaviors were negatively associated with psychological autonomy granting, mental health outcomes, and athlete burnout. Psychological autonomy granting behaviors were positively associated with grit and negatively associated with mental health outcomes and athlete burnout. Student-athlete grit mediated the relationship between overparenting behaviors and mental health outcomes. Clinical implications include improving student-athlete parent onboarding protocol, student-athlete psychoeducation, and preventative outreach and health promotion among athletes, athletic staff, and university practitioners. In sum, these findings suggest that parenting behaviors and grit are factors that require more attention in fostering student-athlete success.
... Esto se justifica por algunos estudios, como una investigación reciente realizada por Sigmundsson et al. (2020a) que exploró esta relación en una muestra de futbolistas. Además, Gilchrist et al. (2018) investigaron el grit en corredores universitarios, mientras que Laurin et al. (2024) por su parte lo examinaron en taekwondistas. Los resultados de estos estudios demostraron que los atletas con niveles más altos de grit exhibieron un mejor rendimiento deportivo en términos de logros y habilidades físicas. ...
Introducción: el grit es una característica disposicional que se refiere a las diferencias individuales en la tendencia a trabajar duro para lograr objetivos a largo plazo y a mantener el esfuerzo y el interés durante años a pesar del fracaso, la adversidad y los estancamientos en el progreso. Objetivo: identificar las diferencias por sexo y categoría en el nivel de grit de una muestra de taekwondistas colombianos. Metodología: estudio de enfoque cuantitativo no experimental de naturaleza descriptiva y correlacional, con un corte transversal, realizado en una población de taekwondistas colombianos. Se evaluaron los niveles de grit con la escala de este constructo. Se realizó la prueba de kruskall-wallis y U de Mann Whitney para determinar las diferencias por sexos y categoría en taekwondistas colombianos. Resultados: Los niveles de grit, perseverancia al esfuerzo y consistencia de interés son similares entre hombres y mujeres en esta muestra. Tanto el grit como la perseverancia muestran medianas idénticas y valores de p no significativos (p<0,406 y p<0,315 respectivamente). La consistencia de interés también es similar entre ambos sexos, con valores de p<0,843. Asimismo, los niveles de grit son similares en las tres categorías, con una mediana común de 3.25 y valores de percentiles consistentes. No se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre las categorías para el grit, la perseverancia al esfuerzo y la consistencia de interés, ya que sus valores de p superan el umbral típico de significancia estadística. Conclusiones: Los resultados revelaron que no hubo diferencias significativas entre sexos y categorías, indicando una consistencia notable y poca variabilidad en los niveles de grit dentro de esta población.
... Studies have linked burnout with amotivation (Cresswell & Eklund, 2005;Gustafsson et al., 2018;Lonsdale & Hodge, 2011) and a reduced sense of accomplishment (Maslach, 2001;Raedeke & Smith, 2009). On the contrary, grit, defined as passion and perseverance for long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007), has been linked with sport engagement (Larkin et al., 2016), feelings of pride (Gilchrist et al., 2018), and motivation (Muenks et al., 2018). Given that both grit and burnout have been associated with similar constructs, it is important to examine the relationship among these constructs, as well as the potential inverse relationship between grit and burnout. ...
... Positive affect had, in the final model of the regression analysis, the power to predict 23% of the variance of resilience. This is corroborated by research indicating that positive emotions improve athlete performance 61 . In this regard, Gilchrist and collaborators 61 demonstrated that positive emotions are valuable as their effects outweigh the transient experience of the emotion. ...
In the field of sport psychology, resilience is related to athlete performance. Hence, we sought to investigate how much of the resilience of high-performance athletes could be predicted by positive attributes and personality traits. The sample comprised 108 athletes between 14 and 25 years of age belonging to a sports club of Porto Alegre (Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil) and who participated in one of seven sports. The instruments used evaluated: resilience, self-esteem, optimism, life satisfaction, cognitive hope, positive and negative affect, self-efficacy, and personality. The statistical analyses performed were Pearson’s correlation test (p ≤ 0.001) and multiple linear regression analysis. Our findings indicated that self-efficacy, positive affect, and self-centered hope constituted the model that best explained resilience (41% of the variance). These results may support future interventions aimed at promoting resilience in athletes.
... Firstly, the fact that we did not measure sports performance prevented us from determining the latter's relationship with grit, even though it is known that sports performance is related to general grit (Cormier et al., 2021). Secondly, we did not study the putative associations between SGS and psychological variables like hardiness (Martin et al., 2015), resilience (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013), mental toughness (Gucciardi et al., 2015), a feeling of pride (Gilchrist et al., 2018), selfcontrol (Tedesqui & Young, 2018), and conscientiousness (Tedesqui & Young, 2018); this would probably have reinforced the SGS's concurrent validity. Thirdly, we did not use a test-retest approach to estimate the extent to which the participants' responses were reproducible (Boateng et al., 2018); this would probably have reinforced the SGS's reliability. ...
... According to the studies, grit is associated with a reduction in burnout levels (DeCouto et al., 2019), perceived life stressors (Ford et al., 2017), maladaptive perfectionism (Fawver et al., 2020) and lower levels of sport-specific anxiety (Symonds et al., 2018). Experiences of pride are also associated with grit, but only when success is attributed to one's own effort (Gilchrist et al., 2017). Crane et al. (2020) reported that lower levels of grit have been found to be associated with higher scores on general anxiety disorder measures. ...
Background
The aim of the present study is to translate the Grit questionnaire into Hungarian and validate specifically within the context of sports. The second goal is to assess the questionnaire in Hungarian as a pilot study in the athlete population and to compare the grit trait with the coaches’ athlete evaluation.
Methods
Two hundred and sixty nine athletes, including 40 national team players, took part in the study, with an average age of 18.17 years (SD = 5.51). For the preliminary assessment, the Cloninger Temperament and Character Questionnaire (TCI-RH) was used; the coaches’ athlete evaluation was modeled on a talent map.
Results
The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the fit of the two-factor structure, and the internal reliability of the questionnaire scales also proved to be adequate. 2. There is no relationship between adolescents’ perceived grit and coach ratings. 3. The national team players achieved a higher grit score.
Conclusion
Based on the psychometric indicators, the validity and reliability of the questionnaire proved to be adequate. Therefore, it is applicable and useful for psychological practitioners and researchers in the Hungarian population within the context of sports.
... While some studies, including the present study and a few others (e.g. Gilchrist et al. 2018), have explored the effect of positive emotions on grit, others have considered the effect of grit on positive emotions (e.g. Datu and Fong 2018;Wei, Gao, and Wang 2019). ...
Learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is a lengthy, demanding, and challenging process, which requires learners’ L2 grit relating to their perseverance of effort and consistency of interest. Motivated by the growing body of research on L2 grit over the past few years, this study examined the role of perceived teacher support and learning enjoyment as two important learner external and internal factors, respectively, in promoting EFL learners’ L2 grit. The participants were 339 EFL learners selected by multi-stage cluster sampling. The results of SEM indicated that perceived teacher support directly and positively predicted L2 grit, which clearly highlights the role of teachers as an essential element of any language learning situation in motivating and supporting students to exert considerable effort in their learning process and enhance their interest, enthusiasm, persistence, and effort. Additionally, learning enjoyment played a mediating role in the association between perceived teacher support and L2 grit, which indicates its potential for promoting learners’ cognitive resources and fostering their continued effort and sustained interest in the lengthy and demanding process of L2 learning. Finally, implications relating to the role of teachers in enhancing learners’ enjoyment and grit are presented.
