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Future Minds: Transhumanism, Cognitive Enhancement and the Nature of Persons
Abstract
"After covering the basic tenets of Transhumanism, I discuss what I take to be the most important philosophical element of the transhumanist picture -- its unique perspective on the nature and development of persons.... Examining the enhancement issue through the vantage point of the metaphysical problem of personal identity shall thereby present a serious challenge to Transhumanism. Indeed, this is a pressing issue for any argument made for or against enhancement."
... In its broadest definition, the transhumanist paradigm indicates the next possible step in the evolution of human beings is through the bodily integration of technology [7]. Transhumanism claims that humans will be able to reach an enhanced state of being through advanced technologies that will improve their physical abilities, cognitive abilities and emotional abilities [7,6,72]. In this section, we explore some of the potential progression related to these three pillars of transhumanism and start to reflect on how these changes might affect urban design, city-governing and society. ...
... In the future, cognitive enhancements might increase dramatically the "processing power" of our brains with brain augmentation processes, including uploading our minds to computers altogether [6,86]. Brain implants could extend our memory capacity [72,69], increase our reflexes and even allow our minds to be connected to a mutual repository that will allow us to reach any kinds of information very quickly, similarly to today's cloud systems, a sort of "Internet of Minds" [89]. The augmentation and digitisation of minds will also entail many risks related to privacy, security, hacking and raise several ethical questions regrading conservation, use, replication of such data. ...
... These paradigms do not have the pretense of accurately predicting the future, but they solve the issue in a creative way: while we cannot be sure of what the future holds, we can imagine a series of possible futures (more or less likely) and use them as a starting point for a critical reflection on what the future might hold and which possible future is more desirable. This approach also constitutes the core of many transhuman visions [7,6,33,72]: if we can anticipate the future better, or even take part in shaping it, we will be better able to navigate its hurdles and negative ramifications. ...
... There is no survival because there is no person (Buddha, Parfit). (Schneider 2009) In The Singularity is Near (2005), Kurzweil advocates for position 2, which has been dubbed "Patternism, " and this is the dominant view among transhumanists in general. Patternism permits radical changes to the body and brain so long as the sense of continuity, the memory of a flow of mental states leading to the present, is maintained. ...
... But both believe, unlike many bioconservative critics, that personal continuity is nonetheless possible. Schneider (2009) suggests, however, that the transhumanists' patternist theories are inadequate to establish the continuity of personal identity after radical cognitive enhancements or uploading. Transhumanist enhancement scenarios propose radical malleability in memory, values, and all other elements of the "pattern. ...
... what is it that ultimately grounds your decision to enhance or not enhance if not that it will somehow improve who you are? Are you perhaps merely planning for the well-being of your closest continuent? (Schneider 2009) Schneider does not address the fact that there are transhumanists, such as myself, who have taken the position that the self is an illusion (Hughes 2001(Hughes , 2005. I have argued that radical longevity and cognitive enhancement will push liberal democratic society to adopt post-liberal individualist moral, legal, and political frameworks that do not assume personal identity, although what the contours of such frameworks might be I cannot say. ...
The personal identity conundrum is perhaps more exclusive to transhumanism than the other intra-Enlightenment debates since it is precisely the prospect of radical neuroscience that has made the erasure of the illusion of personal identity so tangible. Nick Bostrom acknowledged the problem of personal identity for transhumanism. In her 2009 essay, Susan Schneider cites Ray Kurzweil's 2005 parsing of the personal identity debate into four positions. Kurzweil advocates the psychological continuity theory, also dubbed “Patternism.” One philosopher who defends the variant of the patternist view in great depth is Max More. More specifically argues against a focus on continuity of memory as important for identity. Both More and Walker concede that some enhancements would break personal identity by breaking the continuity of the personality pattern. Schneider suggests, however, that the transhumanists' patternist theories are inadequate to establish the continuity of personal identity after radical cognitive enhancements or uploading.
... Works within these approaches aim to "enhance" physical, cognitive, and emotional abilities using technology, which aligns with transhumanist perspectives on the relationship between humans and technology [7,8,58,75,92]. These share a positive belief in progress and technology that by leveraging technological advancements, humans can surpass their natural abilities, bodily limitations and vulnerabilities [98]. ...
... EpiSense and MindHarmony envisioned holistic transformations, integrating physical, cognitive, and emotional enhancements through second skin and brain implants, respectively. This role aligns with a transhumanist view on surpassing our perceptual abilities through technological advancements [7,8,75,92], which is evident in current approaches to body perception transformations [60,79,99]. This role prompted discussions within the group, as some members aimed to steer away from common transhumanist pitfalls, e.g. ...
Body perception transformation technologies augment or alter our own body perception outside of our usual bodily experience. As emerging technologies, research on these technologies is limited to proofs-of-concept and lab studies. Consequently, their potential impact on the way we perceive and experience our bodies in everyday contexts is not yet well understood. Through a speculative design inquiry, our multidisciplinary team envisioned utopian and dystopian technology visions. We surfaced potential roles, goals and values that current and future body perception transformation technologies could incorporate, including non-utilitarian purposes. We contribute insights on such roles, goals and values to inspire current and future work. We also present three provocations to stimulate discussions. Finally, we contribute methodologically with insights into the value of speculative design as a fruitful approach for articulating and bridging diverse perspectives in multidisciplinary teams.
... Indeed, a growing number of individuals are already engaged in variations of such interventions, from caloric restriction to pharmacological supplementation (Longo et al., 2015). While certainly a topic for moral and sustainability debates (Schneider, 2009), one cannot help but wonder what it might be like to live for hundreds of years-to have the opportunity to experience the extremely distant future. Philosophers, writers, and computer scientists have painted both enticing (Schloendrom, 2006) and distressing (Pijnenburg & Leget, 2007) pictures of life extension, but a psychological perspective remains largely absent from the literature. ...
... Corroborating and extending previous work looking at typical aging (Rutt & Löckenhoff, 2016b), chronological aging characterized by suspended biological aging is also associated with decreased self-continuity. Compounding environmental and ethical concerns about life extension (Schneider, 2009), increased years to live may come at the psychological cost of feeling disconnected from one's future self. ...
Background and Objectives
With rapid advancements in medicine, technology, and nutrition, the future holds the possibility of longer and healthier lives. Despite garnering attention from myriad disciplines, psychological perspectives on life extension are scarce. In three studies, we addressed this gap by exploring key mental characteristics and psychological variables associated with simulating an expanded life span and thus an extremely distant future self.
Research Design and Methods
Three studies investigated the construal (i.e., valence, vividness, and visual perspective) of extremely distant future simulations and the extent to which participants felt connected to their future selves (i.e., self-continuity). Studies 1 and 2 investigated the characteristics of imagery associated with different ages ranging from near the current species maximum (e.g., 120, 150) to more highly hypothetical ages (e.g., 201, 501). Study 3 probed the mental construal of extreme aging among different populations (i.e., life-extension supporters, students, and Mechanical Turk workers). Studies also assessed participants’ general feelings about the ethicality and likelihood of techniques that halt or reverse biological aging to help individuals live beyond the current life expectancy.
Results
Participants in all studies reported being able to vividly imagine expanded aging scenarios (increased chronological, without biological, and aging), but these simulations were characterized by a decreased sense of connection to one’s future self (i.e., self-continuity) compared to a control condition. Temporal distance did not, however, impact ratings of self-continuity when comparing experimental conditions (i.e., imagining one’s self 120 vs 150 or 201 vs 501). Curiously, a sense of self-continuity (when simulating oneself well beyond the current life expectancy) remained intact for individuals who belonged to a community of life-extension supporters. The perceived likelihood and ethicality of extended life-span scenarios also varied significantly across different populations.
Discussion and Implications
The current work is the first to quantify the disconnect between one’s current and extremely distant (i.e., beyond the current life expectancy) future self. Given the behavioral implications of feeling disconnected from one’s future self (e.g., failing to save for retirement or care for one’s own physical health), these findings inform a critical barrier of extended life spans and provide insight into potential remedies (e.g., enhancing the perceived likelihood of living longer). Theoretical implications of hypotheticality and temporal distance, two key dimensions of Construal Level Theory, and their impact on the construal and self-continuity associated with future simulations are also discussed.
