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Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power
Abstract
To investigate the effects of simultaneous explosive-strength and endurance training on physical performance characteristics, 10 experimental (E) and 8 control (C) endurance athletes trained for 9 wk. The total training volume was kept the same in both groups, but 32% of training in E and 3% in C was replaced by explosive-type strength training. A 5-km time trial (5K), running economy (RE), maximal 20-m speed ( V 20 m ), and 5-jump (5J) tests were measured on a track. Maximal anaerobic (MART) and aerobic treadmill running tests were used to determine maximal velocity in the MART ( V MART ) and maximal oxygen uptake (V˙o 2 max ). The 5K time, RE, and V MART improved ( P < 0.05) in E, but no changes were observed in C. V 20 m and 5J increased in E ( P < 0.01) and decreased in C ( P < 0.05).V˙o 2 max increased in C ( P < 0.05), but no changes were observed in E. In the pooled data, the changes in the 5K velocity during 9 wk of training correlated ( P< 0.05) with the changes in RE [O 2 uptake ( r = −0.54)] and V MART ( r = 0.55). In conclusion, the present simultaneous explosive-strength and endurance training improved the 5K time in well-trained endurance athletes without changes in theirV˙o 2 max . This improvement was due to improved neuromuscular characteristics that were transferred into improved V MART and running economy.
... Looking at the effects of altitude on the physiologies of athletes and evidences that the effects of altitude training are marginal and not long lasting (Girard et al., 2017). How explosive strength training, sprinting and endurance training, shows no improvement in certain physical parameters (Paavolainen et al., 1999). ...
... The muscle mass of arms was also substantially increased at the end of the season in a comparative study conducted on the athletes (Suarez-Arrones et al., 2018). Studies also showcase the fact that explosive strength training, irrespective of load weight used for the explosive exercise, also improves running performance in athletes (Paavolainen et al., 1999). It shows significant changes in neuromuscular characteristics of the athletes as well as considerable increase in overall body mass index (Paavolainen et al., 1999). ...
... Studies also showcase the fact that explosive strength training, irrespective of load weight used for the explosive exercise, also improves running performance in athletes (Paavolainen et al., 1999). It shows significant changes in neuromuscular characteristics of the athletes as well as considerable increase in overall body mass index (Paavolainen et al., 1999). Evidently, less ectomorphic characteristics, lower fat tissue, higher muscle mass in the arms and legs, a higher muscle explosiveness are all body compositional characteristics that contribute to better performance in sprinting (Paavolainen et al., 1999). ...
... et al., 2015;Ferrauti et al., 2010;Johnston et al., 1997;Li et al., 2019;Rønnestad & Mujika, 2014;Støren et al., 2008;Taipale et al., 2010;Taipale et al., 2013;, 10 EXP training (Berryman et al., 2010.;Lum et al., 2022;Mikkola et al., 2011;Paavolainen et al., 1999;Pellegrino et al., 2016;Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2014;Saunders et al., 2006;Spurrs et al., 2003;Taipale et al., 2010;Taipale et al., 2013), and six studies included experimental groups performing COMB training (Li et al., 2019;Barnes et al., 2013;Beattie et al., 2017;Sedano et al., 2013;Taipale et al., 2013;Taipale et al., 2014). The duration of the intervention periods in 19 of the 20 studies was between 6 and 12 weeks, whereas, in the remaining research, the intervention lasted 40 weeks (Beattie et al., 2017). ...
... et al., 2022;Pellegrino et al., 2016;Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2014). In contrast, in other interventions, weight-training machines were also used in addition to the previously mentioned exercises (Paavolainen et al., 1999;Saunders et al., 2006;Spurrs et al., 2003;Taipale et al., 2010;Taipale et al. 2013). Most protocols consisted of performing between two and four sets and between five and 10 repetitions. ...
... On the other hand, in all studies where EXP (Berryman et al., 2010.;Lum et al., 2022;Paavolainen et al., 1999;Pellegrino et al., 2016;Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2014;Spurrs et al., 2003) and COMB (Li et al., 2019;Sedano et al., 2013) training protocols were applied, and TT was measured, significant improvements were observed in this variable. In the case of MAX training, such improvements were observed in two out of three studies (Berryman et al., 2010.;Li ...
Objective: This study aimed to analyze the effect of practicing maximum strength (MAX), explosive strength (EXP), or both combined (COMB) on seven runners’ performance indicators: vertical jump (VJ), one-repetition maximum squat (1RM), peak velocity/peak running speed (PV), lactate threshold (LT), middle-distance time trial (TT), maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max), and running economy (RE). Methods: A systematic review (Scopus, Web of Science, Sports Discuss, PubMed) with meta-analysis was conducted following PRISMA standards. Inclusion criteria (PICOS) were: Recreational or well-trained athletes aged 18-45 performing concurrent training for at least five weeks. The search terms used were related to different types of strength/endurance and participants’ age and sports modality. Twenty manuscripts were selected, and quality assessed with PEDro. Results: MAX training is more effective than EXP and COMB in improving VJ, 1RM, and PV, while COMB is more effective than MAX and EXP to enhance TT. MAX is more effective than EXP in improving LT. Concurrent workouts do not provide additional benefits to VO2max. It is unknown which strength modality (MAX, EXP, or COMB) is more effective in improving RE. Conclusion: Concurrent training is more effective than single-mode endurance training for enhancing specific performance variables in adult endurance runners. Middle- and long-distance runners may consider incorporating MAX training to target specific goals (i.e., improving VJ, 1RM, LT, PV) while utilizing COMB training to enhance TT. Certain variables may benefit from EXP. New randomized controlled trials are required to confirm these findings. Keywords: endurance, running, concurrent training, maximum strength, explosive strength
... However, despite the RT result in specific adaptations according the load and the number of repetitions performed (Burd et al., 2012), any responses are attenuated when RT and endurance training are performed concurrently (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2016;Blagrove et al., 2018). In this sense, although RT protocols as heavy resistance training (HRT) and explosive resistance training (ERT) show significant improvements in physiological parameters (Denadai et al., 2006;Millet et al., 2002;Paavolainen et al., 1999;Spurrs et al., 2003;Turner et al., 2003) and performance (Denadai et al., 2006;Paavolainen et al., 1999;Spurrs et al., 2003), inconsistencies exist within the literature, which can be related to differences in methodologies and characteristics of athletes. Thus, the influence of two different based-RT protocols performed with standard submaximal endurance training in well-trained runners is still uncertain. ...
... However, despite the RT result in specific adaptations according the load and the number of repetitions performed (Burd et al., 2012), any responses are attenuated when RT and endurance training are performed concurrently (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2016;Blagrove et al., 2018). In this sense, although RT protocols as heavy resistance training (HRT) and explosive resistance training (ERT) show significant improvements in physiological parameters (Denadai et al., 2006;Millet et al., 2002;Paavolainen et al., 1999;Spurrs et al., 2003;Turner et al., 2003) and performance (Denadai et al., 2006;Paavolainen et al., 1999;Spurrs et al., 2003), inconsistencies exist within the literature, which can be related to differences in methodologies and characteristics of athletes. Thus, the influence of two different based-RT protocols performed with standard submaximal endurance training in well-trained runners is still uncertain. ...
... V. L. Billat et al. (1999) verified that one HIIT session by week not increase the VO 2 max, and the present study not found differences with two sessions, which may be related to the previous physical fitness and the short-term training period. Regarding AT, despite RT appears to have little impact upon blood lactate markers (Blagrove et al., 2018), an important novelty of the present study was the improvement in HRT and ERT, since previous studies did not find an increase in aerobic parameters after concurrent (Millet et al., 2002), plyometric (Spurrs et al., 2003) and sprint/jump training (Paavolainen et al., 1999). The low-repetition with highintensity RT prescription in the studies is unlikely to provide a metabolic environment sufficient to enhance adaptations (Blagrove et al., 2018). ...
This study aimed to verify the effects of 4 weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT), heavy (HRT) and explosive (ERT) resistance training on aerobic, anaerobic and neuromuscular parameters and performance of well-trained runners. Twenty-six male athletes were divided into HIIT (n = 10), HRT (n = 7) and ERT (n = 9) groups. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the corresponding velocity (vVO2max), anaerobic threshold (AT), running economy (RE), oxygen uptake kinetics, lower-body strength (1RM) and power (CMJ), and the 1500 m and 5000 m time-trial (TT) were determined. Improvements were observed in vVO2max (mean difference (Δ): 2.6%; effect size (ES): 0.63) with HIIT, while AT was incresead in ERT (Δ: 4.3%; ES: 0.73) and HRT (Δ: 6.9%; ES: 0.72) groups. The CMJ performance was increased in ERT (Δ: 13.8%; ES: 1.03), HRT (Δ: 6.9%; ES: 0.55) and HIIT (Δ: 5.4%; ES: 0.34), whereas 1RM increase in HRT (Δ: 38.1%; ES: 1.21) and ERT (Δ: 49.2%; ES: 0.96) groups. HIIT improved the 1500 m (Δ: −2.3%; ES: −0.62) and both HRT (Δ: −1.6%; ES: −0.32) and ERT (Δ: −1.7%; ES: −0.31) the 5000 m TT. Despite performance adaptations were dependent on the training characteristics, both RT and HIIT model constitute an alternative for training periodization.
... In middle-distance (800-3000 m) and long-distance running (5000 m to marathon) races, performance is determined by factors such as maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max), velocity at VO 2 max (vVO 2 max), maximum metabolic steady state (MMSS), running economy [1][2][3], and sprint capacity [4]. Indeed, VO 2 max has long been used as a primary measure of an individual's cardiorespiratory fitness, and as a marker of training effect [5]. ...
... In addition, the incorporation of diverse ST methods has demonstrated improvements in running economy among endurance runners [10][11][12][13]16]. Moreover, ST may improve anaerobic and neuromuscular characteristics (e.g., sprint capacity) [3]. These changes may be manifested in factors influenced by these variables, such as vVO 2 max [2,6]. ...
... From the studies that measured VO 2 max, 11 studies implemented HL [21,22,24,87,89,94,98,101,[105][106][107], two studies SubL [85,97] (not included in the metaanalysis), 12 studies (involving 14 groups) implemented PL [20, 23, 83, 85, 90-92, 95, 96, 99, 100, 104], and ten studies (involving 11 groups) implemented Combined [3,21,84,86,88,93,97,102,103,107] ...
Background
The running performance of middle-distance and long-distance runners is determined by factors such as maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), velocity at VO2max (vVO2max), maximum metabolic steady state (MMSS), running economy, and sprint capacity. Strength training is a proven strategy for improving running performance in endurance runners. However, the effects of different strength training methods on the determinants of running performance are unclear.
Objective
The aim of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to compare the effect of different strength training methods (e.g., high load, submaximal load, plyometric, combined) on performance (i.e., time trial and time until exhaustion) and its determinants (i.e., VO2max, vVO2max, MMSS, sprint capacity) in middle-distance and long-distance runners.
Methods
A systematic search was conducted across electronic databases (Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS). The search included articles indexed up to November 2022, using various keywords combined with Boolean operators. The eligibility criteria were: (1) middle- and long-distance runners, without restriction on sex or training/competitive level; (2) application of a strength training method for ≥ 3 weeks, including high load training (≥ 80% of one repetition maximum), submaximal load training (40–79% of one repetition maximum), plyometric training, and combined training (i.e., two or more methods); (3) endurance running training control group under no strength training or under strength training with low loads (< 40% of one repetition maximum); (4) running performance, VO2max, vVO2max, MMSS and/or sprint capacity measured before and after a strength training intervention program; (5) randomized and non-randomized controlled studies. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) approach. A random-effects meta-analysis and moderator analysis were performed using Comprehensive meta-analysis (version 3.3.0.70).
Results
The certainty of the evidence was very low to moderate. The studies included 324 moderately trained, 272 well trained, and 298 highly trained athletes. The strength training programs were between 6 and 40 weeks duration, with one to four intervention sessions per week. High load and combined training methods induced moderate (effect size = − 0.469, p = 0.029) and large effect (effect size = − 1.035, p = 0.036) on running performance, respectively. While plyometric training was not found to have a significant effect (effect size = − 0.210, p = 0.064). None of the training methods improved VO2max, vVO2max, MMSS, or sprint capacity (all p > 0.072). Moderators related to subject (i.e., sex, age, body mass, height, VO2max, performance level, and strength training experience) and intervention (i.e., weeks, sessions per week and total sessions) characteristics had no effect on running performance variables or its determinants (all p > 0.166).
Conclusions
Strength training with high loads can improve performance (i.e., time trial, time to exhaustion) in middle-distance and long-distance runners. A greater improvement may be obtained when two or more strength training methods (i.e., high load training, submaximal load training and/or plyometric training) are combined, although with trivial effects on VO2max, vVO2max, MMSS, or sprint capacity.
... Moreover, the strength and endurance training programs undergone by the groups included are shown in Table 3. Of all the studies selected, 11 included experimental groups that performed MAX training [2,8,15,24,27,29,34,37,[48][49][50], 10 EXP training [1,30,34,39,[49][50][51][52][53] and six studies included experimental groups performing COMB training [2,4,20,36,46,54]. The intervention periods in 19 of the 20 studies were between 6 and 12 weeks, whereas, in the remaining research, the intervention lasted 40 weeks [4]. ...
... Moreover, the strength and endurance training programs undergone by the groups included are shown in Table 3. Of all the studies selected, 11 included experimental groups that performed MAX training [2,8,15,24,27,29,34,37,[48][49][50], 10 EXP training [1,30,34,39,[49][50][51][52][53] and six studies included experimental groups performing COMB training [2,4,20,36,46,54]. The intervention periods in 19 of the 20 studies were between 6 and 12 weeks, whereas, in the remaining research, the intervention lasted 40 weeks [4]. ...
... EXP training protocols included -in some cases -only exercises performed with one's own body, such as jumping, bounding and hopping [30,34,52,53]. In contrast, weight-training machines were also used in other interventions in addition to the previously mentioned exercises [39, 46,[49][50][51]. Most protocols consisted of performing between two and four sets and between five and 10 repetitions. ...