... In this context, variation in grit could result from genetic influences (i.e., with a positive association between parent and offspring grit), and environmental factors (e.g., social factors such as parents, siblings, peers, teachers, other adults, mass media), including potential psychological sources as Duckworth et al. (2007) considered. More precisely, evidence from empirical studies has shown that the following factors might have predictive ability for grit (Fernández et al., 2020): (a) life purpose commitment (Hill et al., 2016), (b) hope and search for meaning in life (Vela et al., 2015); (c) pursuing happiness in life (Von Culin et al., 2014); (d) perceived mastery school goal structure (Park et al., 2018); (e) achievement goal orientations (Akın & Arslan, 2014); (f) education-related goal commitment (Tang et al., 2019); (g) others-focused purpose, success-focused purpose, time spent in socializing, time spent in academic activities, and religious beliefs (Sriram et al., 2018); (h) belief in free will ; (i) reflecting on past failures (DiMenichi & Richmond, 2015); (j) growth mindset ; (k) physical activity (Gilchrist et al., 2018); (l) the mindfulness facets of acting with awareness and non-judging (Raphiphatthana et al., 2018); (m) sense of relatedness to parents, teachers, and friends (Datu, 2017); and (n) certain dimensions of parental behaviors (Howard et al., 2019). ...
This study evaluates parental grit’s covariation with offspring grit and the moderating role of different parenting behaviors using an 11-country study of young adults between the ages of 18 and 35 (n = 20,008) and their parents (n = 5945). Results show that parental grit is associated with offspring’s grit with moderation of parenting present across the models presented. The study also highlights the direct association of various parenting dimensions with grit, especially the positive relation of parental control. These results have important implications for understanding young people’s grit development and learning mechanisms. Findings can serve as foundations for effective intervention programs and practices in this field designed to improve enthusiasm, interest, capacity for hard work, engagement, and motivation in the long run.
... A total of 84 documents were identified in the study identification phase, but three of these included multiple studies utilizing distinct samples (i.e. Gilchrist et al., 2018;Rhodes, 2020;Shields et al., 2018) and were therefore charted as unique data points. After all relevant studies had been identified, the first author began charting the data using Excel. ...
Understanding the personality characteristics that help and/or hinder competitive success in sport is of great interest to many sport psychology researchers. Grit (i.e., passion and perseverance towards long-term goals) is one such construct that has recently gained popularity in the sport domain. This scoping review explored the associations between grit and the cognitive, affective, and behavioural variables that reside within athletes and sport settings. Ninety publications were identified through various search strategies. The majority of studies explored relationships between grit and athlete sex, athlete skill/competitive level, sport performance, motivation, mindfulness, self-compassion, and deliberate practice. Constructs that have been previously critiqued as sharing significant variance with grit were also collated from the existing research. Six collegiate-level coaches were consulted as knowledgeable stakeholders and provided input to the results of the scoping review. These results allowed for the identification of future research considerations, including ameliorating current issues regarding grit measurement in sport contexts, and the designing and testing of interventions aimed at increasing athlete grit levels. Additional research with stronger methodological design and rigour is needed, and recommendations to enhance the quality of future studies with athletes are discussed.
... In pursuit of the goals, individuals are likely to face adversities that may impact the likelihood of goal achievement. Possessing sufficient (internal and external) supports and resources can improve the likelihood that these difficulties are overcome (Gilchrist et al., 2018). Grit, defined as the long-term pursuit of higher-order goals in the face of obstacles or setbacks, is one resource that has been associated with long-term goal striving and holds considerable relevance for goal attainment (Duckworth et al., 2007). ...
Long-term goal striving has been recognized as an important stage in goal achievement. Compared with the development of measurements of goal setting, researchers tended to measure goal striving in different manners. This study examined the conceptual structure of goal striving and validated a new scale to operationalize the construct within academic learning contexts. A 25-item scale was validated with 522 Chinese university students to assess its factor structure, reliability, gender invariance, criterion-related validity, and incremental validity. Confirmatory factor analysis results supported both the first-order and second-order model. Overall, the scale showed good reliability, validity, and invariance across gender. We suggested that this new scale could be used as an effective measure to assess the level of goal striving among university students in a Chinese context.
... On the input side, pride is elicited by actions and personal characteristics indicating enhanced capacity to confer benefits or impose costs on others (Lewis et al., 1992;Tracy & Matsumoto, 2008;Weisfeld & Beresford, 1982;Schniter et al., 2020). On the output side, pride produces a highly pleasant feeling (Mauro et al., 1992) which can reinforce behaviour leading to achievements (Gilchrist et al., 2018;Riskind, 1984). In addition, pride produces a full-body display featuring expanded posture and gaze directed at the audience (Fessler, 1999;Tracy & Matsumoto, 2008;Weisfeld & Dillon, 2012). ...
The emotion of pride appears to be a neurocognitive guidance system to capitalize on opportunities to become more highly valued and respected by others. Whereas the inputs and the outputs of pride are relatively well understood, little is known about how the pride system matches inputs to outputs. How does pride work? Here we evaluate the hypothesis that pride magnitude matches the various outputs it controls to the present activating conditions – the precise degree to which others would value the focal individual if the individual achieved a particular achievement. Operating in this manner would allow the pride system to balance the competing demands of effectiveness and economy, to avoid the dual costs of under-deploying and over-deploying its outputs. To test this hypothesis, we measured people's responses regarding each of 25 socially valued traits. We observed the predicted magnitude matchings. The intensities of the pride feeling and of various motivations of pride (communicating the achievement, demanding better treatment, investing in the valued trait and pursuing new challenges) vary in proportion: (a) to one another; and (b) to the degree to which audiences value each achievement. These patterns of magnitude matching were observed both within and between the USA and India. These findings suggest that pride works cost-effectively, promoting the pursuit of achievements and facilitating the gains from others’ valuations that make those achievements worth pursuing.
... Further, mindfulness positively predicted grit (Raphiphatthana et al., 2018(Raphiphatthana et al., , 2019Vela et al., 2018). There is also evidence showing that whereas experiencing fitness-related pride attributed to one's own effort (i.e., authentic fitness-related pride) was found to predict grit, fitness-related success attributed to one's innate ability or superiority (i.e., hubristic fitness-related pride) negatively predicted persistence and interest toward goal attainment (Gilchrist et al., 2018). Belief in free will has been also associated with increased perseverance in selected Chinese adolescents (Li et al., 2018d). ...
Grit, which is originally conceptualized as passion and perseverance for long-term goals, has been associated with optimal performance. Although previous meta-analytic and systematic reviews summarized how grit relates to performance outcomes, they possess considerable shortcomings, such as (a) absence of summary on the association of grit with well-being outcomes; (b) absence of discussion on social, psychological, and emotional mechanisms linking grit to well-being; and (c) lack of elaboration on how alternative models can resolve fundamental problems in the grit construct. This integrative review provides a comprehensive summary on the link of grit to performance and well-being outcomes. Importantly, it elaborates how alternative models can potentially address flaws in the existing grit theory. Future research directions are discussed on how to move forward the science of grit.
... In comparison to other achievement contexts-and particularly education-relatively few studies have examined the construct of grit in sport. Nevertheless, research in competitive sport has found that grit is positively correlated with (a) self-restraint and impulse control in elite Norwegian soccer players (Toering & Jordet, 2015), (b) resilience, hardiness, and sport engagement in competitive wheelchair basketball athletes (see Martin, Byrd, Watts, & Dent, 2015), and (c) experiences of pride when success is attributed to one's effort in university student-athletes and long-distance runners (Gilchrist, Fong, Herbison, & Sabiston, 2018). ...
Grit—defined by Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly (2007) as “perseverance
and passion for long-term goals” (p. 1087)—has been studied extensively in a variety of
achievement settings. Despite the interest that grit has received from researchers over the last decade, a critical conceptual question remains largely unexplored: namely, is grit better
conceptualized and measured as a global (i.e., domain-general) construct or as a domain-specific construct? To address this question, this research sought to determine if (a) self-reported grit levels would differ as a function of the situational context that people use when considering their grit responses, and (b) domain-specific measures of grit would explain variance in domain-matched achievement-related criterion variables beyond the variance explained by a global measure of grit. A sample of 251 (149 male, 102 female) intercollegiate (varsity) student-athletes (M age = 20.34 years, SD = 2.0) completed three versions of the Grit Scale (Duckworth et al., 2007): one version was based upon Duckworth et al.’s original domain-general conceptualization of grit (i.e., no specific situational context was provided to respondents), the second version was situated in the context of sport, and the third version was situated in the context of school (i.e., academic settings). Results of a repeated-measures MANOVA with follow-up mean-contrasts (i.e., dependent t-tests with Bonferroni corrections) revealed that student-athletes had significantly higher mean levels of grit in sport than in school and life in general (ps < .001). Results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the school measure of grit explained significant amounts of unique variance in Grade Point Average beyond the variance explained by the global measure of grit, and the sport measure of grit explained a significant amount of unique variance in perfectionistic strivings in sport beyond the variance explained by the global measure of grit (ps < .05). Collectively, the results lend support for the domain-specific conceptualization and measurement of grit in sport and school settings.