... Could the process of enhancing ourselves by merging with AI lead to a loss of selfhood or even to the destruction of our own selves as such-for example, because the transition from carbon-based to silicon-based cognition that such a process implies does not allow for the upholding of consciousness or personal identity? (Schneider 2009(Schneider , 2019Schneider and Mandik 2018) These concerns are often balanced with the potential gains we can expect from merging with AI, in terms of intelligence, well-being, power or lifespan. Consequently, the question that arises sometimes seems to be: "should we merge with AI, and take the risk of sacrificing or destroying our own selves, in order to make huge gains in intelligence, well-being, etc.-or not?" (Agar 2010(Agar , 2012(Agar , 2014Levy 2011). ...
... Truffle (and, for iDiversity ® , by making suggestions for modifying the written output of the professor), but do not have a direct impact on the cognitive processes of the subject, which remain more or less untouched. On the other hand, we could imagine that the self-building technologies available in a distant future could be much more tightly integrated to the subjects: they could take the form of tightly integrated "cognitive modules" (Bostrom and Sandberg 2009, p. 320-321;Schneider 2009Schneider , 2019 which would directly affect the details of the perceptual, emotional, cognitive processes of subjects. Moreover, in the scenario in which future humans decide to completely "merge with AI" and proceed to cognitive uploading (Kurzweil 2006;Oxford University 2008;Schneider 2019), the self-building apps could consist, not only in additions to the normal cognitive functioning of the subjects, but in deep modifications of their cognitive architecture. ...
On the basis of two thought experiments, I argue that self-building technologies are possible given our current level of technological progress. We could already use technology to make us instantiate selfhood in a more perfect, complete manner. I then examine possible extensions of this thesis, regarding more radical self-building technologies which might become available in a distant future. I also discuss objections and reservations one might have about this view.
... The creation of a rich simulated city resided by autonomous digital citizens provides a tangible example of the feasibility of developing such a system, supporting the theoretical possibilities postulated by the simulation argument. Although our technology is primitive compared to the advanced civilizations in Bostrom's hypothesis, our progress underscores the potential reality that future technological advancements might enable the realization of full-scale, hyper-realistic simulations [99]. ...
This paper explores the potential of a multidisciplinary approach to testing and aligning artificial intelligence (AI), specifically focusing on large language models (LLMs). Due to the rapid development and wide application of LLMs, challenges such as ethical alignment, controllability, and predictability of these models emerged as global risks. This study investigates an innovative simulation-based multi-agent system within a virtual reality framework that replicates the real-world environment. The framework is populated by automated 'digital citizens,' simulating complex social structures and interactions to examine and optimize AI. Application of various theories from the fields of sociology, social psychology, computer science, physics, biology, and economics demonstrates the possibility of a more human-aligned and socially responsible AI. The purpose of such a digital environment is to provide a dynamic platform where advanced AI agents can interact and make independent decisions, thereby mimicking realistic scenarios. The actors in this digital city, operated by the LLMs, serve as the primary agents, exhibiting high degrees of autonomy. While this approach shows immense potential, there are notable challenges and limitations, most significantly the unpredictable nature of real-world social dynamics. This research endeavors to contribute to the development and refinement of AI, emphasizing the integration of social, ethical, and theoretical dimensions for future research.
... According to Max More [57], transhumanism "seeks the continued evolution of human life beyond its currently human form as a result of science and technology guided by life-promoting principles and values". Thus, transhumanism offers an engaging forecast on the future of the human mind, and also the alteration of consciousness through technical enhancement [67]. In association with the above trends, academia also shows growing attention toward technology-driven ASCs, with researchers looking to address questions related to the alteration of consciousness through the application of interactive technology [36,51,[88][89][90]. ...
There has been increasing interest shown in experiences such as lucid dreams, hallucinations, or awe that arise in HCI. Altered States of Consciousness (ASC) is the umbrella term for these experiences, yet it has been subject to fragmented study, and design knowledge to help individuals working on technology-driven ASCs is lacking. This paper investigates HCI studies involving ASC artefacts through a scoping review. The findings relate to (1) ASC induction methods, (2) ASC experiences through artefacts, (3) ASC artefacts, and (4) the technology of ASC artefacts. The returned literature shows that HCI studies have mainly explored psychologically induced ASCs, and XR technologies and embodied interaction are widely used in ASC research. Meanwhile, physical artefact design including active body movements and the integration of games and play approaches featured as prospective directions. These results will contribute to the knowledge of those studying and designing ASC artefacts.
... Ray Kurzweil and others have explicitly claimed to be continuing on the legacy of the enlightenment 11 (Kurzweil 2000;O'Gieblyn 2017;Bostrom 2005;Hughes 2010), and work under a computational model of the mind where the "mind" is essentially the program running on the "hardware" of the brain. Thus anything that can be considered as part of this program, including values, emotions, and memories could conceivable fall under the auspices of the "brain" and "intelligence" (Bostrom 2003;Kurzweil 2005;Schneider 2008). In fact, Kurzweil maintains that the successes that we have had so far at "reverse engineering" the brain are key evidence that fully artificial intelligence is simply a matter of producing the proper algorithm with the required processing power (2005,2016). ...
The new gene-editing tool, CRISPR-Cas9, been described as “revolutionary” This paper takes up the question of what sense, if any, might this be true and why it matters. I draw from the history and philosophy of technology to develop two types of technological revolutions (Hughes, Technological momentum in history: Hydrogenation in Germany 1898–1933. Oxford University Press, New York, 1969; Wimsatt, Re-engineering philosophy for limited beings. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2007; Constant, The origins of turbojet revolution. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1980; Scaife, Sci Am 252(4), 1985). One type of revolution involves a technology that enables users to change a generatively entrenched structure (Wimsatt, Re-engineering philosophy for limited beings. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2007). The other type involves a technology that works within a generatively entrenched structure, but as a result of incremental improvement becomes the “new normal” technology for a community (Scaife, Sci Am 252(4), 1985). In what follows, I argue that if CRISPR-Cas9 is revolutionary at all – and I do not take a stand on the issue – it is in becoming the “new normal” molecular technology across biology labs. By contrast, a technology that has the potential of being revolutionary in Wimsatt’s sense is the orthogonal tRNA technique developed by Peter Schultz’ synthetic biology lab. Whether or not CRSIPR-Cas9 or the orthogonal tRNA technologies are revolutionary, I propose to treat these two types of putative revolutions as distinct types of technological innovation. I argue further that observing distinctions between types of technological innovation can be useful for tracking the epistemic and normative consequences that technology raises.
... Readily manipulated conditions, "such as ambient noise, threats of physical violence, danger, paranoia, dullness of task, or imposed time limits, can make individuals functionally closed" (McCrae, 1996). Clearly Attention plays a significant role as the gateway to the liberation or dissolution of the richness of conscious experience, whose bandwidth greatly fragments within conditions such as highly mediated interfaces and the cultural scenarios dreamed by Kerzweil and other Transhumanists (Schneider, 2008;Kaufman, Quilty, Grazioplene, Hirsh, Gray, Peterson, & DeYoung, 2015). As the eyes have evolved to become humans' primary directors of information gathering, "likely due an evolutionary transition from being nocturnal, arboreal and relatively solitary, to being diurnal, ground-based and social," the harnessing of that direction into ever more galleries of digital absorption drives even more co-opting of our total sensory attentiveness into concentrated sensory pathways, which potentially condenses P?(φ) by limiting the dynamic imprinting of SED harmonics during aesthetic absorption; effectively causing some attentional preferences to under develop, while others exhaust overstimulated pathways, and therefore cause habituation of underutilized spectrums among other sensory pathways (Passingham & Wise, 2012). ...
... Or they could alter their emotional state according to different kind of situations and triggers. Or even feel emotions and experiences that cannot even be imagined today (Schneider 2008). ...