The effectiveness of combining strength-specific training with endurance training to
enhance the performance of endurance runners remains uncertain. This study aimed to analyze
effect of practising maximum-strength (MAX), explosive strength (EXP) or both combined (COMB)
on seven runners’ performance-indicators: vertical jump (VJ), one-repetition-maximum-squat
(1RM), peak-velocity/peak-running-speed (PV), lactate-threshold (over incremental-test-protocols,
LT), middle-distance-time-trial (TT), maximum-oxygen-consumption (VO2max), running-economy
(RE). Systematic-review (Scopus, Wed of Science, Sports Discuss, PubMed) with meta-analysis was
conducted following PRISMA standards. Inclusion-criteria (PICOS) were: recreational or welltrained
athletes aged 18-45 performing concurrent-training ≥five-week. Used search-terms were
related to different types of strength/endurance, participants’ age, sport-modality. 20 manuscripts
were selected, quality-assessed with PEDro. MAX training is more effective than EXP, COMB in
improving VJ, 1RM, PV, while COMB is more effective than MAX, EXP to enhance TT. MAX is more
effective than EXP in improving LT. Concurrent-workouts do not provide additional benefits to
VO2max. It is unknown which strength-modality (MAX, EXP or COMB) is more effective in
improving RE. Concurrent-training is more effective than single-mode-endurance-training for
enhancing specific performance-variables in adult-endurance-runners. Middle-, long-distancerunners
may consider incorporating MAX-training to target specific goals, e.g., improving VJ, 1RM,
LT, PV while utilizing COMB-training to enhance TT. Certain variables may benefit from EXP. New
randomized-controlled-trials are required to confirm these findings.
... It is widely recognized that adding strengthening exercises to a running program can enhance running economy and performance [17][18][19][20]. In team sports such as football or basketball, the incorporation of strength training has been shown to also reduce injury incidence [21]. ...
... Although the addition of strength training to a running program did not appear to prevent RRI, there may be some benefit in reducing the amount of running training and replacing it with strength training. Paavolainen et al. demonstrated that replacing 32% of running with explosive strength training over a nine-week period in elite male runners resulted in greater improvements in maximal aerobic speed and running economy in the intervention group, mainly due to neuromuscular adaptations [20]. RRI incidence was not monitored in this study; however, we can hypothesize that implementing strengthening exercises and reducing running volume may be beneficial in terms of RRI. ...
... This differs from well-trained endurance runners with high-force capabilities who should focus on specific explosive and reactive-strength training to improve performance [24]. A replacement of a part of running volume by explosive-type strengthening (sprints, jumps, leg press, and knee extensors-flexors exercises) also showed improvements in terms of 5 km running performance and aerobic power in elite orienteering runners [20]. This could explain the non-efficacy of our strengthening program, as it was general and more focused on endurance strength development. ...
Background: Running-related injuries (RRI) are common in novice runners. Reducing early training running volume with strengthening activities may improve RRI without impeding running performance. Objectives: 1. Gather feasibility data for a randomized, controlled trial comparing a strengthening-based program to a conventional running program; 2. Assess RRI; and 3. Assess running performance. Methods: Seventy-four university students (38 females, 21 ± 2.3 years, 68.2 ± 10.8 kg, BMI: 22.6 ± 2.97), all novice runners, were randomized in two groups, i.e., a strengthening and running group (INT) and a running group (CON). The completed sessions, RRI, dropout, and maximal aerobic speed were recorded through an online application. Results: The INT group had 52.6% attrition, while the CON group had 41.7%. The INT group had 56.6% adherence, while the CON group had 45.7%. The Chi-square test showed no significant difference in RRI incidence across groups (CHI2 = 2.958, p value = 0.08). A two-way ANOVA showed no significant difference in maximal aerobic speed across groups (p = 0.822) or before and after training (p = 0.304). Conclusions: This pilot study confirmed the feasibility of this randomized, controlled trial with a needed sample size of 194. However, novice runners had greater attrition rates when starting. Based on those limited data, strengthening activities that replaced running volume did not improve RRI or maximal aerobic speed.
... Scientists recommend quantifying RE in aerobic energy cost units over oxygen cost to provide a more accurate reflection of the metabolic demand of running in different ranges of running velocities (Blagrove, Howatson, Pedlar, & Hayes, 2019). Endurance training, resistance Rusko, 1999). For instance, the literature demonstrates that traditional RT, which involves heavy loads and slow movement speeds, with 40 weeks of strength training, can significantly improve RE, without concomitant hypertrophy, in competitive distance runners (Beattie, Carson, Lyons, Rossiter, & Kenny 2017). ...
... Although our MA was not statistically significant, high velocities, >13 km/h (ES =0.95), showed moderate effect, and lower velocities <13 km/h (ES =0.35) showed small effect. Physiological changes induced by PJT, such as muscletendon stiffness, might have allowed for reduced ground contact time and reduced energy spent during running (Paavolainen, et al., 1999). For this reason, PJT could have a greater impact on RE at higher velocities in which contact time has more relevance (Cunningham, Hunter, Seeley, & Feland, 2013). ...
... The data showed that PJT with RT had a large effect (ES =1.34) on RE compared to the control group/condition. Supporting these SRMA results, combining both types of training is the best strategy to improve RE (Blagrove, et al., 2018;Giovanelli, et al., 2017;Li, et al., 2019;Lundstrom, Betker, & Ingraham 2017;Paavolainen, et al., 1999;Saunders, et al., 2006;Sedano, Marín, Cuadrado, & Redondo, 2013;Taipale, et al., 2010;Taipale, Mikkola, Vesterinen, Nummela, & Häkkinen, 2013). The data is clear in favor of this strategy, not only in MA results but also in SR studies like that of Giovanelli, et al. (2017), where well-trained ultra-endurance runners improve RE in different steady-stages, from 8 km/h to 14 km/h using PJT with RT. ...
Running economy (RE) has a strong relationship with distance running performance and is defined as the energy demand for a given velocity. Plyometric jump training may improve RE. The present study aimed to assess the effects of plyometric jump training on endurance runners’ running economy and to estimate the effectiveness of program duration, training frequency, total sessions, age, training status and velocity. A literature search was performed using PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and SCOPUS databases. Subgroup and single training factor analyses of program duration, frequency, total sessions, chronological age, training status, and running velocity were performed. A random-effects model for meta-analyses was
used. Eighteen studies were selected for the systematic review and 10 for the meta-analysis. A trivial effect was noted for plyometric jump training on running economy (ES=0.19). However, plyometric jump training combined with resistance training revealed a large effect on running economy (ES=1.34). Greater running economy improvements were noted after training interventions with >15 total sessions (ES=1.00), >7 weeks (ES=0.95) and >2 days/week (ES=0.89). The youngest (ES=0.95) and highly trained participants (ES=0.94) with faster velocities (ES=0.95) obtained better results. Our findings highlight the effect of plyometric jump training that may improve running economy, particularly in combination with resistance training, after longer-term interventions (i.e., >15 total sessions, >7 weeks), with greater frequency, and among younger and more highly trained runners, especially during running at higher competitive velocities.
... However, already ~10 years later, the first indications were provided for strength training-induced improvements in endurance performance, especially in performances that require fast-twitch fiber recruitment [94]. The first substantial evidence for associations of strength training-induced improvements in neuromuscular function and indices of endurance performance originating from controlled studies was provided in 1999 [95,96]. In a Finnish study, it was shown that 5000 m running performance as well as running economy and the maximal anaerobic running velocity improved to a larger extent when 30% of the endurance training volume were replaced by explosive strength exercises (such as 20-100 m sprints; countermovement, hurdle, and drop jumps; as well as leg press and knee extensor/flexor exercise with low load and high velocity) for a duration of 9 weeks. ...
... However, while the reasons for this may be manifold, it needs to be acknowledged that these findings may largely be related to a paucity in data available to directly assess the effects of strength training on both running mechanics and indicators of running performance. This relates especially to stride parameters such as stride length, stride frequency, and ground contact times, which were assessed by only very few studies [96,122,123]. In this context, it is also important to mention that even though Paavolainen and colleagues [96] indeed showed reductions in ground contact times concomitantly with changes in running performance, in this study no mediation analysis was per-formed, and this study was not included in the aforementioned meta-analysis due to a lack of reporting. ...
... This relates especially to stride parameters such as stride length, stride frequency, and ground contact times, which were assessed by only very few studies [96,122,123]. In this context, it is also important to mention that even though Paavolainen and colleagues [96] indeed showed reductions in ground contact times concomitantly with changes in running performance, in this study no mediation analysis was per-formed, and this study was not included in the aforementioned meta-analysis due to a lack of reporting. Thus, while it was shown that strength training does superiorly affect endurance performance (or at least determinants associated with endurance performance) of distance runners, to date the mechanisms underlying these effects remain unclear. ...
Endurance performance is characterized by numerous physiological and neuromuscular factors. In order to maximize training adaptations in well-trained and elite athletes and, thereby, improve endurance performance, athletes in various sports use high-intensity training (HIT) and strength training to enhance their performance. In this chapter, we highlight the importance of HIT and strength training on the endurance capacity by summarizing the current evidence. Furthermore, ready-to-use recommendations are provided.KeywordsEndurance performanceTraining programmingHIITStrength developmentNeuromuscular performance
... Previous studies have found that running economy (RE) improved following strength training, whether with heavy loads or through plyometrics [3]. In addition, different modalities of strength training aiming to improve power properties have shown improvements in RE [3][4][5] and endurance performance [6]. This improvement could be due to an enhancement in the stiffness of the Achilles tendon, which minimizes muscle shortening, using elastic energy, and reducing energy cost during running [7]. ...
... The findings from previous studies suggest that neuromuscular characteristics may play a relevant role in RE [4,37]. None of the physiological determinants of the endurance performance variables analyzed showed any relationship with the F 0 and V 0 . ...
Background: Muscle strength plays a critical role in the performance of middle- and long-distance athletes. However, the vertical force–velocity (F–V) profile has not been studied in this population. The objectives of this study were twofold: (i) to characterize the F–V profile in middle- and long-distance athletes and (ii) to explore its relationship with physiological and biomechanical performance variables. Methods: Thirty-nine highly trained athletes (13 middle-distance and 26 long-distance athletes), comprising men (18) and women (21), participated in this study. Each athlete performed a squat-jump to determine their F–V profile, followed by two 5 min bouts of low-intensity running and a graded exercise test to assess physiological and kinematic parameters. Results: Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were observed in maximal estimated power (Pmax) and jump height between middle- and long-distance female athletes (21.20 ± 4.78 W·kg⁻¹ vs. 15.80 ± 2.83 W·kg⁻¹; 26.00 ± 0.05 cm vs. 19.50 ± 0.03 cm), and between male and female long-distance athletes (19.70 ± 2.87 W·kg⁻¹; 24.10 ± 0.02 cm). Stride length during low intensity running showed significant correlations with Pmax (r = 0.340) and jump height (r = 0.374). Pmax was positively associated with running economy (RE) (r = 0.396) and VO2max (r = 0.346), and negatively correlated with F–V imbalance (FVimb) (r = −0.531). Conclusions: Middle- and long-distance athletes demonstrate similar F–V profiles; however, middle-distance athletes exhibit a rightward shift, resulting in higher Pmax and jump height, particularly among women. Nevertheless, F–V profile characteristics display only weak associations with physiological and kinematic variables which directly influence performance.
... The interaction between the neural and muscular systems is fundamental for a better-running economy and performance (Saunders et al., 2006;Bonacci et al., 2009 ). The last decades have provided evidence that the development of the neuromuscular system is essential for the development of muscular strength (Bertuzzi et al., 2013;Roschel et al., 2015), reducing the incidence of injury risk (Abal, Soidán, Giráldez, 2013;Andreu, 2022), increased movement economy (Paavolainen et al., 1999;Roschel et al., 2015) and improved running performance (Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2014;Machado et al., 2019;Filipa et al., 2022). ...
... The improvement in running economy is a consequence of the intervention of muscular strength training ( Støren et al., 2008;Bertuzzi et al., 2013;Llanos-Lagos et al., 2024), which has been attributed to the increased coordination of the lower limbs and muscle coactivation, reducing contact time with the ground (Paavolainen et al., 1999). ...
Street running is one of the most practiced sports in the world, and a complex interaction between physiological, methodological, mechanical, environmental, and psychological parameters influences its performance. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to evaluate the impact of strength training on long-distance runners on running time. 803 articles were found in the Medline / PubMed Science Direct / Embase / Scielo/ CINAHL/LILACS databases. After applying the exclusion criteria, only five articles were selected for the systematic review. Of the selected studies, the years of publication were between 2014 and 2022, all published in English, 2 in journals with an impact factor. The sample included 166 volunteers, 152 (91.6%) men and 14 (8.4%) women; the average age ranged from 20 to 39. Strength training programs included plyometric, complex, and strength training. The average improvement in running time for the intervention group ranged from 2.5 to 11.6%, and the improvement in time for the control group ranged from 0.07 to 1.3%. The intervention groups that used the plyometric training program obtained the highest average of 11.6% and the lowest average of 1.6% regarding the variation in test time—the results of this systematic review support that a strength training program positively affects long-distance runners’ performance. Keywords: Training, road running, performance, strength training
... However, Paavolainen et al. (1999) already reported an improvement in in 5 km performance time (2.8%), in running economy (7.8%) and running and jumping performance among 10 runners after nine weeks of running and strength training. As 104 Beattie et al. (2017) found, after 40 weeks of strength training, improvement in the key physiological of performance indicators without significant changes in body composition. ...
... and n=8 women age of 24.28 SD 2.35 years. Divided into: EG (experimental n=15) and CG (control n=15). ...
This study aimed to map the scientific production on training methods for 5 to 10 km long-distance running by means of a bibliometric analysis. PubMed, SciELO and Lilacs databases were used, and data were collected until December 31, 2019. The analysis included experimental studies with the intervention of training methods in runners. Data were analyzed descriptively. It was found that the first article was published in 1981 and 2018 was the year with the highest number of publications. The United States was the country with the highest number of publications, authors and journals. The most frequently cited methods were continuous execution and interval execution. Consequently, the main results were an increase in running economy, VO2max and a reduction in time trial.
... 22 Tendons are known to adapt to mechanical loading, 23 with plyometric, isometric, and dynamic heavy resistance training shown to increase strength and stiffness 24,25 Such training methods can also improve running performance and NMC. [26][27][28] Stiffer shoes have been shown to move the contact point forward during the propulsion phase, increasing the ground reaction force moment while maintaining the Achilles tendon moment. 29 Some studies suggest that certain ground reaction force variables correlate positively with NMC. 30 Abbreviations: BW, body weight; COM, center of mass. ...