... Three different convenience samples were recruited for the present study. The populations included, recreational endurance exercisers and undergraduate students, had previously been considered in research on fitness-related selfconscious emotions (Castonguay et al. 2016;Gilchrist et al. 2018a). The first sample consisted of 276 regular recreational endurance exercisers from Spain (63% males, 95% white). ...
This study examined the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Body-related Self-Conscious Emotions Fitness Instrument (BSE-FIT). A cross-sectional and descriptive design with three samples of endurance exercisers and undergraduates (Ntotal = 955, Mage = 25.28, SDage = 8.92) was used. Results from both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed that item 16 failed as a clear indicator of hubristic pride. Once it was removed, adequate fit-indexes for the originally proposed four-factor structure as well as evidence of reliability, convergent validity and invariance across sex for the BSE-FIT scores were found. Females scored (a) higher than males on fitness-related shame/guilt, and (b) lower than males on fitness-related authentic and hubristic pride. These findings provide validity and reliability evidence for the scores derived from a four-factor 15-item version of the BSE-FIT in individuals of both sexes from Spain.
... There is a broad body of research on the connection between Conscientiousness and health behavior or physical health (e.g., [50][51][52]. With regard to Grit, research is scarcer, yet some studies found positive relationships between Grit and physical health as well as fitness outcomes [53,54]. ...
There is emerging consensus that Grit’s two facets—perseverance of effort and consistency of interest—are best understood as facets of the Big Five dimension of Conscientiousness. However, an in-depth investigation on whether Grit’s facet offer any added value over more established facets of Conscientiousness is absent from the literature. In the present study, we investigated whether Grit’s facets are empirically distinguishable from three facets of Conscientiousness as conceived in the well-validated Big-Five Inventory 2 (BFI–2), namely, Organization, Responsibility, Productiveness. Moreover, we investigated whether Grit’s facets show different (and possibly stronger) associations than the facets of Conscientiousness with a broad set of external criteria (age, educational attainment, monthly income, life satisfaction, mental and physical health, fluid and crystallized intelligence); as well as whether the criterion correlations of Grit’s facets are incremental over Conscientiousness. Findings from two latent-variable models in a large and diverse sample (N = 1,244) indicated that the facets of Grit showed moderate to strong relationships related to each other and to the three Conscientiousness facets of the BFI–2 (.41 ≤ r ≤ .94). Grit–Perseverance was almost indistinguishable from the Productiveness facet of Conscientiousness, whereas Grit–Consistency appeared to capture something unique beyond the Conscientiousness facets. The relationships with external criteria of Grit’s facets were similar in direction and size to those of the Conscientiousness facets. The results give further purchase to the view that Grit’s facets can be subsumed under the Conscientiousness domain.
... Not specific to physical activity, global authentic pride was associated with increased perseverance and behavioral engagement in goal pursuit, whereas hubristic pride was associated with decreased persistence in challenging behaviors (Carver, Sinclair, & Johnson, 2010;Williams & DeSteno, 2008). Researchers have also reported that fitness-related authentic, but not hubristic, pride was a positive predictor of grit (e.g., an indicator of perseverance and sustained commitment) among athletes (Gilchrist, Fong, Herbison, & Sabiston, 2018). Taken together, each facet of pride may uniquely function to predict sport experiences and sustained engagement in sport. ...
Despite well-documented benefits of sport participation for adolescents, girls are less likely to initiate participation and more likely to disengage from sport, compared to boys. Due to the highly evaluative and social nature of the sport context, girls' emotional experiences around their body's abilities, function, and fitness are important-yet understudied-predictors of sport participation. The objectives of this longitudinal study were to describe changes in fitness-related and appearance-related self-conscious emotions (i.e., guilt, shame, authentic pride, hubristic pride) and sport experiences (i.e., sport commitment, enjoyment, anxiety) over time, and examine whether between-and within-person differences in these emotions predict sport experiences during adolescence. A sample of 518 girls involved in organized sport completed questionnaires once a year over a three-year period. Results from multilevel models reveal detrimental changes in emotions, sport commitment and enjoyment over time. Further, fitness-related emotions remain significant predictors of sport experiences above and beyond appearance-related emotions thus highlighting the importance of fitness-related emotions in predicting sport experiences. Examining both between and within-person effects is novel in elucidating the predictive capacity of fitness-related emotions as they explain differences between girls-as well as variations in girls' sport experiences over time.
... Grit has been analyzed in detail in other areas such as educational contexts (Duckworth et al., 2011) and military contexts (USMA, West Point) (Duckworth et al., 2007;Maddi et al., 2012;Kelly et al., 2014) before even being studied in the domain of sports. In sports, the two factors presently under discussion -perseverance and passion -are usually the attributes required to obtain the best possible performance (Gilchrist et al., 2017). ...
The social relevance of endurance sports has increased people’s motivation to engage in these particular physical activities, associating their practice with a particular lifestyle (e.g., feeling victorious and a feeling of self-improvement). Therefore, the dark personality traits (not because they are negative but because they are more hidden), understood as a personal and adaptive response to the psychosocial relationships that athletes establish while practicing these sports. Following these arguments, Grit has been used to trace the response of athletes in their quest to improve performance and endurance in the face of common setbacks suffered as a result of long hours of training. Empirical studies should help to discover how these personality traits can pose real challenges to their adaptation, and what the impact of their psychological response may be in a functional or dysfunctional way [e.g., exercise addiction (EA)], in order to classify them as risk or protective factors. Through transversal design, the present study sought to explore the relationship between Grit and Dark Traits of Personality regarding the appearance of EA in a sample (N = 241) of amateur endurance sport athletes (Mage = 31.80; SD = 9.87). The results show that men not only score higher for addiction levels but also for narcissism (grandiosity feelings) and psychopathy (coldness) factors. If signs of narcissism and Machiavellianism increase, perseverance efforts grow too, and the likelihood of EA increases considerably. The conclusions drawn on the basis of the results allow us to place consistency of interest as a protective factor for the EA, whereas Dark Traits of personality – especially Machiavellianism – constitute a risk factor.
... Gilchrist and collaborators conducted a study with undergraduate athletes and recreational runners in Canada (Gilchrist et al., 2018). They found that, "Inverse associations between global pride and grit were noted for authentic (β = .33, ...
Pride is an emotion that may influence a competitive athlete’s sports performance and mastery. The purpose of this study was to develop a scale to measure the pride traits in sports (Trait Pride Scale for Athletes: TPSA) and examine the characteristics. University student-athletes (N = 463) completed the TPSA, focusing on subjective emotional episodes and other scales of important personality constructs including self-esteem, resilience, authenticity, and narcissism. The exploratory factor analysis of the TPSA items indicated a four-factor structure: (a) Relationship, (b) Athletic Self-Identity, (c) Endurance/Diligence, and (d) Superiority. Regarding the gender differences in the TPSA subscale scores, female athletes experienced significantly more pride in Endurance/Diligence. Internal consistency was verified by Cronbach’s alpha and supported the reliability. The TPSA scores were positively correlated with all of the other personality scales, confirming convergent validity. In addition, partial correlation coefficients by controlling for other personality variables indicated that Relationship, Athletic Self-Identity, and Endurance/Diligence had a positive correlation with authenticity and resilience, whereas Superiority correlated with self-esteem and narcissism. Findings provide initial insight into the structure of pride in sports contexts. Specifically, these findings suggest that the athletes’ proneness of pride is a multidimensional construct that involves not only intrapersonal factors but also interpersonal factors.