Images of Hong Kong protestors tearing down facial recognition towers
to avoid being identified by the authorities started circulating online in September
2019, quickly becoming a symbol of the technological dimension of contemporary
struggles against power. While, on the one hand, devices aiming at dissimulating
faces from facial recognition systems are multiplying, on the other the COVID-19
pandemic has transformed surgical masks into some mainstream garment. Within
the framework of transurbanism, the present paper aims at exploring the complex
relations between faces, technology, and urban spaces with transhuman technologies
and smart cities. Such relations highlight several key junctions: issues of identity and
self-expression, problems of surveillance and strategies of resistance, semiospheric
changes, and new frontiers for the writing and creation of the face.
... Mientras para Locke, la memoria es el núcleo de la identidad personal, vinculando el self pasado con el futuro, sin embargo, la memoria para Hume crea una ilusión de que existe alguna continuidad entre estados mentales pasados, presentes y futuros (Hughes 2013: 228). Este argumento permitirá desarrollar la visión desagregada y conectiva del self que desarrolla la interpretación transhumanista (Metzinger 2009;Schneider 2009). ...
Las sociedades contemporáneas proyectan horizontes de futuro, ventanas sociológicas de exploración lanzadas desde el presente hacia el futuro que afrontan las ventajas, así como los peligros que afectan a la naturaleza humana tanto en la esfera pública así como en la privada. Estas constelaciones enfrentan la incertidumbre, eso “desconocido conocido” (el punto ciego desde el que observo y veo que no veo) pues en cuanto ámbito de lo indeterminado (Apeiron según Anaximandro) permanece todavía velado, pero es desvelable a través de las premisas de perfectibilidad y racionalidad abiertas por la Ilustración, especialmente a través de la figura de Condorcet que actúa como narrativa preparatoria. El objetivo principal de este trabajo se expresa en el análisis sociológico de las disputas sostenidas entre tres de las narrativas -el humanismo, el transhumanismo y el poshumanismo- que asumen contornos distintos entre los conocimientos de las ciencias y las humanidades que pugnan o bien por preservar o bien por transgredir los límites de lo humano, para concluir proponiendo un “principio proaccionario” limitado de transgresión basado en la noción de “capital biocultural”. Contemporary societies project horizons of future, sociological windows of exploration projected from the present into the future, which take into account the dangers which will affect the human experience in the public as well as in the private spheres. They imagine how the human life will be in the future according to the decisions taken in the present. These constellations face uncertainty, that “known unknown” (the blind point from which I observe and don´t see that I don´t see) because as a part of the undeterminate yet veiled, could be unveiled throughout the premises of perfectibility, calculation and rationality which were open by the influence of Enlightenment, mainly by the figure of Condorcet who stablished the preparatory narrative. The main goal of this paper is the sociological analysis of the conceptual struggles between the three narratives -the humanism, the transhumanism and the posthumanism- which have different positions on either to keep or to go off the limits of the human nature to suggest a limited “proactionary principle” of enhancement based in the notion of “biocultural capital”.
... This has the potential to bring about immeasurable benefits. For example, human enhancement could lead to improvements in human cognition, granting humanity a deeper understanding of its existence and surroundings and leading to scientific and technological breakthroughs (Schneider, 2008). It could help to eliminate disease and tackle the effects of ageing, allowing humans to live longer, healthier, and happier lives (McConnel & Turner, 2005;Dvorsky, 2008). ...
... Also, for example, DiGrazia 12 argues that enhancements are likely to preserve personal identity, while Schneider 13 claims that 351 as the movement advocating for and researching posthuman capacities (see Bostrom, 2003b, andMore, 1990). 12 DiGrazia (2005) 13 Schneider (2008) there is not sufficient evidence for this. Walker 14 asserts that radical enhancements will not preserve personal identity and advocates like Bostrom for gradual changes. ...
... Perhaps the most distinctive contribution that Buddhism can make to the human enhancement project, in particular to radical life extension and mind uploading, is its distinctive deconstruction of personal identity. The dominant position on personal identity among transhumanists is 'patternism,' which holds that personal identity is maintained if the pattern of memories and other psychological elements that constitute the self are faithfully copied (Schneider 2008). This view permits radical changes to the body and brain so long as the phenomenological experience of continuity, the memory of a flow of mental states leading to the present, is maintained. ...
New human enhancement technologies will radically challenge traditional religious understandings of the human project. But among the world’s faiths, Buddhists will have some distinct advantages adapting to and contributing to thinking about, a posthuman future. Buddhism and human enhancement have some affinities and some useful complementarities. In the Abrahamic faiths, humanity is divinely created with static capacities, while in traditional Buddhism, human beings routinely evolve into gods and superbeings. While Buddhism counsels against grasping, it has no objection to using medicine or spiritual technologies to live longer lives or achieve superhuman abilities. In Buddhist eschatology, human beings are expected to have 80,000-year lifespans in a future posthuman utopia on Earth. Modernizing efforts since the nineteenth century are also facilitating a Buddhist engagement with human enhancement technologies. Since the nineteenth century, many Asian and Western Buddhists have downplayed the superstitious aspects of Buddhism, arguing for its compatibility with science, and framing meditation as a human enhancement technology. In recent decades, Buddhist teachers have collaborated with neuroscientists studying the neurological and behavioral effects of meditation, so that meditation practices can be integrated with emerging neurotechnologies to enhance self-control, compassion, insight, and altered states of consciousness. These neurotechnologies will also increase the relevance of Buddhist psychology, which counsels that the illusion of a continuous, discrete self is the cause of suffering.
... Readily manipulated conditions, such as ambient noise, threats of physical violence, danger, paranoia, dullness of task, or imposed time limits, can make individuals functionally closed" (McCrae, 1996). Clearly Attention plays a significant role as the gateway to the liberation or dissolution of the richness of conscious experience, whose bandwidth greatly fragments within conditions such as highly mediated interfaces and the cultural scenarios dreamed by Kerzweil and other Transhumanists (Schneider, 2008;Kauffman, Quilty, Grazioplene, Hirsh, Gray, Peterson, & DeYoung, 2015). As the eyes have evolved to become humans' primary directors of information gathering, "likely due an evolutionary transition from being nocturnal, arboreal and relatively solitary, to being diurnal, ground-based and social," the harnessing of that direction into ever more galleries of digital absorption drives even more co-opting of our total sensory attentiveness into concentrated sensory pathways, which potentially condenses P ? ...
... There are also particular affordances nested in these varied educational contexts that have the potential to enhance (and, thus, alter) the process of learning in significant ways. One can only imagine the future applications of nanotechnology and molecular machinery for human learning and performance, including as "mind enhancers" that interface with cognitive-neurological processing (Schneider, 2008). ...
On the occasion of the 125th anniversary of the American Psychological Association, the legacies and progenies of the discipline of educational psychology are explored. To capture those legacies, transformational and influential contributions by educational psychologists to schools and society are described as key themes. Those themes entail: the “psychologizing” of education, engagement in interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary inquiry, a focus on learning as a core construct, an investment in measurement and an appreciation of human variability, and a search for evidence-based approaches and practices that work. To project forward, those same thematic areas are revisited 25 years from now as the means of speculating on educational psychology’s future contributions to schools and society. In both the case of the legacies and progenies, potential difficulties or particular challenges are also considered.
... In an interview, Bostrom ascribed his initial interest in transhumanism to his adolescent reading of Nietzsche's Thus Spake Zarathustra (Garreau 2005, 241), In that work, Nietzsche wrote, "Man is a rope, tied between beast and Overman-a rope over an abyss … a bridge and not a goal" (Nietzsche 1999, 126). Transhumanism may be understood broadly as "a philosophical, cultural, and political movement" (Schneider 2008), whose aim is to achieve Nietzsche's Overman through GRIN technologies. ...