Objectives : This study aimed to report (1) the correlation between net metabolic cost (NMC) of running and Achilles tendon (AT) and ankle plantar flexor passive stiffness and (2) explore the relationship between passive stiffness and key running biomechanics. Methods : Twenty-two male recreational runners participated in this study. The runners performed a 5-minute run at 50% of their maximal aerobic speed as a warm-up on an instrumented treadmill, followed by a 6-minute run at 65% of their maximal aerobic speed wherein NMC was recorded. Passive stiffness was measured using a myotonometry device both before and after the run. Results : There was a negative linear relationship between NMC and AT stiffness. NMC and prerun AT stiffness demonstrated a significant negative correlation between leg stiffness and a significant positive correlation with braking peak force and step length. Moreover, we observed an increase in stiffness between prerun and postrun measurements at rest for the AT and both gastrocnemius muscles. Conclusion : Greater AT stiffness measured at rest is correlated with lower NMC.
... Similarly, strength training has shown performance improvements related to a better RE [18]. This is due to enhanced intramuscular coordination of the lower limbs and an increase in muscle coactivation and Kleg [19]. Medium-load (60-85% 1RM) and highload (>85% 1RM) strength exercises and plyometric exercises carried out 2-3 times per week appear to be efficient in enhancing RE [18]. ...
Objective: This study aims to evaluate the effects of a 20-week endurance and strength training program on running economy and physiological, spatiotemporal, and neuromuscular variables in trained runners. Methods: A total of 18 runners (13 males and 5 females) completed a running economy test (2 bouts of 5 min at 3.06 m·s⁻¹ for females and at 3.61 m·s⁻¹ for males) and a graded exercise test (5 min at 2.78 m⋅s⁻¹, with speed increasing by 0.28 m⋅s−1 every 1 min until volitional exhaustion). During the training program, the participants completed different low-intensity continuous running sessions, high-intensity interval running sessions, and auxiliary strength training sessions. Results: Running economy, measured as oxygen cost and energy cost, increased by 4% (p = 0.011) and 3.4% (p = 0.011), respectively. Relative maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) increased by 4.6%. There was an improvement in the speed associated with the first (VT1) and the second ventilatory threshold and with the maximal aerobic speed by 9.4, 3.7, and 2.8% (p = 0.000, p = 0.004, and p = 0.004, respectively). The %VO2max value of VT1 increased by 4.8% (p = 0.014). Conclusions: These findings suggest that a 20-week endurance and strength training program significantly improves performance and physiological factors without changing the runner’s biomechanics.
... In addition to running-specific training, strength training (ST) has been identified by sports and exercise scientists as an effective strategy for enhancing running economy and performance in middle-and long-distance runners [7,8] while also reducing injury risk [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. ST can be defined as the systematic and organized use of exercises in which the body, through muscular actions, works against a certain resistance with the goal of maintaining or optimizing muscular strength. ...
Despite strength training (ST) being well characterized by professional runners, little is known about the inclusion of ST models for recreational runners. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the presence of ST in the training practices of recreational runners, with a focus on understanding its characteristics and the motivations of recreational athletes for including ST in their routines. To this end, 801 recreational runners (493 male and 308 female) completed a structured questionnaire regarding their training habits, the inclusion of ST, and its characteristics, concerning the type of ST, training volume, and the reasons for including ST in their training programs. To assess the possible associations between categorical variables, data were analyzed using the chi-square test for independent samples. Approximately 625 runners (78.1%) reported that they included ST in their training routine, with a statistically significant difference between the sexes (men: 73.5% vs. women: 85.4%; X2 = 14.09; p = 0.01). Traditional strength training (TST) was the predominant type of ST included (78.5%), with most participants performing 2–4 sets and 8–12 repetitions per set at a frequency of 3–4 sessions per week. The importance of ST was primarily attributed to performance improvement (85%). The results suggest that recreational runners incorporate different types of ST into their training routines, with TST being the predominant type perceived by runners as a valuable asset for improving running performance.
... The key factors influencing performance in long-distance runners include VO 2max , lactate threshold (LT), and running economy [28,29]. Among these, LT, the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) [30][31][32], and the maximal lactate steady state [33,34] are widely utilized as training intensity and performance indicators in the field of long-distance running coaching. ...
Background/Objectives: Monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs) comprise 14 known isoforms, with MCT1 being particularly important for lactate transport. Variations in lactate metabolism capacity and aerobic performance are associated with the T1470A polymorphism in MCT1. We aimed to investigate the frequency of the T1470A polymorphism and compare relevant physiological parameters among long-distance runners, wherein these parameters are fundamental to athletic performance. Methods: We included 158 Japanese long-distance runners (LD) and 649 individuals from the general Japanese population (CON). The frequency of the T1470A polymorphism was compared between these groups and across athletic levels using the chi-square test. Additionally, physiological data were collected from 57 long-distance runners, and respiratory gas measurements were obtained using the mixing-chamber method during a graded incremental exercise test. Results: We observed a significant difference between the LD and CON groups in the dominant model and between the sub-28 min group and 28 min or above group in the recessive model. As the competitive level increased, the frequency of the AA genotype also increased. When comparing physiological parameters between the AA genotype and T allele, subjects with the AA genotype showed significantly higher values for oxygen uptake at lactate threshold (p = 0.001), oxygen uptake at onset of blood lactate accumulation (p = 0.01), maximal oxygen uptake (p = 0.005), and maximal blood lactate concentration (p = 0.038). Conclusions: These results suggest that the AA genotype of the T1470A polymorphism of MCT1 is an effective genotype associated with athletic status and aerobic capacity in Japanese long-distance runners.
... These adaptations establish a favorable relationship between training time and effectiveness [9][10][11] for the HIIT training model, regardless of the sport in focus, athlete's experience, and fitness level [4]. In addition to the intensification proposed by HIIT, the variation of training stimuli emerges as a potential strategy for metabolic and neuromuscular enhancements [12], beyond adaptations related to running performance. ...
This study investigated the impact of six high-intensity interval training (HIIT) running sessions at 1% or 10% slope on various physiological and performance parameters in 25 men. The partic-ipants underwent assessments of VO2max, time to exhaustion at 1% slope (TLim1%), and time to exhaustion at 10% slope (TLim10%) in the initial three visits. They were then randomly assigned to control (CON), HIIT at 1% slope (GT1%), or HIIT at 10% slope (GT10%) groups. Over three weeks, participants performed six HIIT sessions with equalized workload based on their indi-vidual maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max). The sessions comprised 50% of TLim, with a 1:1 ratio of exercise to recovery at 50% vVO2max. Results indicated significant improvements in VO2max and peak velocity (VPeak) after HIIT at both slopes. Heart rate (HR) behavior differed between sessions for GT1%, while no significant differences were observed for GT10%. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) significantly reduced for GT1% after the third session, with a similar trend for GT10%. In summary, six sessions of 1% or 10% slope HIIT effectively enhanced VO2max and VPeak, but there was no improvement in TLim performance, suggesting no adaptive transfer between training groups.
... These adaptations establish a favorable relationship between training time and effectiveness [9][10][11] for the HIIT training model, regardless of the sport in focus, athlete's experience, and fitness level [4]. In addition to the intensification proposed by HIIT, the variation of training stimuli emerges as a potential strategy for metabolic and neuromuscular enhancements [12], beyond adaptations related to running performance. 2 of 12 In a competitive running scenario, physiological and mechanical changes resulting from alterations in terrain (horizontal vs. inclined vs. declined) influence the dynamics of the stretching-shortening cycle and, consequently, the energy cost [13,14]. ...
This study investigated the impact of six high-intensity interval training (HIIT) running sessions on 1% or 10% slopes on various physiological and performance parameters in 25 men. The participants underwent assessments of VO2max, time to exhaustion on 1% slope (TLim1%), and time to exhaustion on 10% slope (TLim10%) in the initial three visits. They were then randomly assigned to control (CON), HIIT on 1% slope (GT1%), or HIIT on 10% slope (GT10%) groups. Over three weeks, participants performed six HIIT sessions with equalized workload based on their individual maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max). The sessions comprised 50% of TLim, with a 1:1 ratio of exercise to recovery at 50% vVO2max. The results indicated significant improvements in VO2max and peak velocity (VPeak) after HIIT on both slopes. Heart rate (HR) differed between sessions for GT1%, while no significant differences were observed for GT10%. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were significantly reduced for GT1% after the third session, with a similar trend for GT10%. In summary, six HIIT sessions on a 1% or 10% slope effectively enhanced VO2max and VPeak, but there was no improvement in TLim performance, suggesting no adaptive transfer between training groups.
... Enhancing the elastic qualities of muscles and tendons is the main objective of plyometric exercise [31]. Similar to a stretched rubber band, energy is stored in the muscle-tendon unit's elastic components during the eccentric phase [32]. This stored energy is released during the muscle's transition to the concentric phase, producing a forceful contraction [27], [33]. ...
The objectives of this study are to determine whether there is any interaction between agility and athletic performance skills and plyometric training, ladder drill, and agility training; how different these effects are from one another; and how different the effects of low and high agility are from one another. The experimental methodology employed in this work uses a factorial analysis in 2x2. A population of 40 athletes, aged 15 to 17, were selected for the research sample using ordinal pairing. Devices that measure agility using the Illinois Agility Test. The following are the study's findings: The post-test indicates a significant value of p < 0.05, indicating that the plyometric training technique, ladder drill, affects athletic performance skills (p > 0.05). Because the significance value indicates p of 0.006 < 0.05, there is a significant difference between the effects of low and high agility on athletic performance skills (p < 0.05). There is a significant (p > 0.05) interaction between agility (high and low), ladder drill training techniques, and plyometric training methods of athletic performance skills (p < 0.05). The findings indicate that following training, there is a relationship between agility and athletic performance abilities. According to the study, there is a connection between agility (high and low) and athletic performance skills, and agility has a major impact on athletic performance. Training techniques such as plyometric training and ladder drills are also related to agility. Applying the ladder drill and plyometric training techniques affects athletes' performance abilities. It has been demonstrated that doing plyometric and ladder drills may enhance one's athlete's performance ability.
... Finalmente, el resto de intervenciones combinaron pliometría con entrenamiento de fuerza a diferentes intensidades. En el caso de Mikkola et al. (2007), Paavolainen et al. (1999), Sedano et al. (2013) y Trowell et al. (2022, los participantes mejoraron en parámetros neuromusculares, test anaeróbicos (VMART) y tiempos de contrarreloj, manteniendo de nuevo los datos iniciales de VO2max. Sin embargo, en el estudio de Saunders et al. (2006), no se apreciaron mejoras significativas combinando pliometría y fuerza, aunque sí se observó una tendencia a mejorar el RE. ...
El fútbol es un deporte de cooperación-oposición, con elevada incertidumbre y en el que se dan constantemente acciones de alta intensidad que demandan al futbolista un elevado nivel de rendimiento físico. El trabajo en el gimnasio se ha convertido en los últimos años en una herramienta imprescindible y se ha demostrado que un entrenamiento de fuerza antes del inicio de un partido ofrece mejoras en el rendimiento condicional del futbolista gracias al efecto de potenciación post-activación (PAP). El objetivo del presente trabajo de revisión fue comprobar qué protocolos de entrenamientos de fuerza maximizan el efecto de la PAP. Se realizó una búsqueda de artículos en PubMed, encontrando 144 artículos que, una vez filtrados en base a los criterios de inclusión, se redujeron a 13. Fueron mantenidas las directrices para el diseño de revisiones establecidas por PRISMA. Los resultados muestran que para la mayoría de los autores el entrenamiento de fuerza, con protocolos con ejercicios tanto concéntricos, como excéntricos o pliométricos, en todos los planos del movimiento, con un volumen bajo y a altas intensidades (±85%1RM) en el entrenamiento convencional o máximas si se trata de ejercicios pliométricos, con un descanso a la prueba de entre 5 y 10 minutos, podría ser beneficioso para el rendimiento posterior en un partido de fútbol. Se concluyó que existen aspectos diferenciales como que no todas las personas responderán igual ante un mismo protocolo de PAP, siendo determinantes la edad o la experiencia previa en el entrenamiento de fuerza.
... Finalmente, el resto de intervenciones combinaron pliometría con entrenamiento de fuerza a diferentes intensidades. En el caso de Mikkola et al. (2007), Paavolainen et al. (1999), Sedano et al. (2013) y Trowell et al. (2022, los participantes mejoraron en parámetros neuromusculares, test anaeróbicos (VMART) y tiempos de contrarreloj, manteniendo de nuevo los datos iniciales de VO2max. Sin embargo, en el estudio de Saunders et al. (2006), no se apreciaron mejoras significativas combinando pliometría y fuerza, aunque sí se observó una tendencia a mejorar el RE. ...
El objetivo de esta revisión sistemática ha sido comparar los diferentes métodos de entrenamiento de fuerza para mejorar el rendimiento en pruebas de entre 800 y 5000 m en atletismo, eventos caracterizados por altos requerimientos de capacidad aeróbica, de fuerza máxima y de potencia. La base de datos Pubmed fue empleada para buscar artículos originales acerca del entrenamiento de fuerza en medio fondistas. Para ello se introdujeron diferentes combinaciones de algunos términos como: “middle distance”, “running performance”, “VO2max”, “running economy”, “resistance training”, “strength training”, “concurrent training” y “plyometric training”. Los artículos cuyas intervenciones fueron evaluadas con test de contrarreloj superiores a 5 km fueron excluidos. Inicialmente se recolectaron 298 artículos, de los cuales 9 fueron seleccionados atendiendo a los criterios de inclusión y exclusión. Tras un periodo de intervención con una duración de 6 a 12 semanas, en todos los artículos se observaron mejoras en parámetros fisiológicos y neuromusculares, a excepción de uno. En este estudio se apreció una tendencia a la mejora, aunque los cambios no fueron significativos. Los estudios que mayores mejoras obtuvieron, realizaron entrenamiento de fuerza con cargas del 70 % RM o superior. Además, este entrenamiento de fuerza fue combinado con ejercicios pliométricos realizados sin peso adicional o añadiendo un 30% del peso corporal. En conclusión, combinar el entrenamiento de fuerza a una intensidad del 70%RM o superior a 4-10 repeticiones con entrenamiento pliométrico, parece ser el método más efectivo para optimizar el rendimiento en carreras de medio fondo
... In Lacour et al. 20 however, iV O2max showed no significant correlation with 800 m (r = 0.32; n = 13), indicating that at distances greater than 800 m, performance strongly depends on the athlete's ability to sustain a high speed in aerobic conditions. Paavolainen et al. 22 found a relationship of V O2max with performance in the 5,000 m in 17 well-trained athletes and verified that in addition to aerobic power and running economy, neuromuscular characteristics and muscular power were also related to performance in the 5,000 m race. Costill et al. 23 stated that in addition to V O2max, long-distance running success depends on running economy and the ability to use a large fraction of V O2max. ...