The current study is a reliability generalization meta-analysis of the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S). A total of 95,440 participants were found across 66 studies with 117 internal consistency coefficients. We present the average Cronbach coefficient alpha (α) for the total Grit-S and subscales, Consistency of Interest and Perseverance of Effort. The results include total sample percentages for participant characteristics and setting types in which researchers used the Grit-S. The alpha range (α = .68 − .73) indicates the Grit-S and individual subscales are suitable for basic research use but not clinical decision making. Additionally, studies were inconsistent with statistically significant results with participants outside the United States, and reliability coefficients reduced among nonwhite participants. Researchers should further study the reliability of Grit-S among diverse participants.
The concept of pride is closely related to the sports environment, and one of the characteristics of an athlete is humility and humility the present study aimed to normalize pride questionnaires in athletic society. The research method is correlational. The statistical population in this study was 200 male and female athletes in futsal, volleyball, basketball, and water polo leagues. The exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and for data gathering, Tracy and Robins 2007 pride questionnaire with two factors of authentic (7 questions) and heuristic pride (7 questions) were used to analyze the data. The reliability of the questionnaire was calculated as 0.93 by Cronbach's alpha. To normalize questionnaires, the confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses and LISREL were used. The results of factor analysis of the Pride Questionnaire indicated that the reliability of the two components of Authentic and Heuristic pride was 0.88 and 0.90. Results obtained confirmed the reliability of the questionnaire. Results of behavior questionnaire factor analysis indicated that the questionnaire had acceptable relevance. Moreover, two questions with a factor load less than 0.9 were removed from the false pride factor. Furthermore, the research final showed that heuristic pride promoted moral behavior such as ignoring the athletic spirit and resorting to deception and offense to achieve success. Therefore, considering the utility of the tool, the Pride Questionnaire can be a useful tool for identifying the type and amount of pride, reinforcing positive pride, and moderating the negative pride of athletes in different sports fields.
Pride is an important emotion that functions positively for mastery, proficiency, and success in sports. The purpose of this study was to classify pride experiences of athletes, and to explore their characteristics. University student-athletes (n=195) were asked to come to think of and describe their experiences of pride in sport. The collected emotional episodes were first organized into three components: “situation,” “incident,” and “individual.” After that, each component was further classified as follows: First, “situation” was categorized into five categories: ‘achievement,’ ‘praise,’ ‘desirable action,’ ‘limelight,’ and ‘cheered.’ Next, “incident” was categorized into seven categories: ‘sociality,’ ‘accomplishment,’ ‘diligence,’ ‘benefit,’ ‘ability,’ ‘cooperation,’ and ‘success.’ Then, the “individual” was categorized into four categories: ‘self,’ ‘teammates,’ ‘group,’ and ‘entourage.’ Chi square test for categorical variables in each component showed that ‘achievement,’ ‘sociality,’ and ‘self’ occurred significantly more often. Correspondence analysis then revealed that ‘self’ was related to ‘achievement,’ ‘sociality,’ and ‘diligence,’ while ‘teammate’ was related to ‘desirable action,’ ‘accomplishment,’ and ‘ability.’ These results provide two suggestions: 1) pride is experienced not only in superiority by social comparison, but also in building good relationships with others; 2) university student-athletes tend to experience pride in relationships rather than superiority. It will be necessary to substantiate these findings in future research.
In engineering, form follows function. It is therefore difficult to understand an engineered object if one does not examine it in light of its function. Just as understanding the structure of a lock requires understanding the desire to secure valuables, understanding structures engineered by natural selection, including emotion systems, requires hypotheses about adaptive function. Social emotions reliably solved adaptive problems of human sociality. A central function of these emotions appears to be the recalibration of social evaluations in the minds of self and others. For example, the anger system functions to incentivize another individual to value your welfare more highly when you deem the current valuation insufficient; gratitude functions to consolidate a cooperative relationship with another individual when there are indications that the other values your welfare; shame functions to minimize the spread of discrediting information about yourself and the threat of being devalued by others; and pride functions to capitalize on opportunities to become more highly valued by others. Using the lens of social valuation, researchers are now mapping these and other social emotions at a rapid pace, finding striking regularities across industrial and small-scale societies and throughout history.
Across a variety of domains, such as in academics and in the military, grit is a significant predictor of performance, even after controlling for dimensions of innate ability. However, little is known about how grit develops or the psychosocial factors that may contribute to its presence (i.e. motivational climates, mindsets, and goal orientations). Although sport is a natural context in which to examine grit, both as a predictor and an outcome, few studies have done so. Thus, within the framework of achievement motivation theory, we examined the relationships of the perceived motivational climate created by coaches (task-involving vs. ego-involving), athletes’ mindset (growth vs. fixed) and goal orientation (task vs. ego), to their grit. Male high school varsity soccer players (N = 81) completed questionnaires measuring these constructs. Having a growth mindset and a task goal orientation, but not the perception of a task-involving climate, significantly predicted higher levels of grit (R² = .15); ego-related constructs were not significantly related to grit. Components of achievement motivation theory, specifically mindset (fundamental belief regarding whether or not ability can change with hard work and effort) and goal orientation (approaching tasks to either improve ability or demonstrate ability), may be particularly salient in athletes developing a perspective that allows them to work effectively and diligently toward long-term goals. Limitations and future directions are discussed.
Extrapolating from B. L. Fredrickson's (1998, 2001) broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, the authors hypothesized that positive emotions are active ingredients within trait resilience. U.S. college students (18 men and 28 women) were tested in early 2001 and again in the weeks following the September 11th terrorist attacks. Mediational analyses showed that positive emotions experienced in the wake of the attacks - gratitude, interest, love, and so forth - fully accounted for the relations between (a) precrisis resilience and later development of depressive symptoms and (b) precrisis resilience and postcrisis growth in psychological resources. Findings suggest that positive emotions in the aftermath of crises buffer resilient people against depression and fuel thriving, consistent with the broaden-and-build theory. Discussion touches on implications for coping.
Research demonstrates that there are 2 distinct facets of pride: the prosocial, achievement-oriented form of pride known as authentic pride, and the self-aggrandizing, egotistical form of pride known as hubristic pride. This research examined whether authentic pride and hubristic pride have divergent effects on delay of gratification. Support was found for the prediction that authentic pride would facilitate the ability to delay gratification, whereas hubristic pride would undermine it. Also, self-transcendent value affirmation was demonstrated to moderate the effects of pride on delayed gratification. Specifically, when people feeling hubristic pride had an opportunity to affirm a self-transcendent value that was important to them, their tendency to seek immediate gratification was attenuated. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
Although affective science has seen an explosion of interest in measuring subjectively experienced distinct emotional states, most existing self-report measures tap broad affect dimensions and dispositional emotional tendencies, rather than momentary distinct emotions. This raises the question of how emotion researchers measuring momentary distinct emotions in their studies. To address this question, we reviewed the self-report measurement practices regularly used for the purpose of assessing momentary distinct emotions, by coding these practices as observed in a representative sample of articles published in from 2001-2011 ( = 467 articles; 751 studies; 356 measurement instances). This quantitative review produced several noteworthy findings. First, researchers assess many purportedly distinct emotions ( = 65), a number that differs substantially from previously developed emotion taxonomies. Second, researchers frequently use scales that were not systematically developed, and that include items also used to measure at least 1 other emotion on a separate scale in a separate study. Third, the majority of scales used include only a single item, and had unknown reliability. Together, these tactics may create ambiguity regarding which emotions are being measured in empirical studies, and conceptual inconsistency among measures of purportedly identical emotions across studies. We discuss the implications of these problematic practices, and conclude with recommendations for how the field might improve the way it measures emotions. (PsycINFO Database Record
Grit has been presented as a higher order personality trait that is highly predictive of both success and performance and distinct from other traits such as conscientiousness. This paper provides a meta-analytic review of the grit literature with a particular focus on the structure of grit and the relation between grit and performance, retention, conscientiousness, cognitive ability, and demographic variables. Our results based on 584 effect sizes from 88 independent samples representing 66,807 individuals indicate that the higher order structure of grit is not confirmed, that grit is only moderately correlated with performance and retention, and that grit is very strongly correlated with conscientiousness. We also find that the perseverance of effort facet has significantly stronger criterion validities than the consistency of interest facet and that perseverance of effort explains variance in academic performance even after controlling for conscientiousness. In aggregate our results suggest that interventions designed to enhance grit may only have weak effects on performance and success, that the construct validity of grit is in question, and that the primary utility of the grit construct may lie in the perseverance facet.