... This is particularly because of vexed issues of identity that might affect the individual, other individuals, and the process of changing a self (Walker 2008). Schneider (2009) discusses the metaphysical problem of personal identity, especially regarding enhancements, and suggests that transhumanism needs to establish a clearer and more defensible conception of personhood. ...
Children surviving neural injuries face challenges not seen by their adult counterparts, namely that they experience neural injury before reaching neurodevelopmental maturity. Neural prostheses offer one possible path to recovery, along with the potential for functional outcomes that could exceed expectations. Although the first cochlear implant was placed more than fifty years ago, the field of neuroprosthetics is still relatively young. Several types of neural prostheses are in development stages ranging from animal models to (adult) human trials. In this paper, I discuss how neural prostheses may assist recovery for children surviving neural injury. I argue that approaching the use of neural prosthetics in children with considerations derived from transhumanism alongside traditional bioethics can provide an opportunity to reframe adult-focused ethics toward a child/family focus and to strip away the prejudicial metaphor of cyborgization.
... Lastly, we probed physicians' attitudes towards prescribing our hypothetical cognitive enhancer and three other pharmaceutical agents sometimes considered enhancerssildenafil, modafinil, and methylphenidate -in a 40-year-old reporting symptoms consistent with the label indications for each respective drug. We included modafinil and methylphenidate because these agents are those that are most often mentioned in the cognitive enhancement literature [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25], and included sildenafil because it satisfies the criteria for an enhancer but acts on the body rather than the brain. Responses to all rating questions were made on a 7-point Likert scale, with anchors at 1 (less comfortable) and 7 (more comfortable). ...
The ethical dimensions of pharmacological cognitive enhancement have been widely discussed in academic circles and the popular media, but missing from the conversation have been the perspectives of physicians - key decision makers in the adoption of new technologies into medical practice. We queried primary care physicians in major urban centers in Canada and the United States with the aim of understanding their attitudes towards cognitive enhancement. Our primary hypothesis was that physicians would be more comfortable prescribing cognitive enhancers to older patients than to young adults. Physicians were presented with a hypothetical pharmaceutical cognitive enhancer that had been approved by the regulatory authorities for use in healthy adults, and was characterized as being safe, effective, and without significant adverse side effects. Respondents overwhelmingly reported increasing comfort with prescribing cognitive enhancers as the patient age increased from 25 to 65. When asked about their comfort with prescribing extant drugs that might be considered enhancements (sildenafil, modafinil, and methylphenidate) or our hypothetical cognitive enhancer to a normal, healthy 40 year old, physicians were more comfortable prescribing sildenafil than any of the other three agents. When queried as to the reasons they answered as they did, the most prominent concerns physicians expressed were issues of safety that were not offset by the benefit afforded the individual, even in the face of explicit safety claims. Moreover, many physicians indicated that they viewed safety claims with considerable skepticism. It has become routine for safety to be raised and summarily dismissed as an issue in the debate over pharmacological cognitive enhancement; the observation that physicians were so skeptical in the face of explicit safety claims suggests that such a conclusion may be premature. Thus, physician attitudes suggest that greater weight be placed upon the balance between safety and benefit in consideration of pharmacological cognitive enhancement.
Transhumanism, a philosophical, cultural and political movement, holds that human development is still in an early phase to be radically changed by technology. Singularity describes the point in time where man and machine (or artificial intelligence, AI) will merge, giving way to unforeseen possibilities. Transhumanist visions entail the annihilation of any distinction between the biological and the mechanical or between the physical and virtual reality. This paper critically analyses transhumanism and identifies it as a conglomerate of old ideas in technologically-backed dystopian garb, a substitute religion (Ersatzreligion) without the Creator. It discusses the intellectual fallacies of the underlying ideas of this concept, while pinpointing possible repercussions on contemporary society. The discussion will focus on the ideas of enhancement, AI and the body-mind-soul complex from an Islamic perspective, giving relevant answers to the main tenets of transhumanism and the challenges it may pose.
The pedagogic traditions of Science and Technology Studies (STS) and integrated Science-and-Technology education (STEM) in India and the world over are understandably up for review in the ever-brightening light of contemporary technoscience and effervescent technoculture.
İnsan bir gün ölümle karşı karşıya kalacağının farkında olan ve bu gerçekle baş etmenin yollarını arayan yegâne varlıktır. Ölüm sorununa bilimsel paradigmanın getirdiği çözümler insanın ölümle yüzleşmesini geciktirmiş ancak ölümsüzlük arzusuna kavuşmasını sağlayamamıştır. Son zamanlarda çığır açıcı teknolojilerin kamuya sunulması ölümden kaçışın zihinsel ölümsüzlükle mümkün olabileceği tartışmasını başlatmıştır. Transhümanizm de zihinsel ölümsüzlüğün mümkün olduğunu, teknolojik gelişmelerle insanın biyolojik yapısındaki bütün sorunların çözüleceğini, insanın nihai bir mutluluğa kavuşacağını savunan yaklaşımdır. Ancak zihin yükleme teknolojisinin insanı ölümsüzlüğe kavuşturacağı düşüncesi tartışılması gereken zor problemleri de beraberinde getirmiştir. İnsan zihninin yapay bir alt maddeye yüklenme olasılığı kişisel kimlik problemine yeni bir tartışma alanı oluşturmuştur. Bu çalışmada da zihin yükleme teknolojisinin kişisel kimlik problemi ile ilişkisi ele alınırken, bilimkurgu senaryolarında görmeye alışık olduğumuz bu teknolojiyi savunan düşünürlerin insanın özü ve kimliği üzerine olan görüşleri belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Kişisel kimliğin doğası üzerinden, zihnin yapay bir ortamda yeniden oluşturulmasının imkânı çeşitli düşünce deneyleri ile tartışılmıştır.
Current advances in science and technology, and the influence it bears on the shaping of life globally, suggests that we are in an age that is increasingly becoming technological. We see an expression of this technological spirit in transhumanism's quest for radical cognitive enhancement (CE) through pharmaceuticals, tissue engineering, gene therapy, and cyborgization. The motivation is to create super-intelligent humanoids whose intelligence and cognitive capacities far outpace those of the
ordinary person. This has some good prospects but due to the mind boggling issues surrounding this
transhumanist project, it has always sparked wild reactions, ranging from acceptance, skepticism,
and repugnance. While CE can be used for personal advantage, its implications come into sharp
focus when we consider how it can raise issues about personal identity and fairness in educational settings. Hence, using the analytic and evaluative methodologies, this paper analyzes the challenge of determining the extent to which CE can be reasonably used within pedagogical settings. In the final evaluation, the paper argues that in those cases where the outcome of a project remains largely unknown, harmful, and irreversible, progress should be more precautionary than proactionary.
My essay aims to examine the problems of human nature, self-identity, and immortality as Transhumanism and the Bahá’í Writings approach them. Transhumanism, or H+, is an intellectual and cultural movement whose ultimate goal is to merge biology with computer technology to enhance human capabilities and, in the long run, to make humans immortal. The central philosophical assumption of Transhumanism is that the functioning of the human brain is based on the same principles and is subordinated to the same procedures as the operation of a highly sophisticated computer with advanced capabilities.
The Bahá’í Faith is a modern religious movement initiated in nineteenth-century Iran and spread worldwide in the twentieth century. It is a monotheistic religion that continues the tradition of Abrahamic faiths and confirms their belief in the afterlife and the immortality of the human spirit. According to Bahá’í teachings, human
intelligence or the mind is the power of the human spirit. In today's computer
parlance human mind is the interface between body and soul, between our
material and spiritual natures.
In my essay, I focus on the views of a contemporary American inventor,
transhumanist thinker, and best-selling author, Ray Kurzweil and, the head of
the Bahá’í Faith from 1892 until 1921, the Center of the Covenant ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Using a comparative method to the problems of human nature, evolution, and self-identity, I analyze the opposite positions of the secularist and religious approaches to the issues at a question and invite the readers to a broader discussion.