To verify the relationship between field tests and performance in the 800 meters, 1,500 meters, and 5,000 meters in university athletics, 20 male university athletes were selected to perform the motor tests, which they performed: the vertical jump endurance (VJE) test; a graded exercise test on a treadmill to access the maximal oxygen uptake (V O2max); the Running Based Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST) in addition to the three Times Trials of 800, 1,500 and 5,000 meters, from which the critical power was calculated. It was found positive correlations (p < 0.05) between fatigue index and 800 m, 1,500 m (R 2 = 0.65), and 5,000 m (R 2 = 0.20), and between B35M and 1,500 m (R 2 = 0.72). It was found negative correlations (p < 0.05) between relative V O2max and 800 m (R 2 = 0.74), 1,500 m (R 2 = 0.80), and 5,000 m (R 2 = 0.86), and between critical power and the 5,000 m event (R 2 = 0.97). VJE did not correlate with the time trials performance (p > 0.05). It was concluded that for this sample the variables that seem to explain the most with the three tests are: fatigue index (800m; 1,500m; 5,000m), V O2max (800m; 1,500m; 5,000m) B35M (1,500m) and critical power (5,000m).
... The findings of this systematic review revealed that RT, when used as a supplement to sport-specific training, offered large advantages (SMD greater than 1) for enhancing performance in various sports, from cross-country skiing (Losnegard et al., 2011), orienteering (Paavolainen et al., 1999) through handball (Hermassi et al., 2010) and soccer (Sedano et al., 2009) to water polo (Veliz et al., 2015). This enhancement demonstrates the versatile and impactful nature of RT in boosting sport-specific performance in elite athletes. ...
This systematic review examines the influence of resistance training (RT) on the performance outcomes of elite athletes. Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive search across PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science databases was conducted, considering studies up to November 19, 2023. The inclusion criteria were elite athletes involved in high-level competitions. Studies were categorized by the competitive level among elite athletes, athlete's sex, performance outcomes, and a training modality with subgroup analyses based on these factors. Thirty-five studies involving 777 elite athletes were included. The results of the meta-analysis revealed a large and significant overall effect of RT on sport-specific performance (standardized mean difference, SMD = 1.16, 95% CI: 0.65, 1.66), with substantial heterogeneity (I² = 84%). Subgroup analyses revealed differential effects based on the competitive level, the type of sport-specific outcomes, and sex. National elite athletes showed more pronounced (large SMD) benefits from RT compared to international elite athletes (small SMD). Global outcomes revealed a medium but non-significant (p > 0.05) SMD, while local outcomes showed a large SMD. Notably, female athletes exhibited a large SMD, though not reaching statistical significance (p > 0.05), probably due to limited study participants. No significant (p > 0.05) differences were found between heavy and light load RT. Resistance training is effective in improving sport-specific performance in elite athletes, with its effectiveness modulated by the competitive level, the type of the performance outcome, and athlete's sex. The findings underscore the need for personalized RT regimens and further research, particularly in female elite athletes, as well as advanced RT methods for international elite athletes.
... Athletes can achieve a high volume of work in a relatively short time, making it a practical choice for those with busy schedules. Consistent training over time can lead to significant improvements in speed and explosive power [36] . The variety of exercises in circuit training prevents the body from adapting too quickly to a specific stimulus. ...
This study investigates the impact of circuit training on sprint agility and explosive power, with a focus on motion and action velocity. The research explores the interplay between strength and speed training, particularly in male subjects, aiming to discern the effects of intrasession sequencing on speed, explosive strength, and power development. The study involves 30 boys aged 14 to 17, utilizing circuit training (CT) with an experimental group and a control group. The results demonstrate significant improvements in the experimental group's 50m dash and explosive power, highlighting the efficacy of CT in enhancing sprinting capabilities and explosiveness. The findings contribute valuable insights into the nuanced correlation between intrasession sequencing and physiological adaptations in concurrent strength and speed training for males. The study emphasizes the potential benefits of incorporating CT into fitness and training programs to enhance speed and explosive power. Introduction The key characteristic of circuit training is the successive performance of many anaerobic exercises usually with little or no rest in between aiming at producing cardiovascular training effects [1, 2]. It is widely embraced due to its time efficiency and use of lighter loads in the program [3]. Commonly, the settings of the group exercise embrace the free-weight circuit weight training classes, designating an increase in aerobic capacity, body composition, as well as muscular strength and endurance [4, 5]. The speed, flexibility, skill, endurance, and strength are all among the basic elements of fitness in any sport [6]. For the elite athletes, development for each component interrelates as part of the competition preparation [7]. In athletics especially, in the field sports reliant on the short distance running speed, speed and acceleration are pivotal qualities [8, 9]. Maximal speed actions classifies into maximal speed, acceleration or sprint-agility [10]. Agility-defined as the ability of fast change in direction and to begin and stop quickly assumes his significance in the context [11]. More specifically, there can be muscle fatigue resulting from repeated exposure to movements during any given match and hence the need for muscular endurance exercises as an additive within the strength training program of a player [12, 13]. The stride frequency, stride length, speed endurance, and movement efficiency were some of the physical components that determined running speed [14, 15]. Traditional methods in increasing sprint performance were general, velocity-specific, and movement-specific strength training [16]. The repetition number is a crucial variable, impacting the number of repetitions achievable at a given intensity [17]. This variable is intrinsic to the repetition continuum wherein magnitude and loading dictates the spectrum of repetitions, hence this dictates the associated outcomes on strength development [18]. In this context, the present study aims to delve into how much sprint-agility and anaerobic endurance can be improved through motion and action velocity-focused circuit training [19]. Other than this, a notable purpose of the paper is to explore how variation in velocity while exercising in a resistance training bout under accepted loading conditions can affect repetition range especially when speed is largely decreased for exercise.
... The ET procedure occurred three times per week for six weeks, allowing time for potential physiologic, metabolic, and respiratory adaptations (51); sessions lasted 60-90 minutes (Paavolainen et al., 1999). At the Shannon Center on the SXU campus, training was conducted on the 200-meter indoor track. ...
Coaches and practitioners strive to use methods based on outcome measurements that are evidence-based to maximize female athlete performance, but due to a lack female representation in exercise science research, this is often problematic. The primary goal was to investigate the correlation between maximal oxygen uptake, blood lactate, and running economy in young females. Secondarily, the objective was to observe the longitudinal association between alterations in maximal oxygen uptake, blood lactate, and running economy responses to six weeks of endurance training. Young female athletes (n = 18) were randomized into a weighted vest (n = 10) or non-weighted vest (n = 8) group. Two separate graded treadmill tests for maximal oxygen uptake, blood lactate, and running economy were performed at baseline and post-six weeks of endurance training, which occurred at a frequency of three times per week for six weeks. A slight positive relationship between baseline- maximal oxygen uptake and running economy, r = 0.33, and a moderate positive relationship between baseline- blood lactate and running economy, r = 0.46, were observed. After controlling body composition, a strong positive relationship between post- maximal oxygen uptake and running economy, r = 0.59, and a strong positive relationship between post- blood lactate and running economy, r = 0.85, were observed. This study shows baseline assessments of previously mentioned performance traits may not be related. A weighted vest is considered a safe and alternative ergogenic aid that can be incorporated into an endurance training program. A six-week endurance training program is sufficient time to induce cardiovascular adaptations and improve endurance performance.
... 征或表现测量 [12] 遥 然而袁该研究主要聚焦于野mechanical power冶袁导致野power冶相关文 献纳 入 不全 且对 其 仅进行了定性叙述遥 因此袁其对野power冶相关术语的 认识是否全面尧准确值得商榷遥 此外袁现有文献计量 学研究多采用野知识图谱冶以挖掘主题研究背后的引 文关系尧合作网络与热词聚类等内容 [13] 袁却相对忽视 了其对于科学术语进行计量背后潜在的方法学价值 [14] 遥 术语的科学使用与规范袁是推动尧实现我国运动 与训练科学 [15] 的科学化进程最为重 要袁也是 最基 础 的任务 [6] 遥鉴于此袁本研究以 Web of ScienceTM渊WOS冤 [28][29] [41] 遥 对有氧功率 /VO 2max 训练与运动表现相关的 研 究 始 终 常 青 袁 优 秀 男 运 动 员 的 VO 2max 通 常 在 70~85 mL/kg/min袁比普通人群高出约 50%~100% [41] 遥 然而袁 也有研究发现比赛表现并未随着有氧功率改 善而提升 [42][43] [47][48][49] 袁例如 院短 骑 行 冲 刺 测 试 [48] 渊Short Cycling Sprint Test, SCST冤 与 跆 拳 道 无 氧 间 歇 性 踢 腿 测 试 渊Taekwondo Anaerobic Intermittent Kick Test, TAIKT冤 [49] 等通过与 Wingate 测试相比得到效度检验遥 Wingate 测试也受许多因素影响袁Baror [44] [17] 遥 CP 可用于对运动员表 现预测尧比赛战术决策以及训练方案设计 [17] [53] 袁但其往往 低 估了 由加 速 和减速引起的瞬时高能量消耗 [21] 遥 因此袁代谢功率这 一估算方法可弥补这种不足袁还被应用于量化尧评价 足球运动运动员跑动中的野高强度负荷冶 [54][55] ...
The scientificization of sports and training requires practitioners and researchers to use terms to describe the sports process in strict accordance with the standards of the scientific community. As one of the international units, "power" is a core indicator of human motor ability. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze systematically the high-frequency terms and research topics related to "power". Tools such as CiteSpace were used to conduct a bibliometric analysis on 21 129 articles retrieved from the Web of science database 1966-2022. The results show that: (1) the number of research on topics related to "power" has continued to grow in the field of sports science research. In the past ten years, keywords such as physical performance have emerged on this topic; (2) power is the most common term to show results, which fall into the three categories: sports quantitative forms, specific quantitative indicators, and intensity classification thresholds; (3) explosive power is second only to the result of power. But In recent years, it has been pointed out that the term, which is a colloquial expression in the context of power training, is still to describe power in nature. Thus in the future, we should emphasize the research, standardization, and use of "power" and its related indicators and terms in the field of sports science.
... It defines the speed of producing power from the beginning of the movement up to reaching the maximum level of expression (Branet et al., 2020). A specific type of explosive strength training may lead to specific neural adaptation, such as an increased rate of activation of motor units, whereas muscle hypertrophy remains much smaller than during typical heavy resistance strength training (Paavolainen et al., 1999). ...
Objectives: to find out the effects of inter-set recovery of plyometric training on the anaerobic power and explosive power performance of boys. Design: The students were divided randomly into 3 groups' plyometric training group (PG; n = 20), Plyometric and recovery training group (PRG; n = 20) and control group (CG; n = 20). Setting: The three groups did not significantly (p > 0.05) after randomisation in the dependent variable. The data obtained from the subjects are analysed statistically by applying analysis covariance (ANACOVA) at a 0.05 level of significance. Participants: 60 physically active boy students were recruited from the age group of 14 to 17 years. The selected students were randomly divided into three equal groups.
This study compared the impact of two polarized training programs (POL) on aerobic capacity in well-trained (based on maximal oxygen uptake and training experience) female cyclists. Each 8-week POL program consisted of sprint interval training (SIT) consisting of 8–12 repetitions, each lasting 30 seconds at maximal intensity, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) consisting of 4–6 repetitions, each lasting 4 minutes at an intensity of 90–100% maximal aerobic power, and low-intensity endurance training (LIT) lasting 150–180 minutes with intensity at the first ventilatory threshold. Training sessions were organized into 4-day microcycles (1st day—SIT, 2nd day—HIIT, 3rd day—LIT, and 4th day—active rest), that were repeated throughout the experiment. In the first POL program, exercise repetitions during SIT and HIIT training were performed with freely chosen cadence above 80 RPM (POLFC group, n = 12), while in the second POL program with low cadence 50–70 RPM (POLLC group, n = 12). Immediately before and after the 8-week POL intervention, participants performed an incremental test to measure maximal aerobic power (Pmax), power achieved at the second ventilatory threshold (VT2), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), maximal pulmonary ventilation (VEmax), and gross efficiency (GE). Moreover, participants performed VO2max verification test. Analysis of variance showed a repeated measures effect for Pmax (F = 21.62; η² = 0.5; p = 0.00), VO2max (F = 39.39; η² = 0.64; p = 0.00) and VEmax (F = 5.99; η² = 0.21; p = 0.02). A repeated measures x group mixed effect was demonstrated for Pmax (F = 4.99; η² = 0.18; p = 0.03) and VO2max (F = 6.67; η² = 0.23; p = 0.02). Post-hoc Scheffe analysis showed that increase in Pmax were statistically significant only in POLLC group. The Friedman test showed that VT2 differed between repeated measures only in the POLLC group (χ² = 11; p = 0.001; W = 0.917). In conclusion, it was found that POL program where SIT and HIIT were performed at low cadence was more effective in improving aerobic capacity in well-trained female cyclists, than POL with SIT and HIIT performed at freely chosen cadence. This finding is a practical application for athletes and coaches in cycling, to consider not only the intensity and duration but also the cadence used during various interval training sessions.