Grit-perseverance and passion for long-term goals-has been shown to be a significant predictor of academic success, even after controlling for other personality factors. Here, for the first time, we use a U.K.-representative sample and a genetically sensitive design to unpack the etiology of Grit and its prediction of academic achievement in comparison to well-established personality traits. For 4,642 16-year-olds (2,321 twin pairs), we used the Grit-S scale (perseverance of effort and consistency of interest), along with the Big Five personality traits, to predict grades on the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exams, which are administered U.K.-wide at the end of compulsory education. Twin analyses of Grit perseverance yielded a heritability estimate of 37% (20% for consistency of interest) and no evidence for shared environmental influence. Personality, primarily conscientiousness, predicts about 6% of the variance in GCSE grades, but Grit adds little to this prediction. Moreover, multivariate twin analyses showed that roughly two-thirds of the GCSE prediction is mediated genetically. Grit perseverance of effort and Big Five conscientiousness are to a large extent the same trait both phenotypically (r = 0.53) and genetically (genetic correlation = 0.86). We conclude that the etiology of Grit is highly similar to other personality traits, not only in showing substantial genetic influence but also in showing no influence of shared environmental factors. Personality significantly predicts academic achievement, but Grit adds little phenotypically or genetically to the prediction of academic achievement beyond traditional personality factors, especially conscientiousness. (PsycINFO Database Record
Positive and Negative Affect, and Grit as predictors of
Happiness and Life Satisfaction
Kamlesh Singh and Shalini Duggal Jha
This study explores the relationship between the concepts of Happiness, Life Satisfaction, Positive and Negative Affect and Grit. Happiness is the average level of satisfaction over a specific period, the frequency and degree of positiveaffect manifestations or the extent to which an individual experiences positive emotional states, and the relative absence of negative affect. Life Satisfaction is
one’s evaluation of satisfaction with life in general and Grit refers to the character strength of perseverance described in Positive Psychology. The study was carried out on 254 undergraduate students of technology. Results revealed that the concepts of Grit, Positive Affect, Happiness and Life Satisfaction are significantly positively correlated. Negative Affect showed a significantly negative correlation
with Grit, Happiness and Life Satisfaction. Stepwise regression analysis showed that Positive Affect, Grit and Negative Affect together account for 19% of the variance in Life Satisfaction. Grit, Negative Affect and Positive Affect account for 11% of the total variance in Happiness
We examined whether soccer players who score low and high on the personality trait grit can be differentiated based on their sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise. Findings revealed that grittier players accumulated significantly more time in sport-specific activities including competition, training, play, and indirect involvement. Moreover, there was a significant main effect for performance on the perceptual-cognitive skills tests across groups, with grittier players performing better than less gritty players on the assessments of decision-making and situational probability. The findings are the first to demonstrate a potential link between grit, sport-specific engagement and perceptual-cognitive expertise.
Recent research has indicated strong relations between people's appraisals of their circumstances and their emotional states. The present study examined these relations across a range of unpleasant situations in which subjects experienced complex emotional blends. Subjects recalled unpleasant experiences from their pasts that were associated with particular appraisals and described their appraisals and emotions during these experiences. Situations defined by particular appraisals along the human agency or situational control dimensions were reliably associated with different levels of anger, sadness, and guilt, as predicted. However, predicted differences in emotion were not observed for situations selected for appraisals along the certainty or attention dimensions. Most subjects reported experiencing blends of two or more emotions, and correlation/regression analyses indicated that even in the context of these blends, patterns of appraisal similar to those observed previously (Smith & Ellsworth, 1985, 1987) characterized the experience of the individual emotions. The regressions further indicated that appraisals along some dimensions were more important to the experience of particular emotions than were appraisals along other dimensions. These central appraisals are compared with the adaptive functions their associated emotions are believed to serve, and the implications of these findings are discussed. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/45362/1/11031_2004_Article_BF00993115.pdf
Grit, defined as a passion and perseverance for one's goals, has been consistently demonstrated as an adaptive resource across multiple domains. Less explored, however, are the correlates of and sources from which grit is derived. The current studies examined two plausible candidates for promoting grit, positive affect and commitment to a purpose, using college student samples from Canada and the United States. Study 1 confirmed our predictions that grittier students tended to report greater positive affect and purpose commitment , and demonstrated that these variables appear to be unique and independent predictors of grit. Study 2 examined these claims using two-wave data collected across a semester, and found that while both purpose and positive affect were initially correlated with grit, only initial levels of purpose predicted grit at wave two. In other words, having a life direction may help more than positive affect when predicting who is likely to become grittier over a college semester. Implications of these findings are discussed. Keywords Grit Á Purpose Á Positive affect Á Emerging adulthood
Self-conscious emotions play a role in regulating daily achievement strivings, social behavior, and health, but little is known about the processes underlying their daily manifestation. Emerging adults (n = 182) completed daily diaries for 8 days and multilevel models were estimated to evaluate whether, how much, and why their emotions varied from day to day. Within-person variation in authentic pride was normally distributed across people and days, whereas the other emotions were burst-like and characterized by zero-inflated, negative binomial distributions. Perceiving social interactions as generally communal increased the odds of hubristic pride activation and reduced the odds of guilt activation; daily communal behavior reduced guilt intensity. Results illuminated processes through which meaning about the self in relation to others is constructed during a critical period of development.
The purpose of this study was to examine the association between fitness-related pride and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). A secondary aim was to examine behavioural regulations consistent with organismic integration theory (OIT) as potential mechanisms of the pride-MVPA relationship.
This study used a cross-sectional design.
Young adults (N = 465; Mage = 20.55; SDage = 1.75 years) completed self-report instruments of fitness-related pride, motivation and MVPA.
Both authentic and hubristic fitness-related pride demonstrated a moderate positive relationship with MVPA, as well as positive associations to more autonomous regulations. Behavioural regulations mediated the relationship between both facets of pride and MVPA with specific indirect effects noted for identified regulation and intrinsic motivation.
Overall, these findings demonstrate the association between experiencing fitness-related pride and increased engagement in MVPA. The tenability of OIT was also demonstrated for offering insight into explaining the association between pride and physical activity engagement.
In this article, the author describes a new theoretical perspective on positive emotions and situates this new perspective within the emerging field of positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory posits that experiences of positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires, which in turn serves to build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources. Preliminary empirical evidence supporting the broaden-and-build theory is reviewed, and open empirical questions that remain to be tested are identified. The theory and findings suggest that the capacity to experience positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength central to the study of human flourishing.
Self-conscious emotions, such as pride and shame, have important implications for performance in competence pursuits. Emotions and motivation are strongly linked and it may be that achievement goals play a role in regulating self-conscious emotions. This study investigated the effects of between-person achievement goal orientations and within-person fluctuations in achievement goal states on pride and shame responses to feedback. Undergraduate students (N = 58) completed a 24-round game of Tetris. Before each round, scoring criteria prompts were provided to manipulate achievement goals and participants rated their goals. After each round, participants received experimentally manipulated feedback and rated their pride and shame. A set of hierarchical linear models revealed that performance achievement goal states moderated the effects of feedback on pride and shame at a within-person level. These results suggest coaches and teachers may be able to use contextual cues to influence motivation and self-conscious emotions of their athletes and students during competence pursuits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
The expert performance framework distinguishes between deliberate practice and less effective practice activities. The current longitudinal study is the first to use this framework to understand how children improve in an academic skill. Specifically, the authors examined the effectiveness and subjective experience of three preparation activities widely recommended to improve spelling skill. Deliberate practice, operationally defined as studying and memorizing words while alone, better predicted performance in the National Spelling Bee than being quizzed by others or reading for pleasure. Rated as the most effortful and least enjoyable type of preparation activity, deliberate practice was increasingly favored over being quizzed as spellers accumulated competition experience. Deliberate practice mediated the prediction of final performance by the personality trait of grit, suggesting that perseverance and passion for long-term goals enable spellers to persist with practice activities that are less intrinsically rewarding—but more effective—than other types of preparation.