In this chapter, the authors introduce the monograph titled ‘Cybernetic Revolution and Global Aging’, present its main ideas and findings and describe its structure which consists of four parts and fifteen chapters. Grinin et al. point out that the current volume, while characterizing in many aspects and details the present state of the world, is mostly devoted to the future, presenting analysis and description of how our world will change over the next hundred years. They deeply analyze two powerful trends, which make up the title: ‘Cybernetic Revolution and Global Aging’ and, as it will be shown, they are tightly interconnected. The authors hope that this research will be interesting for those who study the issues of technological development, global aging, and society, which in their forecasts, by the end of the twenty-first century, will transform into cybernetic society. In this chapter the authors describe the main problems and issues of the monograph. Then they discuss about the increasing possibilities to transform the biological nature of the human organism (all this is defined as the Post-Human Revolution) and point out great and unpredictable dangers of this process. Finally, authors present extended annotations to every part and chapter.
У статті аналізується взаємозв’язок між розвитком трансгуманізму і його впливом на традиційні філософські та культурні парадигми. Висвітлено, як постійне зростання технологічних можливостей, від редагування генів до розвитку розширеної реальності, ініціює переосмислення основоположних ідей людської ідентичності, свободи, моралі й етики. У центрі уваги роботи – динаміка відносин між прогресивними технологічними ідеями трансгуманістів і фундаментальними принципами гуманізму. Вивчено й описано різноманітність підходів у межах трансгуманістичного руху, підкреслено як спільність, так і розбіжності з традиційними гуманістичними поглядами. Особлива увага приділяється впливу трансгуманізму на реформування сучасної культури, аналізується, як трансгуманістичні ідеї трансформують традиційні уявлення про людську природу та її роль у світі. Досліджується, як новітні технологічні досягнення, що розширюють межі можливого, впливають на етичні норми та цінності в суспільстві, породжуючи нові виклики для філософії, етики та культури загалом. Також розглянуто потенційні ризики й етичні дилеми, які виникають у зв’язку зі швидким технологічним прогресом, і вплив цих змін на майбутнє людства. Виокремлено критичні аспекти трансгуманізму, зокрема його вплив на ідею людської автономії, індивідуальності та соціальної справедливості. Розглядаються конкретні приклади технологічних інновацій, що сприяли розвитку трансгуманістичних ідей, і аналізується їх вплив на повсякденне життя людей. Визначається роль і значення інформаційних технологій, біотехнологій та інших сфер, які стали ключовими для розвитку трансгуманізму. Звертається увага на соціальні та культурні аспекти трансгуманізму, аналізується його вплив на суспільні відносини, політику й економіку. Обговорюються питання соціальної справедливості, розподілу ресурсів і можливих майбутніх сценаріїв розвитку людства в контексті трансгуманістичних технологій. Завершується стаття розмірковуваннями про те, яким чином сучасне суспільство може адаптуватися до цих неминучих змін, зберігаючи при цьому свої фундаментальні цінності. Цей аналіз є важливим внеском у розуміння складної динаміки між технологічними інноваціями, культурними змінами та філософськими доктринами в сучасному світі.
Big History (or ‘Epic of Evolution”) and transhumanism are two complementary ways of approaching the origin, evolution, and future of the Universe and humankind. Underlying the assumptions of most big histories and transhumanisms is a philosophical position called “scientific materialism” (“materialism,” or sometimes “naturalism”).This materialism results predominantly in the rejection of any purely mental substance (idealism) in the philosophy of mind, ontology, and natural sciences that both discourses build upon. Our essay explores how advancing neutral monism in its positing of an alternative fundamental stuff holds new promise of understanding and progress for the big history and transhumanist projects.
Transhumanism, a movement promoting the possibility and desirability of using science and technology in overcoming fundamental human limitations, could be conceived as a type of philosophy of life that emphasizes a meaningful and ethical approach to living informed by reason, science, progress, the value of existence in our current life, and the eventual goal of human enhancement. Related to transhumanism is the concept of the Singularity described as a future period during which the pace and impact of technological change will be so rapid and deep that human life will be transformed irreversibly. The projections and implications of transhumanism and the singularity phenomenon raise many important philosophical questions and possible new answers concerning human nature, intelligence, and the meaning generally of life. In this chapter, we examine both philosophies and apply analytic argumentation in demonstrating that they affect or provide meaning of life at individual, species and cosmic levels. Furthermore, with assessment of meaning of life in some particular African conceptions, the chapter employs a perspective of Afrofuturism and engages in critical reconstruction and creative imagination of African thought-systems in conversation with other intellectual traditions to propose a view connecting transhumanism, singularity and meaning of life within a futuristic African philosophical context.KeywordsTranshumanismSingularityMeaning of lifeAfrofuturism
El presente artículo de investigación versa sobre un tema muy controversial: el transhumanismo. El autor analiza la problemática que este movimiento científicoideológico conllevaría si es que efectivamente se lleva a cabo en la realidad. Para ello, se adopta tanto una perspectiva bioética como jurídica, ya que para una verdadera incidencia práctica se necesita no solamente de los conocimientos teóricos que la bioética nos aporta, sino también que dichos conocimientos aterricen en la realidad, debido a que el mundo jurídico no se puede mantener al margen de un tema tan trascendental que cada vez gana más popularidad. Finalmente, el autor brinda unas posibles soluciones que deberían ser consideradas si es que se quiere frenar esta corriente de pensamiento. Cabe resaltar que solo se proponen algunas soluciones a desarrollar del total de posibles, por lo que de ninguna manera debe entenderse que estas se limitan a las expuestas
The article discusses issues related to the phenomenon of collective intelligence (CI). The relevance lies in the need to analyze the nature and status of CI, causes, mechanisms and consequences of its formation. The aim of the article is to critically analyze the main approaches to CI, to reveal its essence and subjective status. The research uses such methods as analysis and synthesis, general logical and systemic methods, methods of dialectics and synergetics. It is shown that unlike a purely technocratic approach, which mixes CI with the concepts of artificial intelligence (AI), neural networks, big data, etc., it can be understood in a purely humanistic way as an integral net of human minds. In view of the key role in it of the higher and actually human manifestations of consciousness (not only purely rational, but also non-rational), we can talk about the fundamental unartification of CI, the impossibility of identifying it with artificial intelligence (AI). As a synergy of a large number of human intelligences, it will apparently acquire emergent properties, expressed in the manifold increased intelligibility of its activity (if intelligence is understood as a sum of abilities aimed at successful adaptation and problem solving/decision-making). Special emergentism will be possessed by its goal-setting, which may not completely coincide with the partial goals of individuals. Being the unity of the latters, it, nevertheless, will not dissolve them and their personal consciousnesses in itself as a totality, since it will function according to distributed network principles and assume a system of «subject-subject» connections. In an optimistic scenario, CI is able to translate the development of civilization into a new, controlled format, resolving global problems which are beyond the ability of local actors. Although the elements of control and coercion from CI are quite possible, it won’t turn into force that becomes objectifying for individuals because it will consist of them. The people themselves, their diverse groups and communities remain subjects and the CI will become subject that is just more intelligently potent and fractal in its nature, a meta-subject.
This writing attempts to reread the ambitious dreams of transhumanism about the super civilization of humankind in future development, such as longevity, intelligence, and wellness. These super-thinks are now running into a formidable challenge of pandemic COVID-19 reality. Reflecting on Anthony Gittins’ thought of a new identity of believers, the author will develop this writing in some features. First, the urgency of critical reading toward the dreams of transhumanism. Second, how the COVID-19 pandemic turned into an enormous challenge for transhumanism concepts? Third, referring to the Gittins, how significant of his intentions could bring alertness to the transhumanists and believers in a new identity thought in Christ? In his explorative research, the author will employ a descriptive qualitative method. The last part is a result and suggestions for further exploration and also for readers to find out a dynamic of human self-identity.AbstrakTulisan ini berupaya untuk membaca ulang mimpi besar transhumanisme tentang suatu peradaban super agung manusia mengenai masa depan dalam aspek kekekalan, kejeniusan, dan kebahagiaan. Hasrat super tersebut menghadapi tantangan super besar pula melalui kenyataan pandemi Covid-19. Berefleksi dari konsep Anthony Gittins tentang identitas baru komunitas orang-orang percaya, tulisan dikembangkan sebagai berikut: Pertama, urgensi membaca ulang secara kritis mimpi super kalangan transhumanis. Kedua, bagaimana pandemi Covid-19 menjadi tantangan super bagi konsep transhumanime? Ketiga, merujuk pada pemikiran Anthony Gittins, sejauh mana konsep Gittins dapat menyadarkan kaum transhumanis, dan kelompok orang percaya tentang identitas baru dalam Kristus. Studi literatur dengan metode deskriptif kualitatif menjadi pilihan dalam upaya mengeksplorasi. Pada bagian akhir, akan disimpulkan serta disuguhkan beberapa saran bagi para peneliti selanjutnya, dan para pembaca untuk terus melakukan upaya dinamis dalam memahami identitas diri manusia.