Maximum oxygen consumption VO2max has represented a fundamental reference when measuring cardiorespiratory fitness in different sports. The aim of this study was to present the results of ergometry tests with gas analysis in athletes who exceeded 70 ml/kg/min in VO2max, analyzing the correlations between VO2max and metabolic, cardiovascular, and respiratory parameters. The study was of a descriptive correlational type, and 27 male athletes participated. The r Pearson test was applied to determine the correlation between the variables. In the result analysis, correlations were determined: small between Age and VO2max (r =-0.238; p = 0.24); large between VO2max vs VO2VT1 (r = 0.741; p<0.001); VO2max vs VO2VT2 (r = 0.808; p<0.001); and VO2VT1 vs VO2VT2 (r = 0.783; p<0.001). Mean between VO2max and HR (r = 0.340; p = 0.09); large between absolute VO2max and VO2/HRmax (r = 0.840; p<0.001); small between VO2max and VE (r = 0.214; p = 0.30); small between VO2max and BR (-0.184; p = 0.37); small between VE and RR% (r =-0.281; p = 0.164). There were large correlations between VO2max and ventilatory thresholds, and there was also a large correlation between absolute VO2max and oxygen pulse, with small and non-existent correlations between VO2max and ventilatory parameters.
Resistance training (RT) triggers diverse morphological and physiological adaptations that are broadly considered beneficial for performance enhancement as well as injury risk reduction. Some athletes and coaches therefore engage in, or prescribe, substantial amounts of RT under the assumption that continued increments in maximal strength capacity and/or muscle mass will lead to improved sports performance. In contrast, others employ minimal or no RT under the assumption that RT may impair endurance or sprint performances. However, the morphological and physiological adaptations by which RT might impair physical performance, the likelihood of these being evoked, and the training program specifications that might promote such impairments, remain largely undefined. Here, we discuss how selected adaptations to RT may enhance or impair speed and endurance performances while also addressing the RT program variables under which these adaptations are likely to occur. Specifically, we argue that while some myofibrillar (muscle) hypertrophy can be beneficial for increasing maximum strength, substantial hypertrophy can lead to macro- and microscopic adaptations such as increases in body (or limb) mass and internal moment arms that might, under some conditions, impair both sprint and endurance performances. Further, we discuss how changes in muscle architecture, fiber typology, microscopic muscle structure, and intra- and intermuscular coordination with RT may maximize speed at the expense of endurance, or maximize strength at the expense of speed. The beneficial effect of RT for sprint and endurance sports can be further improved by considering the adaptive trade-offs and practical implications discussed in this review.
Graphical abstract
This study examined the relationship between different strength qualities and running performance at different intensities in recreational runners. Eleven men (maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max]: 55.6 ± 4.1 ml/kg/min) and ten women (VO2max: 53.8 ± 5.0 ml/kg/min) were tested on four occasions. In the first session, each strength quality was tested through the isometric midthigh pull (peak force [PF], rate of force development [RFD]), drop jump (reactive strength index [RSI]), horizontal (theoretical maximal force [F0], theoretical maximal horizontal velocity [v0H], maximal power output [Pmax]) and vertical (theoretical maximal load [L0], theoretical maximal vertical velocity [v0V], area under the load-velocity profile [Aline]) and vertical force- and load-velocity profiles. In the second session, the VO2max was determined to control its influence on the relationship between the strength qualities and running performance. In the third and fourth testing sessions, their running performance at a 10-km distance and at two-time trials of 9- and 3-min were determined. Partial correlations revealed that the 10-km was not significantly correlated with any strength quality, 9-min with L0 (r = -0.474, p = 0.035) and Aline (r = -0.457, p = 0.043), and 3-min with L0 (r = -0.644, p = 0.002), Aline (r = -0.485, p = 0.030), v0V (r = 0.756, p < 0.001), F0, (r = 0.700, p = 0.001), Pmax (r = 0.579; p = 0.009). These correlations facilitated the differentiation of running performance between sexes, highlighting also unique strength qualities within each group.
Ratio-scaled VO2 is the widely used method for quantifying running economy (RE). However, this method should be criticized due to its theoretical defect and curvilinear relationship indicated by the allometric scaling, although no consensus has been achieved on the generally accepted exponent b value of body weight. Therefore, this study aimed to provide a quantitative synthesis of the reported exponents used to scale VO2 to body weight. Six electronic databases were searched based on related terms. Inclusion criteria involved human cardiopulmonary testing data, derived exponents, and reported precision statistics. The random-effects model was applied to statistically analyze exponent b. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses were conducted to explore the potential factors contributing to variation in b values. The probability of the true exponent being below 1 in future studies was calculated. The estimated b values were all below 1
and aligned with the 3/4 power law, except for the 95 % prediction interval of the estimated fat�free body weight exponent b. A publication bias and a slightly greater I
2 and τ statistic were also
observed in the fat-free body weight study cohort. The estimated probabilities of the true body
weight exponent, full body weight exponent, and fat-free body weight exponent being lower than
1 were 93.8 % (likely), 95.1 % (very likely), and 94.5 % (likely) respectively. ‘Sex difference’, ‘age
category’, ‘sporting background’, and ‘testing modality’ were four potential but critical variables
that impacted exponent b. Overall, allometric-scaled RE should be measured by full body weight
with exponent b raised to 3/4.
Background
Running biomechanics is considered an important determinant of running economy (RE). However, studies examining associations between running biomechanics and RE report inconsistent findings.
Objective
The aim of this systematic review was to determine associations between running biomechanics and RE and explore potential causes of inconsistency.
Methods
Three databases were searched and monitored up to April 2023. Observational studies were included if they (i) examined associations between running biomechanics and RE, or (ii) compared running biomechanics between groups differing in RE, or (iii) compared RE between groups differing in running biomechanics during level, constant-speed, and submaximal running in healthy humans (18–65 years). Risk of bias was assessed using a modified tool for observational studies and considered in the results interpretation using GRADE. Meta-analyses were performed when two or more studies reported on the same outcome. Meta-regressions were used to explore heterogeneity with speed, coefficient of variation of height, mass, and age as continuous outcomes, and standardization of running shoes, oxygen versus energetic cost, and correction for resting oxygen or energy cost as categorical outcomes.
Results
Fifty-one studies (n = 1115 participants) were included. Most spatiotemporal outcomes showed trivial and non-significant associations with RE: contact time r = − 0.02 (95% confidence interval [CI] − 0.15 to 0.12); flight time r = 0.11 (− 0.09 to 0.32); stride time r = 0.01 (− 0.8 to 0.50); duty factor r = − 0.06 (− 0.18 to 0.06); stride length r = 0.12 (− 0.15 to 0.38), and swing time r = 0.12 (− 0.13 to 0.36). A higher cadence showed a small significant association with a lower oxygen/energy cost (r = − 0.20 [− 0.35 to − 0.05]). A smaller vertical displacement and higher vertical and leg stiffness showed significant moderate associations with lower oxygen/energy cost (r = 0.35, − 0.31, − 0.28, respectively). Ankle, knee, and hip angles at initial contact, midstance or toe-off as well as their range of motion, peak vertical ground reaction force, mechanical work variables, and electromyographic activation were not significantly associated with RE, although potentially relevant trends were observed for some outcomes.
Conclusions
Running biomechanics can explain 4–12% of the between-individual variation in RE when considered in isolation, with this magnitude potentially increasing when combining different variables. Implications for athletes, coaches, wearable technology, and researchers are discussed in the review.
Protocol registration
https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/293ND (OpenScience Framework).
Problématique
La question qui se pose alors est de savoir si l’optimisation du profil force-vitesse vertical, par du renforcement musculaire spécifique et individualisé, influencerait naturellement la biomécanique de course et ainsi l’économie de course, chez le coureur expert de longue distance.
Méthode
Pour ce faire, deux groupes de participants (Contrôle et Expérimental) ont réalisé deux batteries de tests comprenant une mesure du profil force-vitesse vertical et un test de course à pied à vitesse constante sur tapis (≈85 % VMA), entrecoupées de 8 à 45 jours, durant lesquels le groupe Expérimental a suivi un programme de renforcement musculaire des membres inférieurs, réalisé au JC Iten Training Camp (Kenya).
Pour ces tests, nous avons utilisés les applications smartphone My Jump 2 (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2015) et Runmatic (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2017), vérifiées scientifiquement, mais également une barre de squat avec poids et un tapis de course motorisé.
Nous avons mesuré les évolutions entre les données issues des tests pré- et post-renforcement musculaire spécifique, pour le groupe Expérimental et comparé les groupes entre eux (avec ou sans entraînement).
Le protocole expérimental était divisé en 2 phases principales :
Une phase de tests sur la production de puissance en saut et la biomécanique de course
Une phase d’optimisation du profil force-vitesse par du renforcement musculaire spécifique
Conclusion
Cette étude a mis en exergue significativement (p < 0,05) l’idée selon laquelle l’optimisation du profil force-vitesse vertical (-13,3 pts) conduirait à une modification des facteurs biomécaniques en course à pied tels que le temps de vol (- 6,0 %), l’oscillation verticale (- 3,2 %) et la force maximale relative (- 2,5 %). En optimisant le versant neuromusculaire, ce travail de renforcement musculaire spécifique amènerait donc à une meilleure économie de course sur le plan biomécanique.
Compte tenu des résultats obtenus, des travaux de recherches complémentaires sont envisageables en suivant les perspectives d’améliorations énoncées précédemment et, notamment, en validant les résultats sur un groupe de participants plus conséquent en ajoutant une mesure de V̇O2/V̇CO2 pour confirmer cette meilleure économie de course sur le plan cardiorespiratoire.
Exercises that involve plyometrics are typically broken up into a stretch-shortening cycle with three phases: an eccentric phase (rapid muscle lengthening), an amortization phase (short resting interval), and a concentric phase (explosive muscle shortening). How quickly an athlete transitions from the eccentric to the concentric phase is a measure of his power. Plyometric training (PT) affects the neuromuscular components of the body for maximum contraction of muscle in minimum time. Soccer is a multidimensional sport and requires various strength training, endurance training, power and agility training, and soccer tactical training. Considering all facts, PT has got a strong tendency to develop cardiovascular and neuromuscular fitness. PT improves VO2 max, explosive strength, linear sprint speed, effective kicking, endurance, agility, soccer skills, and vertical jump ability in athletes of any age. PT improves tendon strengthening and increases muscle elasticity, which results in avoiding injuries.
Abstract
Objective Resistance training is a fundamental method for inducing muscle growth, enhancing functional capacity, and preventing injuries among athletes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an eight-week resistance training program on the performance progress of young sprint runners.
Methods This semi-experimental study involved the selection of 34 young runners who were then randomly assigned to either a training group or a control group. The exercise group underwent resistance training sessions for eight weeks. Parameters including absolute power, relative power, lower limb power, and 100m sprint records were analyzed. The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANCOVA) test was employed to compare the pre-test and post-test results of the two groups. Additionally, the correlated t-test was used to compare post-test results between the groups. The paired t-test was also utilized to compare pre-test and post-test results within the training group. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 26.
Results The findings revealed that the exercise group, which underwent resistance exercises with weights for eight weeks, experienced a significant improvement compared to the control group. Furthermore, factors such as absolute strength, relative strength, lower limb strength, and limb telemetry showed significant increases. Additionally, athletes in the training group achieved faster sprint records.
Conclusion Resistance training promotes muscle hypertrophy, enhances power, and improves sprint records. Therefore, it can be concluded that athletes involved in track and field events utilize resistance training as part of their preparation to enhance performance and achieve record-breaking results.
Keywords: Power, Track and field, Absolute strength, Relative strength
Background
Running economy is defined as the energy demand at submaximal running speed, a key determinant of overall running performance. Strength training can improve running economy, although the magnitude of its effect may depend on factors such as the strength training method and the speed at which running economy is assessed.
Aim
To compare the effect of different strength training methods (e.g., high loads, plyometric, combined methods) on the running economy in middle- and long-distance runners, over different running speeds, through a systematic review with meta-analysis.
Methods
A systematic search was conducted across several electronic databases including Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and SCOPUS. Using different keywords and Boolean operators for the search, all articles indexed up to November 2022 were considered for inclusion. In addition, the PICOS criteria were applied: Population: middle- and long-distance runners, without restriction on sex or training/competitive level; Intervention: application of a strength training method for ≥ 3 weeks (i.e., high loads (≥ 80% of one repetition maximum); submaximal loads [40–79% of one repetition maximum); plyometric; isometric; combined methods (i.e., two or more methods); Comparator: control group that performed endurance running training but did not receive strength training or received it with low loads (< 40% of one repetition maximum); Outcome: running economy, measured before and after a strength training intervention programme; Study design: randomized and non-randomized controlled studies. Certainty of evidence was assessed with the GRADE approach. A three-level random-effects meta-analysis and moderator analysis were performed using R software (version 4.2.1).
Results
The certainty of the evidence was found to be moderate for high load training, submaximal load training, plyometric training and isometric training methods and low for combined methods. The studies included 195 moderately trained, 272 well trained, and 185 highly trained athletes. The strength training programmes were between 6 and 24 weeks’ duration, with one to four sessions executed per week. The high load and combined methods induced small (ES = − 0.266, p = 0.039) and moderate (ES = − 0.426, p = 0.018) improvements in running economy at speeds from 8.64 to 17.85 km/h and 10.00 to 14.45 km/h, respectively. Plyometric training improved running economy at speeds ≤ 12.00 km/h (small effect, ES = − 0.307, p = 0.028, β1 = 0.470, p = 0.017). Compared to control groups, no improvement in running economy (assessed speed: 10.00 to 15.28 and 9.75 to 16.00 km/h, respectively) was noted after either submaximal or isometric strength training (all, p > 0.131). The moderator analyses showed that running speed (β1 = − 0.117, p = 0.027) and VO2max (β1 = − 0.040, p = 0.020) modulated the effect of high load strength training on running economy (i.e., greater improvements at higher speeds and higher VO2max).
Conclusions
Compared to a control condition, strength training with high loads, plyometric training, and a combination of strength training methods may improve running economy in middle- and long-distance runners. Other methods such as submaximal load training and isometric strength training seem less effective to improve running economy in this population. Of note, the data derived from this systematic review suggest that although both high load training and plyometric training may improve running economy, plyometric training might be effective at lower speeds (i.e., ≤ 12.00 km/h) and high load strength training might be particularly effective in improving running economy (i) in athletes with a high VO2max, and (ii) at high running speeds.
Protocol Registration
The original protocol was registered (https://osf.io/gyeku) at the Open Science Framework.
Background
First evidence indicates that the supplementation of specific collagen peptides (SCP) is associated with a significant improvement in running performance in physically active women; however, it is unclear if the same is true in males. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of a concurrent training program including 60 min of continuous moderate intensity running training and 15 min of dynamic resistance training combined with supplementation of SCP on parameters of running performance in moderately trained males.