Happiness is generally considered a source of good outcomes. Research has highlighted the ways in which happiness facilitates the pursuit of important goals, contributes to vital social bonds, broadens people's scope of attention, and increases well-being and psychological health. However, is happiness always a good thing? This review suggests that the pursuit and experience of happiness might sometimes lead to negative outcomes. We focus on four questions regarding this purported "dark side" of happiness. First, is there a wrong degree of happiness? Second, is there a wrong time for happiness? Third, are there wrong ways to pursue happiness? Fourth, are there wrong types of happiness? Cumulatively, these lines of research suggest that although happiness is often highly beneficial, it may not be beneficial at every level, in every context, for every reason, and in every variety.
© The Author(s) 2011.
The Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al. in J Person Soc Psychol 85:756–767, 2003) distinguishes two types of passion: harmonious passion (HP) and obsessive passion (OP) that predict adaptive and less adaptive outcomes, respectively. In the present research, we were interested in understanding the role of passion in the adoption of moral behavior in achievement settings. It was predicted that the two facets of pride (authentic and hubristic; Tracy and Robins in J Person Soc Psychol, 92:506–525, 2007) would mediate the passion-moral behavior relationship. Specifically, because people who are passionate about a given activity are highly involved in it, it was postulated that they should typically do well and thus experience high levels of pride when engaged in the activity. However, it was also hypothesized that while both types of passion should be conducive to authentic pride, only OP should lead to hubristic pride. Finally, in line with past research on pride (Carver et al. in J Res Person 44:698–703, 2010; Tracy et al. in Self Identity 8:196–213, 2009), only hubristic pride was expected to negatively predict moral behavior, while authentic pride was expected to positively predict moral behavior. Results of two studies conducted with paintball players (N = 163, Study 1) and athletes (N = 296, Study 2) supported the proposed model. Future research directions are discussed in light of the Dualistic Model of Passion.
Self-conscious emotions (e.g., shame, pride) are fundamentally important to a wide range of psychological processes, yet they have received relatively little attention compared to other, more "basic" emotions (e.g., sadness, joy). This article outlines the unique features that distinguish self-conscious from basic emotions and then explains why generally accepted models of basic emotions do not adequately capture the self-conscious emotion process. The authors present a new model of self-conscious emotions, specify a set of predictions derived from the model, and apply the model to narcissistic self-esteem regulation. Finally, the authors discuss the model's broader implications for future research on self and emotion.
Positive emotion has been shown to be associated with adaptive outcomes in a number of domains, including psychological health. However, research has largely focused on overall levels of positive emotion with less attention paid to how variable versus stable it is across time. We thus examined the psychological health correlates of positive emotion variability versus stability across 2 distinct studies, populations, and scientifically validated approaches for quantifying variability in emotion across time. Study 1 used a daily experience approach in a U.S. community sample (N = 244) to examine positive emotion variability across 2 weeks (macrolevel). Study 2 adopted a daily reconstruction method in a French adult sample (N = 2,391) to examine variability within 1 day (microlevel). Greater macro- and microlevel variability in positive emotion was associated with worse psychological health, including lower well-being and life satisfaction and greater depression and anxiety (Study 1), and lower daily satisfaction, life satisfaction, and happiness (Study 2). Taken together, these findings support the notion that positive emotion variability plays an important and incremental role in psychological health above and beyond overall levels of happiness, and that too much variability might be maladaptive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present research tested a model of social-cognitive influences on situational motivation (i.e., youths' reasons for participating in sport at a given moment in time) via youths' 2×2 achievement goals. Boys and girls (N = 165) participating in a summer swim league completed measures of their achievement goals and situational motivation on multiple occasions during a 6-week period; they also rated the coaching climate at the end of the season. All Situational Motivation Scale responses exhibited acceptable levels of longitudinal factorial invariance. Latent growth curve analyses revealed that intrinsic motivation and identified regulation did not appear to change over the course of the season; however, external regulation and amotivation increased significantly during that period. Youths' perceptions of an avoidance-oriented coaching climate predicted corresponding residualized change in their own achievement goals over the season. Additionally, residualized change in youths' mastery-avoidance goals (i.e., focus on avoiding self-referenced incompetence) was positively linked to the rate at which external regulation and amotivation scores changed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated whether altering attributions for failure would enable learned helpless children to deal more effectively with failure in an experimental problem solving situation. 12 8-13 yr olds with extreme reactions to failure were identified by school personnel and were given intensive, relatively long-term experience with 1 of 2 training procedures. It was hypothesized that a procedure which taught the helpless children to take responsibility for failure and to attribute it to lack of effort would result in unimpaired performance following failure in the criterion situation, but that a procedure which provided success experiences only (as in many programmed learning and behavior modification programs) would lead to changes of a lesser magnitude. Results reveal that following training, Ss in the Success Only treatment continued to evidence a severe deterioration in performance after failure, while Ss in the Attribution Retraining treatment maintained or improved their performance. In addition, Ss in the latter condition showed an increase in the degree to which they emphasized insufficient motivation versus ability as a determinant of failure. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The traditional conception of validity divides it into three separate and substitutable types: content, criterion, and construct validities. This view is fragmented and incomplete, especially because it fails to take into account both evidence of the value implications of score meaning as a basis for action and the social consequences of score use. The new unified concept of validity interrelates these issues as fundamental aspects of a more comprehensive theory of construct validity that addresses both score meaning and social values in test interpretation and test use. That is, unified validity integrates considerations of content, criteria, and consequences into a construct framework for the empirical testing of rational hypotheses about score meaning and theoretically relevant relationships, including those of an applied and a scientific nature. Six distinguishable aspects of construct validity are highlighted as a means of addressing central issues implicit in the notion of validity as a unified concept. These are
content, substantive, structural, generalizability, external, and
consequential aspects of construct validity. In effect, these six aspects function as general validity criteria or standards for all educational and psychological measurement, including performance assessments, which are discussed in some detail because of their increasing emphasis in educational and employment settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Grit and the Big Five Inventory (BFI) Conscientiousness dimension were examined with respect to the transtheoretical model (TTM) stages of change for exercise behavior. Participants (N = 1171) completed an online survey containing exercise-related TTM staging questions, the Short Grit Scale and BFI Conscientiousness. Ordinal regression analyses showed that grit significantly predicted high intensity and moderate intensity exercise TTM stage while BFI Conscientiousness did not. The results suggest that grit is a potentially important differentiator of TTM stage for moderate and high intensity exercise.
Do individuals with high self-esteem enjoy positive interpersonal relationships, or are they aggressive and antisocial? Does narcissism reflect an abundance of self-worth, or inflated self-views driven by an overcompensation for low self-esteem? The present research addresses the apparently two-sided nature of self-esteem and narcissism by distinguishing between two distinct self-regulatory processes (narcissistic self-aggrandizement and genuine self-esteem), and proposing that two distinct facets of pride—authentic and hubristic—form the affective core of each. Specifically, findings demonstrate that when narcissistic and genuine self-esteem are empirically distinguished, genuine self-esteem (along with authentic pride) is positively related to successful social relationships and mental health, whereas narcissistic self-aggrandizement (along with hubristic pride) is positively related to aggression and other antisocial behaviors.
Three studies documented the gender stereotypes of emotions and the relationship between gender stereotypes and the interpretation of emotionally expressive behavior. Participants believed women experienced and expressed the majority of the 19 emotions studied (e.g., sadness, fear, sympathy) more often than men. Exceptions included anger and pride, which were thought to be experienced and expressed more often by men. In Study 2, participants interpreted photographs of adults’ambiguous anger/sadness facial expressions in a stereotype-consistent manner, such that women were rated as sadder and less angry than men. Even unambiguous anger poses by women were rated as a mixture of anger and sadness. Study 3 revealed that when expectant parents interpreted an infant's ambiguous anger/sadness expression presented on videotape only high-stereotyped men interpreted the expression in a stereotype-consistent manner. Discussion focuses on the role of gender stereotypes in adults’interpretations of emotional expressions and the implications for social relations and the socialization of emotion.