"Transhümanist bir gelecekte değişen insanla beraber kültür mevcudiyetini devam ettirebilir mi?, Cyborg, Homo Siberneticus hâlâ insan mıdır? Biyolojik bir varlık olan insanın radikal değişimiyle kültür nereye evrilecektir? İnsanın ölümsüzlük arayışının sonunda, insanlığı bekleyen gelecek nedir? Yapay zeka çipleriyle desteklenen biyolojik bir beyin, kültürü oluşturan dinamiklerin neresindedir? Kendini hackleyen ve yapay evrim aşamasına geçmiş olan insanlığın geleceğinde kültüre yer var mıdır?"
Humans in Search of Immortality from Archaic Times to Post-Humanism: Trans-Humanism on the Horizon and Culture
immortality, trans-humanism, folklore, future, technology, culture, homo cyberneticus, cyborgs, future of culture
What would you change about yourself if you could? If you could design and build a feature and add it to yourself, what would it be? Would you design something that makes you better at something you’re not very good at? Maybe you love music, but haven’t ever been very good at singing. If you could buy a piece of technology that would allow you to be able to sing well, would you? Or might you further improve on a skill you’re already good at? What if you could design a chip that would make you able to do extraordinarily difficult calculations and statistical modeling in your head? Would you? Or might you give yourself a skill or ability that is currently outside the range of human ability. What if you could buy a piece of tech that could give you the ability to fly, or access the internet with just a thought? Such approaches raise the potential for completely re-engineering the human body. Would you re-engineer yourself?.
For the military–industrial complex (MIC), transhumanism represents a temptation in various ways: its expectations for the future of technology imply there is a prospect of overcoming hitherto given barriers to the expansion of military power, particularly in terms of the linkage of humans and machines (and above all computers), while its characteristic concept of liberation, the aim of which is to transcend natural limitations, offers the possibility of weaving hopes for progress in the field of military research into an (at least superficially) emancipatory future narrative. In return, the MIC represents a temptation for transhumanism (as a societal movement) insofar as research and technology development projects that are (still) of little interest for civilian purposes can be driven ahead in a military setting. Ethical and political analyses of the relationships between military research and transhumanism may be enriched by historical and cultural perspectives. This is true for both, the fascinating pre- and early history of transhumanism before 1945 and the post-war history of this techno-visionary worldview. The transhumanism of our current times appears to have emerged from the intersections of military research, the new IT industry (for parts of which it has become an ersatz religion) and the counterculture of the 1970s.
This chapter argues that, although transhumanism depicts itself as following the footsteps of the tradition of humanism, i.e. as seeking for a better world for all human beings, it is realizing ambiguous trajectories. Despite officially proclaimed integrative intentions and goals of some of its most prominent leaders, it seems that transhumanism tends to push forward social innovations that are a double-edged sword. Indeed, we face an era of military rearmament also due to achievements that have emerged in the converging fields of AI, robotics and human enhancement. Some of the most controversial views concerning these achievements and their possible impacts on modern warfare are discussed. Moreover, we outline how these developments in the military sector are symptomatic for a broader technological trend that seems to become a major transformative driver in the twenty-first century—a world where inequality is on the rise both in the social, the technological and the military spheres.
This article outlines a novel philosophical position according to which people can (a) value the continued survival of humanity, and (b) oppose procreation on moral grounds. While these two propositions may appear contradictory, they need not be: life-extension technologies could enable members of a “final” human generation to live indefinitely long lives and, therefore, to avoid biological extinction. I call this position no-extinction anti-natalism. After exploring a range of arguments for (a) and (b), I turn to various challenges associated with attaining “functional immortality”. These include whether procreation can be morally justified until life-extension technologies become available, as well as whether personal identity issues associated with attaining functional immortality problematise the anti-natalist component of my position. I conclude that this view ought to be taken seriously by those who believe that procreation is immoral.
The contribution deals with the legal aspects of the brain-computer interfaces (BCI) and, in particular, of those used for the assisted and augmented communication of subjects not able to express themselves with eye-controlled devices. The chapter outlines the constitutional rights involved in the use of BCI, the European discipline applicable to their manufacture and, taking into consideration an Italian case-law, which seems to be extensible to other legal families, wonders the possible legal regime of the personal will expressed through those BCI so to protect vulnerable persons from abuse.
When we talk about enhancement or modifying the human body, we often put forward the argument of the limits of human nature, and therefore, acts that violate those limits are judged negatively. This view, however, contains assumptions that lead to logical fallacies. In the face of the new era, where scientific and technological achievements are changing human capabilities, we will increasingly be confronted with ethical dilemmas as well as dilemmas at a practical, political and institutional level.
As a guide when dealing with such dilemmas, in this article we will firstly attempt to free ourselves from the logical fallacy of resorting to the argument of violating the limits of human nature, and secondly to see how the prevailing ethical and political stances address the dilemmas associated with human enhancement. For illustration purposes we will adopt two points of view: Iron Man's and Aristotle's.
The first one focuses on human potential, free will and individual rights. The second one focuses on social purpose, social justice and human eudaimonia within the community. Both viewpoints set criteria and conditions for the enhancement and improvement of human nature, but fail to provide a satisfactory answer that could act as a rule in practical terms, so that a future legislator can take a clear stand on these issues.
A safe and at the same time practical approach would be to think beyond personal volition and social purpose, with a general perspective that will help us exculpate and stop demonizing human enhancement. Could there be a minimum “eligibility” condition, according to which any enhancement that satisfies it, could be legitimized in the future? On the way to this quest, it is our duty to approach without fear but with prudence, self-restraint, respect and care for mankind and our fellow man, the inevitable, immediate future that is now visible in front of us. -Full text available in Greek only- Gounaris, A., Chrysopoulos, P. (2019). Iron Man vs Aristotle: Transhumanism, the Limits of Human Nature and the Politics of Prescription Eyeglasses. Theologia. Official Journal of the Church of Greece. v.90.3 pp. 121 – 161 . Γούναρης, Α., Χρυσόπουλος,. Π. (2019). Iron Man vs Αριστοτέλη: ο Τρανσουμανισμός, τα Όρια της Ανθρώπινης Φύσης και η Πολιτική για τα Γυαλιά Μυωπίας. Θεολογία. Ιερά Σύνοδος της Εκκλησίας της Ελλάδος. τομ. 90ος τεύχος 3ον σ.σ. 121 – 161
This paper provides a discussion of aspects of the transhumanist movement and their intellectual and bioethical implications from an Islamic perspective. After an introduction to transhumanism and some of its variations, it discusses the underlying suppositions of transhumanist thought: The supposed absence of the body-mind-soul complex and the idea of volitional evolution of humankind. It then goes on to discuss the notion of enhancement and body modification, on a technological, pharmacological and genetic level from an Islamic point of view. In conclusion, the paper discusses the idea of "the good life". The paper concludes that, although transhumanism is not a new idea, but rather a conglomerate of old ideas in technologically backed dystopian garb, and although there are obvious disparages between tenets of transhumanism and Islam at a very basic level, Muslims ought to be aware of its trajectory, as influences and repercussions will be felt globally.