Methods
In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial, participants performed a 12 weeks concurrent training and ingested 15 g of SCP [treatment group (TG)] or placebo [control group (CG)] daily. Before and after the intervention, running endurance performance was measured by a 1-h time trial on a running track. Velocity at the lactate threshold (VLT) and at the individual anaerobic threshold (VIAT) were assessed on a treadmill ergometer. Body composition was evaluated by bioelectrical impedance analysis.
Results
Thirty-two men (28.4 ± 5.2 years) completed the study and were included in the analysis. After 12 weeks, TG had a statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) higher increase in running distance (1727 ± 705 m) compared to the CG (1018 ± 976 m) in the time trial. VLT increased in the TG by 0.680 ± 1.27 km h⁻¹ and slightly decreased by − 0.135 ± 0.978 km h⁻¹ in the CG, resulting in statistically significant group differences (p ≤ 0.05). A significantly higher improvement in VIAT (p ≤ 0.05) was shown in the TG compared with the CG only (1.660 ± 1.022 km h⁻¹ vs 0.606 ± 0.974 km h⁻¹; p ≤ 0.01). Fat mass decreased (TG − 1.7 ± 1.6 kg; CG − 1.2 ± 2.0 kg) and fat free mass increased (TG 0.2 ± 1.2 kg; CG 0.5 ± 1.3 kg) in both groups with no significant group differences.
Conclusion
In summary, supplementation with 15 g of SCP improved running performance in a 1-h time trial and enhanced indicators of endurance capacity at submaximal exercise intensities such as an increased velocity at the lactate as well as the anaerobic threshold more effectively than CT alone.
Trial registration: ETK: 123/17; DRKS-ID: DRKS00015529 (Registered 07 November 2018—Retrospectively registered); https://drks.de/search/de/trial/DRKS00015529
The aim of this study was to verify post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) in jumping and sprinting after two endurance volume-equated running protocols with different intensities, in runners vs. active individuals. Nine recreational runners (age: 34.5 ± 9.3 years, body mass: 73.1 ± 11.9 kg, body height: 1.76 ± 0.06 m, 17.4 ± 4.4 %body fat; maximum aerobic speed [MAS]: 16.4 ± 1.0 km•h⁻¹), and 9 active individuals (age: 34.1 ± 9.4 years; body mass: 83.2 ± 7.7 kg; body height: 1.79 ± 0.06 m; 25.6 ± 5.4 %body fat; MAS: 13.3 ± 1.2 km•h⁻¹) volunteered for participation. The evaluations were performed over three days as follows: 1) anthropometric measures, physical fitness tests, and the University of Montreal Track Test (UMTT) to determine MAS and the distance to be covered in the running protocols; 2 and 3) the countermovement jump (CMJ) and the flying 20-m sprint (SPRINT) were assessed pre- and post-running at 70% of MAS or a time trial race (TTR), equated by volume and completed in random order. A three-way ANOVA (time*group*running) was performed to analyze the PAPE effects. The results showed a time effect (F = 10 .716; p < 0.01) and a group*running interaction (F = 12.094; p < 0.01) for the CMJ, indicating that active individuals demonstrated PAPE after running at 70% of MAS, while for runners both running interventions (70% of MAS and TTR) induced PAPE in CMJ performances. For the SPRINT, a time*group interaction (F = 4.790; p = 0.044) and a group effect were observed, with runners showing greater SPRINT performances than active individuals. From the current results, it can be suggested that training background and intensity can modulate PAPE responses in jumping and sprinting after volume-equated running protocols at different intensities.
A regular endurance training program may elicit different adaptations compared to an isolated training method. In this study, we analyzed the effects of 8 weeks of a regular endurance training program on running economy (RE), particularly neuromuscular and biomechanical parameters, in runners of different athletic abilities. Twenty-four male runners were divided into two groups: well-trained (n=12) and recreational (n=12). Both groups completed a 4-min running bout at 13 and 17 km·h-1, respectively, for the recreational and well-trained group, and a 5-jump plyometric test pre-post intervention. During the training program, participants completed low-intensity continuous sessions, high-intensity interval training sessions, and auxiliary strength training sessions. RE, measured as oxygen cost and energy cost, decreased by 6.15% (p=0.006) and 5.11% (p=0.043), respectively, in the well-trained group. In the recreational group, energy cost of running, respiratory exchange ratio, and leg stiffness decreased by 5.08% (p=0.035), 7.61% (p=0.003), and 10.59% (p=0.017), respectively, while ground contact time increased by 3.34% (p=0.012). The maximum height of the 5-jump plyometric test decreased by 4.55% (p=0.018) in the recreational group. We suggest that 8 weeks of regular endurance training leads to an improvement of ~5% in RE in recreational and well-trained runners with different physiological adaptations between groups and few changes in biomechanical and neuromuscular parameters only in recreational runners.
Leg stiffness, corresponds to the spring constant in the spring-mass model of running behavior, suggesting that increasing leg stiffness is an effective training strategy. Although running with forefoot strike pattern is associated with greater leg stiffness when measured without considering the translating of the center of foot pressure (CoP) during the stance phase, more rigorous measurement methods are needed to validate the results. In this study, leg stiffness was measured in 8 forefoot and 9 rearfoot strike well-trained runners based on two different methods: one based on actual center of mass (CoM) position and CoP position during running, and the other without incorporating CoP translating. The difference in leg stiffness between two method (Δleg stiffness) was calculated and Δleg stiffness between groups was examined using t-test. The results showed that Δleg stiffness was significantly greater (p < 0.05) in rearfoot strike runners. These results indicate that leg stiffness without incorporating CoP translating during running is underestimated, especially in runners with rearfoot strike patterns. In addition, a comparison of 17 well-trained runners and 14 untrained runners showed that leg stiffness based on actual CoM and CoP position was significantly greater (p < 0.05) in the group of well-trained runners, confirming that leg stiffness is still a running performance factor, even when the influence of foot strike patterns is excluded.
We investigated the effects of performing a period of resistance training (RT) on the performance and molecular adaptations to a subsequent period of endurance training (ET). Twenty‐five young adults were divided into an RT+ET group (n = 13), which underwent 7 weeks of RT followed by 7 weeks of ET, and an ET‐only group (n = 12), which performed 7 weeks of ET. Body composition, endurance performance and muscle biopsies were collected before RT (T1, baseline for RT+ET), before ET (T2, after RT for RT+ET and baseline for ET) and after ET (T3). Immunohistochemistry was performed to determine fibre cross‐sectional area (fCSA), myonuclear content, myonuclear domain size, satellite cell number and mitochondrial content. Western blots were used to quantify markers of mitochondrial remodelling. Citrate synthase activity and markers of ribosome content were also investigated. RT improved body composition and strength, increased vastus lateralis thickness, mixed and type II fCSA, myonuclear number, markers of ribosome content, and satellite cell content (P < 0.050). In response to ET, both groups similarly decreased body fat percentage (P < 0.0001) and improved endurance performance (e.g. V̇O2max, and speed at which the onset of blood lactate accumulation occurred, P < 0.0001). Levels of mitochondrial complexes I–IV in the ET‐only group increased 32–66%, while those in the RT+ET group increased 1–11% (time, P < 0.050). Additionally, mixed fibre relative mitochondrial content increased 15% in the ET‐only group but decreased 13% in the RT+ET group (interaction, P = 0.043). In conclusion, RT performed prior to ET had no additional benefits to ET adaptations. Moreover, prior RT seemed to impair mitochondrial adaptations to ET. image
Key points
Resistance training is largely underappreciated as a method to improve endurance performance, despite reports showing it may improve mitochondrial function.
Although several concurrent training studies are available, in this study we investigated the effects of performing a period of resistance training on the performance and molecular adaptations to subsequent endurance training.
Prior resistance training did not improve endurance performance and impaired most mitochondrial adaptations to subsequent endurance training, but this effect may have been a result of detraining from resistance training.
Helén, J, Kyröläinen, H, Ojanen, T, Pihlainen, K, Santtila, M, Heikkinen, R, and Vaara, JP. High-intensity functional training induces superior training adaptations compared with traditional military physical training. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2023-This study examined the effectiveness of concurrent strength and endurance training with an emphasis on high-intensity functional training (HIFT) during military service. Voluntary male conscripts (aged 18-28 years) were placed in either an experimental (EXP: n = 50-66) or a control (CON: n = 50-67) group. The training for the EXP group included HIFT using body mass, sandbags, and kettlebells. The CON group trained according to the current practice. Physical performance and body composition were assessed at baseline (PRE), at week 10 (MID), and after (POST) the 19-week training period. Significance was set at p < 0.05. The total distance covered in a 12-minute running test increased in both groups, but the change in EXP was superior to the change in CON (11.6%, ES: 0.79 vs. 5.7%, ES: 0.33; p = 0.027). Maximal strength and power characteristics increased in EXP (3.1-5.0%), whereas no improvements were observed in CON. Conscripts with the highest initial fitness showed no improvements in physical performance in either group. Body mass and waist circumference decreased in EXP, whereas CON showed an increase in muscle mass. These findings suggest that HIFT is an effective and time-efficient approach to improve soldiers' aerobic fitness during military service. For the optimal development of strength, the training equipment used may not have provided sufficient and progressive loading to yield considerable strength adaptations. More focus should be placed on sufficient intensity and volume in both strength and endurance training, especially for the most fit soldiers.
Middle- and long-distance running performance is determined mainly by physiological parameters such as maximal oxygen uptake, lactate threshold (LT) and running economy (RE). As RE is influenced by biomechanical factors, middle- and long-distance running performance is also influenced by the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) ability of the lower extremity. However, the relationship between the SSC ability of the lower extremity represented as the repeated rebound jump (RJ) index or the vertical counter movement jump (CMJ) height and middle- and long-distance running performance among high school middle- and long-distance runners with various performance levels is unclear. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the SSC ability of the lower extremity and middle- and long-distance running performance and LT among high school male middle- and long-distance runners. A total of 41 high school male middle- and long-distance runners (age: 17.00 ± 0.82 years, height: 170.62 ± 5.63 cm, body mass: 54.39 ± 4.85 kg) participated. Their demographics, training profiles and seasonal best records over 1500 m and 5000 m (1500m SB and 5000m SB, respectively) were collected. Then they performed the RJ and CMJ test and an incremental running test with blood lactate measurements on an outdoor running track. The RJ index, CMJ height and running speeds corresponding to blood lactate concentrations of 2 mmol/L (vLT) and 4 mmol/L (vOBLA) were then calculated. The relationships between the variables were examined using Pearson's correlation coefficient at a significance level of p<0.05. The subjects' 1500m SB was within the range 3 '47-4'32, and their 5000m SB was within the range 14'09-16'04. The average values of the RJ index and CMJ height were 2.13 ± 0.36 and 31.14 ± 3.56, respectively. The RJ index was significantly correlated with 1500m SB (r=-0.55), vLT (r=0.33) and vOBLA (r=0.40), but was not significantly correlated with 5000m SB. 1500m SB and 5000m SB were significantly correlated with vLT and vOBLA, respectively (r=-0.71-0.87). CMJ height was not significantly correlated with 1500m SB, 5000m SB, vLT or vOBLA. The data indicated that fast SSC ability of the lower extremity is related to performance over a short competition time and distance, such as 1500 m, among high school middle- and long-distance runners, and also related to some physiological parameters at submaximal running speeds. Future research should consider how to effectively perform plyometric training for middle- and long-distance runners.
In 1923, Hill and Lupton pointed out that for Hill himself, ‘the rate of oxygen intake due to exercise increases as speed increases, reaching a maximum for the speeds beyond about 256 m/min. At this particular speed, for which no further increases in O2 intake can occur, the heart, lungs, circulation, and the diffusion of oxygen to the active muscle-fibres have attained their maximum activity. At higher speeds the requirement of the body for oxygen is far higher but cannot be satisfied, and the oxygen debt continuously increases’.
In 1975, this minimal velocity which elicits maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) was called ‘critical speed’ and was used to measure the maximal aerobic capacity (max Eox), i.e. the total oxygen consumed at V̇O2max. This should not be confused with the term ‘critical power’ which is closest to the power output at the ‘lactate threshold’.
In 1984, the term ‘velocity at V̇O2max’ and the abbreviation ‘vV̇O2max’ was introduced. It was reported that vV̇O2max is a useful variable that combines V̇O2max and economy into a single factor which can identify aerobic differences between various runners or categories of runners. vV̇O2max explained individual differences in performance that V̇O2max or running economy alone did not. Following that, the concept of a maximal aerobic running velocity (Vamax in m/sec) was formulated. This was a running velocity at which V̇O2max occurred and was calculated as the ratio between V̇O2max (ml/kg/min) minus oxygen consumption at rest, and the energy cost of running (ml/kg/sec).
There are many ways to determine the velocity associated with V̇O2max making it difficult to compare maintenance times. In fact, the time to exhaustion (tlim) at vV̇O2max is reproducible in an individual, however, there is a great variability among individuals with a low coefficient of variation for vV̇O2max. For an average value of about 6 minutes, the coefficient of variation is about 25%. It seems that the lactate threshold which is correlated with the tlim at vV̇O2max can explain this difference among individuals, the role of the anaerobic contribution being significant.
An inverse relationship has been found between tlim at vV̇O2max and V̇O2max and a positive one between vV̇O2max and the velocity at the lactate threshold expressed as a fraction of vV̇O2max. These results are similar for different sports (e.g. running, cycling, kayaking, swimming). It seems that the real time spent at V̇O2max is significantly different from an exhaustive run at a velocity close to vV̇O2max (105% vV̇O2max). However, the minimal velocity which elicits V̇O2maxand the tlim at this velocity appear to convey valuable information when analysing a runner’s performance over 1500m to a marathon.
Impairment in strength development has been demonstrated with combined strength and endurance training as compared with strength training alone. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of combining conventional 3 d[middle dot]wk-1 strength and endurance training on the compatibility of improving both [latin capital V with dot above]O2peak and strength performance simultaneously. Sedentary adult males, randomly assigned to one of three groups (N = 10 each), completed 10 wk of training. A strength-only (S) group performed eight weight-training exercises (4 sets/exercise, 5-7 repetitions/set), an endurance-only (E) group performed continuous cycle exercise (50 min at 70% heart rate reserve), and a combined (C) group performed the same S and E exercise in a single session. S and C groups demonstrated similar increases (P < 0.0167) in 1RM squat (23% and 22%) and bench press (18% for both groups), in maximal isometric knee extension torque (12% and 7%), in maximal vertical jump (6% and 9%), and in fat-free mass (3% and 5%). E training did not induce changes in any of these variables. [latin capital V with dot above]O2peak (ml[middle dot]kg-1min-1) increased (P < 0.01) similarity in both E (18%) and C (16%) groups. Results indicate 3 d[middle dot]wk-1 combined training can induce substantial concurrent and compatible increases in [latin capital V with dot above]O2peak and strength performance.