The self-conscious emotions (SCE) of guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment are moral emotions, which motivate adherence to social norms and personal standards and emerge in early childhood following the development of self-awareness. Gender stereotypes of emotion maintain that women experience more guilt, shame, and embarrassment but that men experience more pride. To estimate the magnitude of gender differences in SCE experience and to determine the circumstances under which these gender differences vary, we meta-analyzed 697 effect sizes representing 236,304 individual ratings of SCE states and traits from 382 journal articles, dissertations, and unpublished data sets. Guilt (d = -0.27) and shame (d = -0.29) displayed small gender differences, whereas embarrassment (d = -0.08), authentic pride (d = -0.01), and hubristic pride (d = 0.09) showed gender similarities. Similar to previous findings of ethnic variations in gender differences in other psychological variables, gender differences in shame and guilt were significant only for White samples or samples with unspecified ethnicity. We found larger gender gaps in shame with trait (vs. state) scales, and in guilt and shame with situation- and scenario-based (vs. adjective- and statement-based) items, consistent with predictions that such scales and items tend to tap into global, nonspecific assessments of the self and thus reflect self-stereotyping and gender role assimilative effects. Gender differences in SCE about domains such as the body, sex, and food or eating tended to be larger than gender differences in SCE about other domains. These findings contribute to the literature demonstrating that blanket stereotypes about women's greater emotionality are inaccurate.
Although dozens of studies have examined the autonomic nervous system (ANS) aspects of negative emotions, less is known about ANS responding in positive emotion. An evolutionary framework was used to define five positive emotions in terms of fitness-enhancing function, and to guide hypotheses regarding autonomic responding. In a repeated measures design, participants viewed sets of visual images eliciting these positive emotions (anticipatory enthusiasm, attachment love, nurturant love, amusement, and awe) plus an emotionally neutral state. Peripheral measures of sympathetic and vagal parasympathetic activation were assessed. Results indicated that the emotion conditions were characterized by qualitatively distinct profiles of autonomic activation, suggesting the existence of multiple, physiologically distinct positive emotions.
Perseverance toward goals that carry short-term costs is an important component of adaptive functioning. The present experiments examine the role that the emotion pride may play in mediating such perseverance. Across 2 studies, pride led to greater perseverance on an effortful and hedonically negative task believed to be related to the initial source of pride. In addition, the causal efficacy of pride was further demonstrated through dissociating its effects from related alternative mechanisms. Study 1 differentiated the effects of pride from self-efficacy. Study 2 differentiated the effects of pride from general positive affect. Taken together, these findings provide support for the proposed motivational function of pride in which this emotion serves as an incentive to persevere on a task despite initial costs.
Self-compassion has demonstrated many psychological benefits (Neff, 2009). In an effort to explore self-compassion as a potential resource for young women athletes, we explored relations among self-compassion, proneness to self-conscious emotions (i.e., shame, guilt-free shame, guilt, shame-free guilt, authentic pride, and hubristic pride), and potentially unhealthy self-evaluative thoughts and behaviors (i.e., social physique anxiety, obligatory exercise, objectified body consciousness, fear of failure, and fear of negative evaluation). Young women athletes (N = 151; Mage = 15.1 years) participated in this study. Self-compassion was negatively related to shame proneness, guilt-free shame proneness, social physique anxiety, objectified body consciousness, fear of failure, and fear of negative evaluation. In support of theoretical propositions, self-compassion explained variance beyond self-esteem on shame proneness, guilt-free shame proneness, shame-free guilt proneness, objectified body consciousness, fear of failure, and fear of negative evaluation. Results suggest that, in addition to self-esteem promotion, self-compassion development may be beneficial in cultivating positive sport experiences for young women.
The authors examined age differences in shame, guilt, and 2 forms of pride (authentic and hubristic) from age 13 years to age 89 years, using cross-sectional data from 2,611 individuals. Shame decreased from adolescence into middle adulthood, reaching a nadir around age 50 years, and then increased in old age. Guilt increased from adolescence into old age, reaching a plateau at about age 70 years. Authentic pride increased from adolescence into old age, whereas hubristic pride decreased from adolescence into middle adulthood, reaching a minimum around age 65 years, and then increased in old age. On average, women reported experiencing more shame and guilt; Blacks reported experiencing less shame and Asians more hubristic pride than other ethnicities. Across the life span, shame and hubristic pride tended to be negatively related to psychological well-being, and shame-free guilt and authentic pride showed positive relations with well-being. Overall, the findings support the maturity principle of personality development and suggest that as people age they become more prone to experiencing psychologically adaptive self-conscious emotions, such as guilt and authentic pride, and less prone to experiencing psychologically maladaptive ones, such as shame and hubristic pride.
Inhibitory control is a cognitive mechanism that contributes to successful self-control (i.e., adherence to a long-term goal in the face of an interfering short-term goal). This research explored the effect of imagined positive emotional events on inhibition. The authors proposed that the influence of imagined emotions on inhibition depends on whether the considered emotion corresponds to the attainment of a long-term goal (i.e., pride) or a short-term goal (i.e., happiness). The authors predicted that in an antisaccade task that requires inhibition of a distractor, imagining a happiness-eliciting event is likely to harm inhibitory processes compared with imagining a pride-eliciting event, because the former but not the latter primes interfering short-term goals. The results showed that imagining a happiness-eliciting event decreased inhibition relative to imagining a pride-eliciting event. The results suggest a possible mechanism underlying the role of imagined positive emotions in pursuit of goals that require self-control.
The purpose of this study was to test a model where body-related self-conscious emotions of shame, guilt, and pride were associated with physical activity regulations and behavior. Adult women (N = 389; M age = 29.82, SD = 15.20 years) completed a questionnaire assessing body-related pride, shame, and guilt, motivational regulations, and leisure-time physical activity. The hypothesized measurement and structural models were deemed adequate, as was a revised model examining shame-free guilt and guilt-free shame. In the revised structural model, body-related pride was positively significantly related to identified and intrinsic regulations. Body-related shame-free guilt was significantly associated with external, introjected, and identified regulations. Body-related guilt-free shame was significantly positively related to external and introjected regulation, and negatively associated with intrinsic regulation. Identified and intrinsic regulations were significantly positively related to physical activity (R2 = .62). These findings highlight the importance of targeting and understanding the realm of body-related self-conscious emotions and the associated links to regulations and physical activity behavior.
Happiness-a composite of life satisfaction, coping resources, and positive emotions-predicts desirable life outcomes in many domains. The broaden-and-build theory suggests that this is because positive emotions help people build lasting resources. To test this hypothesis, the authors measured emotions daily for 1 month in a sample of students (N = 86) and assessed life satisfaction and trait resilience at the beginning and end of the month. Positive emotions predicted increases in both resilience and life satisfaction. Negative emotions had weak or null effects and did not interfere with the benefits of positive emotions. Positive emotions also mediated the relation between baseline and final resilience, but life satisfaction did not. This suggests that it is in-the-moment positive emotions, and not more general positive evaluations of one's life, that form the link between happiness and desirable life outcomes. Change in resilience mediated the relation between positive emotions and increased life satisfaction, suggesting that happy people become more satisfied not simply because they feel better but because they develop resources for living well.
In this article, we introduce brief self-report and informant-report versions of the Grit Scale, which measures trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) retains the 2-factor structure of the original Grit Scale (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007) with 4 fewer items and improved psychometric properties. We present evidence for the Grit-S's internal consistency, test-retest stability, consensual validity with informant-report versions, and predictive validity. Among adults, the Grit-S was associated with educational attainment and fewer career changes. Among adolescents, the Grit-S longitudinally predicted GPA and, inversely, hours watching television. Among cadets at the United States Military Academy, West Point, the Grit-S predicted retention. Among Scripps National Spelling Bee competitors, the Grit-S predicted final round attained, a relationship mediated by lifetime spelling practice.