Technologische Trends im Bereich Robotik und Neurotechnologien werden in jüngster Zeit wissenschaftlich, aber auch öffentlich ungemein intensiv diskutiert. Beide Technologiebereiche eröffnen Anwendungsperspektiven, die das Potenzial haben, das Mensch-Technik-Verhältnis ganz neu zu definieren. Die konkreten Möglichkeiten dieser Technologien erscheinen derzeit aber noch eher unscharf und werden in hohem Maße durch weitreichende Zukunftserwartungen beeinflusst. Vor diesem Hintergrund nimmt der TAB-Bericht zur »Mensch-Maschine-Entgrenzung« eine technologisch-visionäre Standortbestimmung vor.
Im Bericht wird zum einen der aktuelle visionäre Diskurs zu Mensch-Maschine-Entgrenzungen durch Neurotechnologie, KI und Robotik skizziert, dabei werden auch historisch-kulturelle und gesellschaftliche Kontexte der Zukunftsvisionen beleuchtet. Zum anderen wird der aktuelle Stand von Forschung und Entwicklung in den Bereichen Neurotechnologien und autonome Robotik dargestellt, bevor schließlich die Realisierbarkeit der Visionen bewertet und relevante normative Fragen umrissen werden.
Der Bericht kommt zu dem Schluss, dass – entgegen häufig geäußerten Annahmen – die politische Brisanz dieser Entwicklungen wohl weniger darin liegt, dass in absehbarer Zeit mit der technischen Optimierung der Natur des Menschen oder einer »Machtübernahme« künstlicher Intelligenzen zu rechnen ist. Vielmehr werden durch die angestoßenen Umwälzungen im Mensch-Maschine-Verhältnis vordergründig weniger spektakuläre, aber lebenspraktisch und ethisch bedeutende Fragen aufgeworfen, die in einem laufenden Vertiefungsprojekt zur Pflegerobotik untersucht werden.
Current visions of human enhancement are rooted in visions of the future that were developed in Great Britain in the late 19th century and in the first third of the 20th century by a number of leading scientists and science-savvy authors, such as John Desmond Bernal and Herbert George Wells. The visions are thereby rooted in a historical situation in Britain which was marked by a conflict between the defenders of Christianity, traditional society and its values on the one hand, and socialist or technocratic, post-Darwinian progressives on the other. The latter group developed a worldview with strong similarities to traditional religious worldviews, in particular with regard to their eschatological elements. This new worldview — which can be termed an ideology of extreme progress — has proved to be remarkably successful, above all in recent years, and is most often known today as ‘transhumanism’. It certainly serves different functions today than in the early 20th century, and its political context has changed significantly. However, the technoscientific imaginaries, which appear to be consistent, have remained more or less the same, with the exception of some updates regarding the relevant technologies and sciences. Visions of human enhancement are still a core element of this persistent ideology of extreme progress and perform an important function within it.
This introductory chapter offers a comprehensive mapping of posthumanist discourse along three axes of differentiation: an optimistic/pessimistic axis, a historical-materialist/philosophical-ontological axis, and a humanist/non-humanist axis. It is argued that this last axis of differentiation, where humanism refers to a radical separation between human subjects and technological objects, is the most consequential one. Using these axes, four broad types of posthumanism are identified: “dystopic posthumanism”, “liberal posthumanism”, “radical posthumanism”, and “methodological posthumanism”.
Dystopic posthumanism is characterized by an objection to the use of technology to modify or enhance humans beyond broadly accepted natural and cultural limits. Liberal posthumanism is characterized by an endorsement of bio- and enhancement technologies for self-modification and self-improvement, grounded mainly in an individual rights framework. Radical posthumanism is characterized by the view that bio- and enhancement technologies, by undermining the fixity of categories like “nature” and “the human”, contribute to a deconstruction of humanist and Enlightenment narratives based in human uniqueness and call for a radical rethinking of what it means to be human. Finally, methodological posthumanism is characterized by the development of analytical tools and frameworks that can (better) describe and highlight the zones of intersection and interaction between humans and technologies that play an essential part in human experience. These four approaches will become working categories for the rest of the book, and will be built upon in order to develop a final “mediated posthumanist” approach.
Zusammenfassung
Bereits seit der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts existieren sich selbst als wissenschaftlich begreifende biovisionäre Entwürfe einer Verbesserung, Ergänzung, radikalen Umwandlung oder Ersetzung der menschlichen Natur. Während auf
Kollektive zielende biopolitische Programme wie das der alten Eugenik heute zumeist entweder als diskreditiert gelten oder nur beiläufig diskutiert werden, erfreuen sich individualistische ,liberal-eugenische‘ Ansätze einiger Beliebtheit. Zugleich gewinnen transhumanistische
Visionen einer massiven Transformation oder gar Überwindung des menschlichen Körpers zunehmend an Einfluss, deren Ideengeschichte ebenfalls ins 19. Jahrhundert zurückreicht. Diese historischen Aspekte aktueller Menschenverbesserungsvisionen verdienen eine verstärkte Beachtung,
auch mit Blick auf das Verhältnis von biologistischen und technikfuturistischen Ansätzen einerseits und humanistisch-aufklärerischen Ideentraditionen andererseits.
Purpose
This paper seeks to argue that there are two distinct problems of ignorance: a problem of size and a problem of type. Both are more pressing today than ever before, given the extraordinary expansion of collective human knowledge, and both pertain to epistemic limitations intrinsic to evolved cognitive systems. After delineating these problems in detail, one possible way of overcoming “relative” and “absolute” ignorance about the universe – enhancement technologies – is to be examined. The paper then aims to argue that, given one's epistemic situation, resources currently being spent on normal research would be far better spent on developing cognition‐enhancing technologies – technologies that promise to help solve the size and type problems previously sketched.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper identifies two important limitations on human knowledge, one deriving from the size or complexity of certain problems and the other from one's inability to access specific concepts necessary to understand them. It suggests that cognitive enhancements offer the best chance at overcoming these two limitations.
Findings
There are both strong practical and moral reasons for diverting more resources into the development of cognitive enhancement technologies.
Originality/value
No author has yet elaborated on the distinction, which is taken to be important, between the problems of “size” and “type.” Furthermore, no author has yet explored how cognitive enhancements may address the problem that Colin McGinn calls “cognitive closure” (the problem of type). Thus, cognitive enhancements may offer the only possibility of solving conundrums like conscious experience and free will.
Transhumanism, the belief that technology can transcend the limitations of the human body and brain, is part of the family
of Enlightenment philosophies. As such, transhumanism has also inherited the internal tensions and contradictions of the broad
Enlightenment tradition. First, the project of Reason is self-erosive and requires irrational validation. Second, although
most transhumanists are atheist, their belief in the transcendent power of intelligence generates new theologies. Third, although
most transhumanists are liberal democrats, their belief in human perfectibility and governance by reason can validate technocratic
authoritarianism. Fourth, transhumanists are divided on the balance between democracy and the market. Fifth, teleological
expectations of unstoppable progress are in tension with awareness of the indeterminacy of the future. Sixth, transhumanists
are divided between advocates of ethical universalism and ethical relativism. Seventh, the rational materialist denial of
discrete persistent selves calls into question the transhumanist project of individual longevity and enhancement.
The APA Ethical Code struggles to offer guidance in the rapidly changing field of clinical health psychology. Professional challenges anticipated in the next decade are described, and their implications for ethical practice examined. This paper is based in part on a presentation at the 2009 Conference at the Association of Psychologists in Academic Health Centers held in St. Louis, Missouri.
The acceleration of technological progress has been the central feature of this century. We are on the edge of change comparable to the rise of human life on Earth. The precise cause of this change is the imminent creation by technology of entities with greater-than-human intelligence. The chapter presents some possible projects that take on special significance, given the intelligence amplification (IA) point of view. These examples illustrate research that can be done within the context of contemporary computer science departments. This discussion of IA would yield some clearly safer approaches to the Singularity. The problem is not simply that the technological Singularity represents the passing of humankind from center stage, but that it contradicts our most deeply held notions of being. A closer look at the notion of strong superhumanity can show why that is.