(C)1995The American College of Sports Medicine
During running, the behaviour of the support leg was studied by modelling the runner using an oscillating system composed of a spring (the leg) and of a mass (the body mass). This model was applied to eight middle-distance runners running on a level treadmill at a velocity corresponding to 90% of their maximal aerobic velocity [mean 5.10 (SD 0.33) m · s−1]. Their energy cost of running (C
r
), was determined from the measurement of O2 consumption. The work, the stiffness and the resonant frequency of both legs were computed from measurements performed with a kinematic arm. The C
r
was significantly related to the stiffness (P < 0.05, r = −0.80) and the absolute difference between the resonant frequency and the step frequency (P < 0.05, r = 0.79) computed for the leg producing the highest positive work. Neither of these significant relationships were obtained when analysing data from the other leg probably because of the work asymmetry observed between legs. It was concluded that the spring-mass model is a good approach further to understand mechanisms underlying the interindividual differences in C
r
.
The impact of adding heavy-resistance training to increase leg-muscle strength was studied in eight cycling- and running-trained subjects who were already at a steady-state level of performance. Strength training was performed 3 days/wk for 10 wk, whereas endurance training remained constant during this phase. After 10 wk, leg strength was increased by an average of 30%, but thigh girth and biopsied vastus lateralis muscle fiber areas (fast and slow twitch) and citrate synthase activities were unchanged. Maximal O2 uptake (VO2max) was also unchanged by heavy-resistance training during cycling (55 ml.kg-1.min-1) and treadmill running (60 ml.kg-1.min-1); however, short-term endurance (4-8 min) was increased by 11 and 13% (P less than 0.05) during cycling and running, respectively. Long-term cycling to exhaustion at 80% VO2max increased from 71 to 85 min (P less than 0.05) after the addition of strength training, whereas long-term running (10 km times) results were inconclusive. These data do not demonstrate any negative performance effects of adding heavy-resistance training to ongoing endurance-training regimens. They indicate that certain types of endurance performance, particularly those requiring fast-twitch fiber recruitment, can be improved by strength-training supplementation.
This study examined the relationship between the respiratory capacity of an individual's skeletal muscle and the work rate at which blood lactate accumulation begins (lactate threshold). Comparisons were also made among fiber type, VO2max, and the lactate threshold. Muscle biopsies were taken from the vastus lateralis muscle for determination of respiratory capacity and fiber type (myosin ATPase). The lactate threshold was assessed in terms of both the absolute work rate (VO2) and relative work rate (%VO2max). The capacity of muscle homogenates to oxidize pyruvate was significantly (P less than 0.01) related to the absolute (r = 0.94) and relative (r = 0.83) lactate thresholds. Significant positive correlations (P less than 0.01) were also found between the percent of slow-twitch fibers and absolute (r = 0.74) and relative (r = 0.70) lactate thresholds. The results suggest that the muscle's respiratory capacity is of primary importance in determining the work rate at which blood lactate accumulation begins. They also suggest that the proportion of slow-twitch fibers may play an important role in determining the relative lactate threshold.
The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between running economy and distance running performance in highly trained and experienced distance runners of comparable ability. Oxygen uptake (Vo2) during steady-state and maximal aerobic power (Vo2max) were measured during treadmill running using the open-circuit method. Distance running performance was determined in a nationally prominent 10 km race; all subjects (12 males) placed among the top 19 finishers. The subjects averaged 32.1 min on the 10 km run, 71.7 ml.kg-1.min-1 for Vo2max, and 44.7, 50.3, and 55.9 ml.kg-1.min-1 for steady-state Vo2 at three running paces (241, 268, and 295 m.min-1). The relationship between Vo2max and distance running performance was r = -0.12 (p = 0.35). The relationship between steady-state Vo2 at 241, 268 and 295 m.min-1 and 10 km time were r = 0.83, 0.82, and 0.79 (p < 0.01), respectively. Within this elite cluster of finishers, 65.4% of the variation observed in race performance time on the 10 km run could be explained by variation in running economy. It was concluded that among highly trained and experienced runners of comparable ability and similar Vo2max, running economy accounts for a large and significant amount of the variation observed in performance on a 10 km race.
Oxygen consumption (VO2) and blood lactate concentration were determined during constant-speed track running on 16 runners of intermediate level competing in middle distances (0.8-5.0 km). The energy cost of track running per unit distance (Cr) was then obtained from the ratio of steady-state VO2, corrected for lactate production, to speed; it was found to be independent of speed, its overall mean being 3.72 +/- 0.24 J.kg-1 x m-1 (n = 58; 1 ml O2 = 20.9 J). Maximal VO2 (VO2max) was also measured on the same subjects. Theoretical record times were then calculated for each distance and subject and compared with actual seasonal best performances as follows. The maximal metabolic power (Er max) a subject can maintain in running is a known function of VO2max and maximal anaerobic capacity and of the effort duration to exhaustion (te). Er max was then calculated as a function of te from VO2max, assuming a standard value for maximal anaerobic capacity. The metabolic power requirement (Er) necessary to cover a given distance (d) was calculated as a function of performance time (t) from the product Crdt-1 = Er. The time values that solve the equality Er max(te) = Er(t), assumed to yield the theoretical best t, were obtained by an iterative procedure for any given subject and distance and compared with actual records.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of sprint training on the anaerobic performance characteristics in well-trained sprint runners employing the maximal anaerobic running test (MART). Another purpose was to study the applicability of MART in the prescription of sprint training. Nine male sprint runners performed the MART before and after a 10-week intensive training period. The MART consisted of n.20-s runs on a treadmill with a 100-s recovery between the runs. Initial power, expressed as O2 demand (74 ml.kg-1.min-1), was increased by 6 ml.kg-1.min-1 for each consecutive run until exhaustion. Blood lactate concentration was measured at rest and after each run. Maximal power (Pmax), power at 10 mM (P10mM) and 3 mM (P3mM) blood lactate levels, and peak blood lactate concentration (peak BLa) were determined from the blood lactate vs O2 demand curve. The Pmax increased from 118.6 +/- 6.0 to 122.6 +/- 4.9 ml kg-1.min-1 (P = 0.009) during the training period and the changes of Pmax correlated positively with the volume of bounding exercises (r = 0.64; p = 0.032). The volume of extensive interval training correlated positively with the changes of P3mM (r = 0.62; p = 0.040) and negatively with the changes of P[10mM-3mM] (r = -0.68; p = 0.016) and peak BLa (r = -0.69; p = 0.019) during the particular training period. A positive correlation was also found between the changes of CMJrest and the volume of bounding and strength training (r = 0.60; p = 0.044). The present results suggested that sprint training induces an adaptive increase in the maximal anaerobic running power in well-trained male sprint runners. Furthermore, correlation analysis revealed that individual changes in P3mM, peak BLa, Pmax and CMJrest were related to the volume of specific training methods. Therefore we could conclude that the results of the MART could provide guidance in prescribing training for sprint running.
In 1923, Hill and Lupton pointed out that for Hill himself, 'the rate of oxygen intake due to exercise increases as speed increases, reaching a maximum for the speeds beyond about 256 m/min. At this particular speed, for which no further increases in O2 intake can occur, the heart, lungs, circulation, and the diffusion of oxygen to the active muscle-fibres have attained their maximum activity. At higher speeds the requirement of the body for oxygen is far higher but cannot be satisfied, and the oxygen debt continuously increases'. In 1975, this minimal velocity which elicits maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) was called 'critical speed' and was used to measure the maximal aerobic capacity (max Eox), i.e. the total oxygen consumed at VO2max. This should not be confused with the term 'critical power' which is closes to the power output at the 'lactate threshold'. In 1984, the term 'velocity at VO2max' and the abbreviation 'vVO2max' was introduced. It was reported that vVO2max is a useful variable that combines VO2max and economy into a single factor which can identify aerobic differences between various runners or categories of runners. vVO2max explained individual differences in performance that VO2max or running economy alone did not. Following that, the concept of a maximal aerobic running velocity (Vamax in m/sec) was formulated. This was a running velocity at which VO2max occurred and was calculated as the ratio between VO2max (ml/kg/min) minus oxygen consumption at rest, and the energy cost of running (ml/kg/sec). There are many ways to determine the velocity associated with VO2max making it difficult to compare maintenance times. In fact, the time to exhaustion (tlim) at vVO2max is reproducible in an individual, however, there is a great variability among individuals with a low coefficient of variation for vVO2max. For an average value of about 6 minutes, the coefficient of variation is about 25%. It seems that the lactate threshold which is correlated with the tlim at vVO2max can explain this difference among individuals, the role of the anaerobic contribution being significant. An inverse relationship has been found between tlim at vVO2max and VO2max, and a positive one between vVO2max and the velocity at the lactate threshold expressed as a fraction of vVO2max. These results are similar for different sports (e.g. running, cycling, kayaking, swimming). It seems that the real time spent at VO2max is significantly different from an exhaustive run at a velocity close to vVO2max (105% vVO2max). However, the minimal velocity which elicits VO2max, and the tlim at this velocity appear to convey valuable information when analysing a runner's performance over 1500m to a marathon.
This paper explores whether there may be useful information in estimates of metabolic rates obtained from biomechanical calculations of mechanical power output. Thirteen men were analyzed as they passed a camera on each of three laps on an 11.8° uphill in the 30-km classical technique Olympic Nordic ski event. A 15-segment model was constructed; velocity, stride length, stride rate, mechanical power output, and from this latter measure an estimate of oxygen consumption, were obtained. The average lap velocity was 5.65 m•s⁻¹ (20 km•hr⁻¹), the film site velocity was 2.58 m•s⁻¹, and the correlation between them was 0.75. There were no significant differences from lap to lap in any variable, nor were there dramatic differences between the skiers in the top 14 compared with those finishing in 35th place or slower in stride length or stride rate. However, the faster skiers had estimated VO2 from 80 to 112 ml•kg⁻¹ • min⁻¹ on most laps while the slower skiers had values from 53 to 77. If a VO2 estimated from biomechanical data can ultimately be shown to be accurate, a rather useful tool may have been identified for coaches, athletes, and sport scientists that can be used during competition in endurance events.
To investigate the influence of explosive type strength training on electromyographic and force production characteristics of leg extensor muscle during concentric and various stretch-shortening cycle exercises, ten male subjects went through progressive training three times a week for 24 weeks. The training program consisted mainly of several jumping exercises performed without weights and with light extra weights. The training resulted in specific enhancement of the neuromuscular performance. This was demonstrated by great (p<0.001) improvements in the high velocity portions of the force-velocity curve measured both in the squatting (SJ) and counter movement jumping (CMJ) conditions. An increase of 21.2% (p<0.001) in the jumping height of SJ was noted during the training, while the corresponding increase in maximal strength was only 6.8% (p<0.05). Great (p<0.01-0.001) increases were also noted during the training in jumping heights and in various mechanical parameters in the positive work phases of the examined drop jumps in which high contraction velocities were utilized. The increases in explosive force production both in the pure concentric and in the examined stretch-shortening cycle exercise were accompanied by and correlated (p<0.05-0.01) with significant (p<0.0 5-0.01) increases in the neural activation (IEMG) of the vastus medialis and lateralis muscles. Only slight (ns.) changes were noted in the IEMG of the rectus femoris muscle. During a following 12-week detraining, significant (p<0.05) decreases observed in various parameters of explosive force production were correlated (p<0.05) with significant (p<0.05) decreases in the averaged IEMG of the leg extensors. The present findings indicate that considerable training-induced neural adaptations may take place, explaining the improvement of explosive force production, and that these changes differ greatly from e.g. high load strength training. The present findings thus further support the concept of specificity of training.
Effects of power training with stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) exercises on mechanical efficiency (ME) were investigated with 9 young women who trained 3 times a week for 4 months. The training included various types of jumping exercises. Before and after the training as well as after the detraining (2 months) the subjects performed 6 different submaximal exercises with a special sledge apparatus. Each exercise involved 60 muscle actions lasting for a total of 3 min per testing condition. The work intensities were determined individually according to the recordings of distance obtained during the single maximal concentric exercises. The training caused the greatest changes of ME in conditions of higher prestretch intensities. The ME values changed from 49.3 ± 12.9% to 55.4 ± 12.1% in pure eccentric exercises and from 39.5 ± 4.6% to 46.1 ± 5.0% in SSC exercises during the training. After the training, the subjects preactivated their leg extensor muscles earlier before the impact, and the eccentric working phase was more powerful, because of higher tendomuscular stiffness. Higher preactivation of the measured muscles, higher flexion of knee and increased dorsiflexion of ankle joints in the beginning of contact caused the increased stiffness, possibly through more powerful reflex activation. At the same time the metabolic demands of muscles decreased, causing the increases of ME.
In most of the training studies on different populations the effects of training have been investigated up to a frequency of five to six times per week and a duration of 45 min per session. These correspond to the training regimens of 15-yr-old cross-country skiers and, consequently, the results cannot be applied to older athletes. The maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) of cross-country skiers increases with age and training from about 55-60 to 75-80 ml.kg-1.min-1 between 15 and 25 yr of age. After 20 yr of age VO2max starts to level off, but elite skiers are able to increase VO2max further concomitantly with an increase in the volume of training and the volume of intensive training. The activity of oxidative enzymes in muscles of skiers is increased with training, but distance runners have had a higher oxidative capacity in their leg muscles. Although widely used by cross-country skiers, the training effects of roller skiing, skiwalking-skistriding, and long-distance training on skis are to a large extent unknown. However, intensive training at the intensity of "anaerobic threshold" or higher seems to be most effective in inducing improvements in maximal oxygen uptake; distance training at relatively low intensity seems to be most effective in producing improvements in the determinants of submaximal endurance.