The 2 main tasks of this article are 1st, to examine what a theory of emotion must do and basic issues that it must address. These include definitional issues, whether or not physiological activity should be a defining attribute, categorical versus dimensional strategies, the reconciliation of biological universals with sociocultural sources of variability, and a classification of the emotions. The 2nd main task is to apply an analysis of appraisal patterns and the core relational themes that they produce to a number of commonly identified emotions. Anger, anxiety, sadness, and pride (to include 1 positive emotion) are used as illustrations. The purpose is to show the capability of a cognitive-motivational-relational theory to explain and predict the emotions. The role of coping in emotion is also discussed, and the article ends with a response to criticisms of a phenomenological, folk-theory outlook.
Praise for ability is commonly considered to have beneficial effects on motivation. Contrary to this popular belief, six studies demonstrated that praise for intelligence had more negative consequences for students' achievement motivation than praise for effort. Fifth graders praised for intelligence were found to care more about performance goals relative to learning goals than children praised for effort. After failure, they also displayed less task persistence, less task enjoyment, more low-ability attributions, and worse task performance than children praised for effort. Finally, children praised for intelligence described it as a fixed trait more than children praised for hard work, who believed it to be subject to improvement. These findings have important implications for how achievement is best encouraged, as well as for more theoretical issues, such as the potential cost of performance goals and the socialization of contingent self-worth.
Close relationship partners often share successes and triumphs with one another, but this experience is rarely the focus of empirical study. In this study, 79 dating couples completed measures of relationship well-being and then participated in videotaped interactions in which they took turns discussing recent positive and negative events. Disclosers rated how understood, validated, and cared for they felt in each discussion, and outside observers coded responders' behavior. Both self-report data and observational codes showed that 2 months later, responses to positive event discussions were more closely related to relationship well-being and break-up than were responses to negative event discussions. The results are discussed in terms of the recurrent, but often overlooked, role that positive emotional exchanges play in building relationship resources.
To provide support for the theoretical distinction between 2 facets of pride, authentic and hubristic (J. L. Tracy & R. W. Robins, 2004a), the authors conducted 7 studies. Studies 1-4 demonstrate that the 2 facets (a) emerge in analyses of the semantic meaning of pride-related words, the dispositional tendency to experience pride, and reports of actual pride experiences; (b) have divergent personality correlates and distinct antecedent causal attributions; and (c) do not simply reflect positively and negatively valenced, high- and low-activation, or state versus trait forms of pride. In Studies 5-7, the authors develop and demonstrate the reliability and validity of brief, 7-item scales that can be used to assess the facets of pride in future research.
Objectives: The aim of this study was to develop a new self-report instrument to assess experiences of shame, guilt, authentic pride, and hubristic pride in a fitness context. Design and method: In Study 1, 41 potential items were developed and assessed for item quality and comprehension. In Study 2, a panel of experts (N = 8; M = 10.55, SD = 6.49 years of experience) assessed the scale and items for validity evidence based on content. Participants in Study 3 (N = 435) completed the Body-related Self-Conscious Emotions Fitness instrument (BSE-FIT) and other established self-report measures of body image, personality, emotion, and behavior. A subset of participants (n = 38; 38% male) in Study 3 completed a 2-week follow-up. Results: The BSE-FIT subscale scores demonstrated evidence for internal consistency, temporal stability over a 2-week period, concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity. A 4-factor conceptualization of the instrument was supported. Conclusions: Overall, the final 16-item BSE-FIT instrument shows promise as a new instrument for assessing shame, guilt, and authentic and hubristic facets of pride in fitness contexts.
Individuals regularly confront situations in which acceptance of short-term costs may lead to long-term gains. Given that individuals frequently discount the utility of future benefits with respect to more immediate ones, successfully solving such intertemporal choice dilemmas has been theorized to involve self-regulation aimed at controlling emotional responses that are sensitive to immediate rewards. In this article, I argue for a more multifaceted view of the role played by emotions in intertemporal choice. In support of this view, I review emerging evidence demonstrating the ability of specific, socially oriented emotions to facilitate behaviors designed to build social and economic capital in the long run.
In two groups, one Australian (n=2199), the other international (n=6868), gender differences in self-reports of the frequency and intensity of recently experiencing eight emotions were assessed by t-tests, and effect sizes measured using Cohen's d (Cohen, 1992). The eight emotions were Affection, Anger, Contentment, Fear, Guilt, Joy, Pride, and Sadness. In the Australian group statistically significant differences between the genders were found for the frequency of Affection, Anger, Fear, Joy, and Sadness with females scoring higher. Males scored higher on Pride. The only intensity differences for the Australian group were for Affection and Sadness where females scored higher, and Pride where males scored higher. For the international sample, significant gender differences for the frequency of Affection, Anger, Contentment, Fear, Joy and Sadness were found with females scoring higher than males. Gender differences in intensity were found for all of the emotions except Pride, again with males scoring higher than females. Expressed in standard deviation units, all of the effect sizes are small, and some are extremely small. The largest effect size was d=0.30 for Affection in the international group.
This study examines the relationships of trait-like tendencies towards authentic and hubristic pride (Tracy & Robins, 2004) with goal-regulation tendencies, affective tendencies, and impulsive traits. Undergraduates (n = 936) completed the 14-item measure of authentic and hubristic pride (Tracy & Robins, 2007b) and a battery of other self-report measures. The two types of pride correlated with distinct profiles of goal-regulation tendencies, affective tendencies, and self-control. Authentic pride correlated with measures of self-control, whereas hubristic pride was related to measures of impulsivity and aggression. Overall, the differential pattern of correlations fits with a model in which authentic pride is tied to adaptive achievement and goal engagement, whereas hubristic pride is tied to extrinsic values of public recognition and social dominance.
The broaden‐and‐build theory (Fredrickson, 199819.
Fredrickson , BL . (1998). What good are positive emotions?. Review of General Psychology, 2: 300–319. [CrossRef], [PubMed]View all references, 200121.
Fredrickson , BL . (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden‐and‐build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56: 218–226. [CrossRef], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®], [CSA]View all references) hypothesises that positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. Two experiments with 104 college students tested these hypotheses. In each, participants viewed a film that elicited (a) amusement, (b) contentment, (c) neutrality, (d) anger, or (e) anxiety. Scope of attention was assessed using a global‐local visual processing task (Experiment 1) and thought‐action repertoires were assessed using a Twenty Statements Test (Experiment 2). Compared to a neutral state, positive emotions broadened the scope of attention in Experiment 1 and thought‐action repertoires in Experiment 2. In Experiment 2, negative emotions, relative to a neutral state, narrowed thought‐action repertoires. Implications for promoting emotional well‐being and physical health are discussed.
This article opens by noting that positive emotions do not fit existing models of emotions. Consequently, a new model is advanced to describe the form and function of a subset of positive emotions, including joy, interest, contentment, and love. This new model posits that these positive emotions serve to broaden an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire, which in turn has the effect of building that individual's physical, intellectual, and social resources. Empirical evidence to support this broaden-and-build model of positive emotions is reviewed, and implications for emotion regulation and health promotion are discussed.
The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions predicts that positive emotions broaden the scopes of attention and cognition, and, by consequence, initiate upward spirals toward increasing emotional well-being. The present study assessed this prediction by testing whether positive affect and broad-minded coping reciprocally and prospectively predict one another. One hundred thirty-eight college students completed self-report measures of affect and coping at two assessment periods 5 weeks apart. As hypothesized, regression analyses showed that initial positive affect, but not negative affect, predicted improved broad-minded coping, and initial broad-minded coping predicted increased positive affect, but not reductions in negative affect. Further mediational analyses showed that positive affect and broad-minded coping serially enhanced one another. These findings provide prospective evidence to support the prediction that positive emotions initiate upward spirals toward enhanced emotional wellbeing. Implications for clinical practice and health promotion are discussed.