In Matter and Consciousness, Paul Churchland presents a concise and contemporary overview of the philosophical issues surrounding the mind and explains the main theories and philosophical positions that have been proposed to solve them. Making the case for the relevance of theoretical and experimental results in neuroscience, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence for the philosophy of mind, Churchland reviews current developments in the cognitive sciences and offers a clear and accessible account of the connections to philosophy of mind.For this third edition, the text has been updated and revised throughout. The changes range from references to the iPhone's "Siri" to expanded discussions of the work of such contemporary philosophers as David Chalmers, John Searle, and Thomas Nagel. Churchland describes new research in evolution, genetics, and visual neuroscience, among other areas, arguing that the philosophical significance of these new findings lies in the support they tend to give to the reductive and eliminative versions of materialism. Matter and Consciousness, written by the most distinguished theorist and commentator in the field, offers an authoritative summary and sourcebook for issues in philosophy of mind. It is suitable for use as an introductory undergraduate text. © 1984, 1988, 2013 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. All rights reserved.
This paper traces the cultural and philosophical roots of transhumanist thought and describes some of the influences and contributions that led to the development of contemporary transhumanism.
How much do we humans enjoy our current status as the most intelligent beings on earth? Enough to try to stop our own inventions from surpassing us in smarts? If so, we'd better pull the plug right now, because if Ray Kurzweil is right, we've only got until about 2020 before computers outpace the human brain in computational power. Kurzweil, artificial intelligence expert and author of The Age of Intelligent Machines, shows that technological evolution moves at an exponential pace. Further, he asserts, in a sort of swirling postulate, time speeds up as order increases, and vice versa. He calls this the "Law of Time and Chaos," and it means that although entropy is slowing the stream of time down for the universe overall, and thus vastly increasing the amount of time between major events, in the eddy of technological evolution the exact opposite is happening, and events will soon be coming faster and more furiously. This means that we'd better figure out how to deal with conscious machines as soon as possible--they'll soon not only be able to beat us at chess, they'll likely demand civil rights, and they may at last realize the very human dream of immortality. The Age of Spiritual Machines is compelling and accessible, and not necessarily best read from front to back--it's less heavily historical if you jump around (Kurzweil encourages this). Much of the content of the book lays the groundwork to justify Kurzweil's timeline, providing an engaging primer on the philosophical and technological ideas behind the study of consciousness. Instead of being a gee-whiz futurist manifesto, Spiritual Machines reads like a history of the future, without too much science fiction dystopianism. Instead, Kurzweil shows us the logical outgrowths of current trends, with all their attendant possibilities. This is the book we'll turn to when our computers
The year 2000 provides an opportunity to reflect on the past 1000 years, and speculate on human life in the next 1000 years. This exercise forces us to think seriously about what is unique and special about being human, and what human traits must be preserved to preserve humanity itself. Using the major historical events of the past 1000 years, but concentrating on three in the last 50 years, World War II, the moon landing, and the prospect of human genetic engineering, I argue that the major human accomplishment of the past millennium has the development of universal human rights based on human dignity. The misuse of science, most obviously in World War II by the Nazis, but also with chemical, biological and nuclear weapons, threatens not only these human rights, but our very survival as a species. Weapons of mass destruction are direct threats. But there are scientific developments that appear much more benign that are actually more likely to result in genocide. The most crucial of these is genetic engineering, and it is suggested that if we are successful in engineering a "superior" human. We constantly compare the new genetics to "putting a man on the moon", but if history is a guide, this genetic engineering will not lead to a sterile publicity stunt like the moon landing, but instead will inevitably lead to genocide: the "inferiors" killing off the "superiors" or vice-versa. Suggestions for international action to avert genetic genocide are made, including an international treaty banning specific "species altering" techniques and species-endangering experiments, complete with an oversight and enforcement mechanism. Specific treaty language remains to be written, but the overall goal is to develop a mechanism to put humans in charge of a science now grown so powerful that its fruits threatens the very survival of our species, rather than simply letting well-intentioned scientists continue to lead us down the path of species suicide in the name of individual immortality.
Positions on the ethics of human enhancement technologies can be (crudely) characterized as ranging from transhumanism to bioconservatism. Transhumanists believe that human enhancement technologies should be made widely available, that individuals should have broad discretion over which of these technologies to apply to themselves, and that parents should normally have the right to choose enhancements for their children-to-be. Bioconservatives (whose ranks include such diverse writers as Leon Kass, Francis Fukuyama, George Annas, Wesley Smith, Jeremy Rifkin, and Bill McKibben) are generally opposed to the use of technology to modify human nature. A central idea in bioconservativism is that human enhancement technologies will undermine our human dignity. To forestall a slide down the slippery slope towards an ultimately debased ‘posthuman’ state, bioconservatives often argue for broad bans on otherwise promising human enhancements.
This paper distinguishes two common fears about the posthuman and argues for the importance of a concept of dignity that is inclusive enough to also apply to many possible posthuman beings. Recognizing the possibility of posthuman dignity undercuts an important objection against human enhancement and removes a distortive double standard from our field of moral vision.
Radical Evolution: The Promise and Peril of Enhancing Our Minds, Our Bodies --and What It Means to Be Human
- Joel Garreau
Garreau, Joel. (2005) Radical Evolution: The Promise and Peril of Enhancing Our
Minds, Our Bodies --and What It Means to Be Human, New York: Doubleday.
Personal Identity The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring
- Eric T Olson
Olson, Eric T., "Personal Identity", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring
2007 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2007/entries/identity-personal/>.
Note: this chapter first appears in the second edition) (It is also reprinted as ―Of Identity and Diversity,‖ in Perry For other attempts to develop similar views see Anthony Quinton Both are
- Locke
Locke, 1694, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Chapter 27, second edition (Note: this
chapter first appears in the second edition). (It is also reprinted as ―Of Identity and Diversity,‖ in Perry
(1975)). For other attempts to develop similar views see Anthony Quinton, (July 1962), ―The Soul,‖ The
Journal of Philosophy, vol. 59, no. 15. and Paul Grice, ―Personal Identity,‖ Mind, vol. 50 (Oct. 1941). Both
are also reprinted in Perry (1975).
The Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology New York: Anchor Books Available at: http://foresight
- Eric Drexler
Drexler, Eric. 1986. The Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology. New
York: Anchor Books. Available at: http://foresight.org/EOC/index.html
Fukuyama, F. (2002), Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology
Revolution: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
When Machines Outsmart Humans
— — — (2002), "When Machines Outsmart Humans", Futures 35 (7):759-764.
The Mind as the Software of the Brain Available at: http://www
- Ned D Block
- L Osherson
- S Gleitman
- E Kosslyn
- S Smith
- Sternberg
Block, Ned, (1995). "The Mind as the Software of the Brain" in An Invitation to
Cognitive Science, edited by D. Osherson, L. Gleitman, S. Kosslyn, E. Smith and S.
Sternberg,
MIT
Press.
Available
at:
http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/block/papers/msb.html
Blackburn, Simon, ―The Self‖, Chapter Four of Think: A Compelling Introduction to
Philosophy, 1999. Oxford: OUP.
Citizen Cyborg: why democratic societies must respond to the redesigned human of the future
- J Hughes
Hughes, J. (2004), Citizen Cyborg: why democratic societies must respond to the
redesigned human of the future. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press.
Engine of Reason, Seat of the Soul
- Paul Churchland
Churchland, Paul (1996). Engine of Reason, Seat of the Soul, Cambridge, MIT Press.
Transhumanist Declaration
World Transhumanist Association, (1998, modified in 2002). Transhumanist Declaration,
http://www.transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/declaration/
―Divided Minds and the Nature of Persons
- Derek Parfit
Parfit, Derek, ―Divided Minds and the Nature of Persons,‖ Colin Blakemore and Susan
Greenfield, Mindwaves (1987): 19-28.