Differences in maximal aerobic power (VO2max) between individuals have most often been attributed to central processes or processes involved in the uptake and transport of oxygen to the working muscle. This review examines the peripheral or muscular processes that may act as determinants of VO2max. Using progressive cycling exercise and electromyographic techniques, the muscular recruitment and rate coding strategies necessary to realize a VO2max are described. An analysis is also provided of the challenge imposed on the various excitation and contraction processes that occur in the individual muscle cells during progressive exercise. Finally, the review concludes by examining energy metabolic processes and whether it is the availability of oxygen that is limiting to the mitochondria or an inability of the mitochondria to use the available oxygen.
To determine the effects of 12 wk of strength training on lactate threshold (LT) and endurance performance, 18 healthy untrained males between 25 and 34 yr of age were randomly assigned to either strength training (N = 10) or control (N = 8) groups. Despite no changes in treadmill VO2max or cycle peak VO2, a 33 +/- 5% increase (P less than 0.001) in cycling time to exhaustion at 75% of peak VO2 was observed following training. No significant changes in cycling time were observed in the control group. There were significant reductions in plasma lactate concentration at all relative exercise intensities ranging between 55 and 75% of peak VO2 training. The improved endurance performance was associated with a 12% increase in LT (r = 0.78, P less than 0.001). The strength training program resulted in significant improvements (P less than 0.001) of 31 +/- 5% and 35 +/- 7% in isokinetic peak torque values for leg extension and flexion, respectively, at a velocity of 30 degrees.s-1. There were also significant increases in 1-RM values of 30 +/- 4% (P less than 0.001) for leg extension, 52 +/- 6% (P less than 0.001) for leg flexion, and 20 +/- 4% (P less than 0.001) for the bench press. These findings indicate that strength training improves cycle endurance performance independently of changes in VO2max. This improved performance appears to be related to increases in LT and leg strength.
The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between anaerobic ability and middle distance running performance. Ten runners of similar performance capacities (5 km times: 16.72, SE 0.2 min) were examined during 4 weeks of controlled training. The runners performed a battery of tests each week [maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max), vertical jump, and Margaria power run] and raced 5 km three times (weeks 1, 2, 4) on an indoor 200-m track (all subjects competing). Regression analysis revealed that the combination of time to exhaustion (TTE) during theVO2max test (r
2=0.63) and measures from the Margaria power test (W·kg−1,r
2=0.18 ; W,r
2=0.05) accounted for 86% of the total variance in race times (P<0.05). Regression analysis demonstrated that TTE was influenced by both anaerobic ability [vertical jump, power (W·kg−1) and aerobic capacity (VO2max, ml·kg−1·min−1)]. These results indicate that the anaerobic systems influence middle distance performance in runners of similar abilities.
To investigate the effects of a combination of simultaneous strength and endurance training on selected neuromuscular and aerobic performance characteristics seven male cross-country skiers underwent training for a period of 6 weeks. The experimental group trained 6-9 times per week with a programme consisting of 34% explosive type strength training and 66% endurance training during the first 3 weeks of the experiment and 42% and 58% respectively during the last 3 weeks of the experiment. The total volume of training of the control group (eight skiers) was of the same magnitude but consisted of 85% pure endurance training and 15% endurance type strength training. The experimental training regime resulted in specific changes in neuromuscular performance. This was demonstrated by improvements (P less than 0.01) in the maximal heights of rise of the centre of gravity in the squat and countermovement jumps. A significant decrease (P less than 0.05) took place also in the time of rapid isometric force production during experimental training, while no changes occurred in the maximal force of the trained muscles. Aerobic performance characteristics of the experimental group did not change during the experimental training period. No significant changes occurred in neuromuscular or aerobic performance characteristics in the control group. These findings indicated that training-induced improvements in explosive force production may not be fully inhibited by this kind of aerobic training. They also suggested that endurance athletes could undertake explosive type strength training programmes without a concomitant reduction in aerobic capacity, if the overall loading of training were within predefined limits.
Twenty specialist marathon runners and 23 specialist ultra-marathon runners underwent maximal exercise testing to determine the relative value of maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max), peak treadmill running velocity, running velocity at the lactate turnpoint, VO2 at 16 km h-1, % VO2max at 16 km h-1, and running time in other races, for predicting performance in races of 10-90 km. Race time at 10 or 21.1 km was the best predictor of performance at 42.2 km in specialist marathon runners and at 42.2 and 90 km in specialist ultra-marathon runners (r = 0.91-0.97). Peak treadmill running velocity was the best laboratory-measured predictor of performance (r = -0.88(-)-0.94) at all distances in ultra-marathon specialists and at all distances except 42.2 km in marathon specialists. Other predictive variables were running velocity at the lactate turnpoint (r = -0.80(-)-0.92); % VO2max at 16 km h-1 (r = 0.76-0.90) and VO2max (r = 0.55(-)-0.86). Peak blood lactate concentrations (r = 0.68-0.71) and VO2 at 16 km h-1 (r = 0.10-0.61) were less good predictors. These data indicate: (i) that in groups of trained long distance runners, the physiological factors that determine success in races of 10-90 km are the same; thus there may not be variables that predict success uniquely in either 10 km, marathon or ultra-marathon runners, and (ii) that peak treadmill running velocity is at least as good a predictor of running performance as is the lactate turnpoint. Factors that determine the peak treadmill running velocity are not known but are not likely to be related to maximum rates of muscle oxygen utilization.
Previous research (study 1) has shown that a significant relationship exists between 10 km run time (RT) and predicted running velocity at VO2max (vVO2max) among well-trained males heterogeneous in VO2max. Since competitive runners often display a homogeneous fitness profile, the purpose of this study was to determine the association between 10 km RT and vVO2max among a group of trained runners exhibiting nearly identical VO2max values (study 2). Running economy (RE), vVO2max, and velocity at a 4 mM blood lactate concentration (v at 4 mM BL) were calculated in both studies. Correlations were obtained as shown in Table 2. The relationship between VO2max and 10 km RT achieved statistical significance only in study 1, while RE explained a greater amount of performance variation in study 2. In both studies, variation in 10 km RT attributable to vVO2max was similar and exceeded that due to either VO2max or RE. vVO2max also accounted for essentially the same amount of variation in 10 km RT as did v at 4 mM BL. It was concluded that, among well-trained subjects homogeneous in VO2max, a strong relationship exists between 10 km RT and vVO2max that appears to be mediated to a large extent by RE.
H+ ions are generated rapidly when muscles are maximally activated. This results in an intracellular proton load. Typical proton loads in active muscles reach a level of 20-25 mumol X g-1, resulting in a fall in intracellular pH of 0.3-0.5 units in mammalian muscle and 0.6-0.8 units in frog muscle. In isolated frog muscles stimulated to fatigue a proton load of this magnitude is developed, and at the same time maximum isometric force is suppressed by 70-80%. Proton loss is slowed when external pH is kept low. This is paralleled by a slow recovery of contractile tension and seems to support the idea that suppression results from intracellular acidosis. Nonfatigued muscles subjected to similar intracellular proton loads by high CO2 levels show a suppression of maximal tension by only about 30%. This indicates that only a part of the suppression during fatigue is normally due to the direct effect of intracellular acidosis. Further evidence for a component of fatigue that is not due to intracellular acidosis is provided by the fact that some muscle preparations (rat diaphragm) can be fatigued with very little lactate accumulation and very low proton loads. Even under these conditions, a low external pH (6.2) can slow recovery of tension development 10-fold compared with normal pH (7.4). We must conclude that there are at least two components to fatigue. One, due to a direct effect of intracellular acidosis, acting directly on the myofibrils, accounts for a part of the suppression of contractile force. A second, which in many cases may be the major component, is not dependent on intracellular acidosis. This component seems to be due to a change of state in one or more of the steps of the excitation-contraction coupling process. Reversal of this state is sensitive to external pH which suggests that this component is accessible from the outside of the cell.
One of the most fundamental beliefs in exercise physiology is that performance during maximum exercise of short duration is limited by the inability of the heart and lungs to provide oxygen at a rate sufficiently fast to fuel energy production by the active muscle mass. This belief originates from work undertaken in the 1920's by Hill and Lupton. A result is that most, if not all, of the studies explaining the effects of exercise training or detraining or other interventions on human physiology explain these changes in terms either of central adaptations increasing oxygen delivery to muscle or of peripheral adaptations that modify the rates of oxygen or fuel utilization by the active muscles. Yet a critical review of Hill and Lupton's results shows that they inferred but certainly did not prove that oxygen limitation develops during maximal exercise. Furthermore, more modern studies suggest that, if such an oxygen limitation does indeed occur during maximal exercise, it develops in about 50% of test subjects. Thus, an alternative mechanism may need to be evoked to explain exhaustion during maximal exercise in a rather large group of subjects. This review proposes that the factors limiting maximal exercise performance might be better explained in terms of a failure of muscle contractility ("muscle power"), which may be independent of tissue oxygen deficiency. The implications for exercise testing and the prediction of athletic performance are discussed.
The aerobic and anaerobic thresholds determined from venous lactate (AerTLa and AnTLa) or from ventilation and gas exchange (AerTr and AnTr) in relation to muscle fiber composition were compared. Twelve subjects were studied in double exercise tests carried out until voluntary exhaustion. They were divided into two groups according to their muscle fiber type in the vastus lateralis muscle: ST group with a majority of slow-twitch fibers (ST% = 66.0% +/- 7.3%) and FT group with a majority of fast-twitch fibers (ST% = 27.7% +/- 8.4%). A 2-min incremental exercise test protocol on a bicycle was used. There were no significant differences between the ST and FT groups in the VO2max or in the Lamax. Neither the AerT nor the AnT related to the VO2max (%) differed between the ST and FT groups. In the FT group the AnTLa occurred 0.70 min in the first test and 1.06 min in the second test earlier than the AnTr, whereas in the ST group the AnTLa occurred at the same time or 0.44 min later, respectively, than the AnTr (P less than 0.05). Expressed as VO2 the differences between thresholds were not so distinct. The results demonstrated that the mutual relation between the AnTLa and AnTr seemed to be dependent on the fiber type majority in exercising muscles (vastus lateralis) among untrained men.
Mechanical efficiency of positive work (eta+) and elastic behavior of human skeletal muscles were investigated on a special sledge apparatus which allowed the use of the normal stretch-shortening cycle exercises. Twenty-five young men were investigated in a total of 92 exercise situations, in which the intensity of the prestretch (eccentric contraction) was different, but the shortening phase (concentric contraction) was kept constant in all conditions. The results demonstrated that eta+ was on the average 35.8% +/- 6.4% and correlated positively with the prestretch intensity (r = 0.413; P less than 0.001), reaching a highest individual value of 51.5%. Estimation performed on the elastic characteristics of the leg extensor muscles confirmed an earlier suggestion that the pure muscle elasticity plays an important role in potentiating performance in stretch-shortening cycle exercises. The analysis of the myoelectrical activity of the leg extensor muscles showed that the nervous system plays an essential role in regulating muscle stiffness and thus utilization of muscle elasticity in ballistic exercises.
Recent reports have suggested that running economy (RE) defined as oxygen consumption at standardized treadmill speeds may be an important determinant for successful distance running performance. The purpose of this study was to examine the additional role, if any, played by anaerobic factors in distance running performance. Highly trained male cross-country runners (N = 12) were administered a battery of standardized aerobic and anaerobic laboratory evaluations. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and RE (ml X kg-1) were measured using open circuit spirometry during treadmill exercise. RE was measured at 241 and 295 m X min-1, and ventilatory threshold (Tvent) was determined and verified using a number of non-invasive ventilatory measures (VE, VE/VO2, VE/VCO2, VCO2, FECO2). Anaerobic measures included the Margaria power test and the Monod critical power test to determine anaerobic work capacity (AWC). The data were subjected to a SAS-STEPWISE analysis which combines stepwise addition and backward elimination and were used to predict performance time in a 8.05-km (5-mile) cross-country race in which all the runners participated. The subjects averaged 26.21 min for the 8.05 km run, with 72.1 ml X kg-1 X min-1 for the VO2max with a Tvent at 60.4 ml X kg-1 X min-1 (84% VO2max). AWC (Monod) was 17400 Joules with a range of 8,000-28,400 Joules. The STEPWISE procedure reveals that AWC contributes significantly (P less than 0.003) to a 3 variable model predicting race performance (R2 = 0.76, P less than 0.01). AWC accounts for 58% of total shared variance with VO2max and an indirect measure of Tvent accounting for the remaining 17%.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Twenty-two male and female subjects trained for 7 wk for endurance (group E), for strength (group IS), or for both strength and endurance (group C) to evaluate the effect of concurrent performance of both modes of training on the in vivo force-velocity relationship of human muscle and on aerobic power. Endurance training consisted of five 5-min sessions three times a week on cycle ergometer with a work load that approached the subject's peak cycle-ergometer O2 uptake (peak CE VO2). Strength training consisted of two 30-s sets of maximal knee extensions per day performed on an isokinetic dynamometer three times a week at a velocity of 4.19 rad X s-1. Group C performed the same training as groups IS and E, alternating days of strength and endurance training. Subjects (groups C and IS) were tested pre- and posttraining for maximal knee-extension torque at a specific joint angle (0.52 rad below horizontal) for seven specific angular velocities (0, 0.84, 1.68, 2.81, 3.35, 4.19, and 5.03 rad X s-1). Groups C and E were tested for peak CE VO2 pretraining, at 14-day intervals, and posttraining. Group IS showed significant increases in angle-specific maximal torque at velocities up to and including the training speed (4.19 rad X s-1). Group C showed increases (P less than 0.05) at velocities of 0, 0.84, and 1.68 rad X s-1 only. Peak CE VO2, when expressed in relative or absolute terms, increased (P less than 0.05) approximately 18% for both groups E and C.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
.HÄKKUKINEN, K., KOMI, P.V. & ALÉN, M. 1985. Effect of explosive type strength training on isometric force‐ and relaxation‐time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of leg extensor muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 125, 587–600. Received 26 January 1985, accepted 9 May 1985. ISSN 0001–6772. Department of Biology of Physical Activity and Department of Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland.
To investigate the influence of explosive type strength training on isometric force‐ and relaxation‐time and on electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of human skeletal muscle, 10 male subjects went through progressive training which included primarily jumping exercises without extra load and with light extra weights three times a week for 24 weeks. Specific training‐induced changes in force‐time curve were observed and demonstrated by great ( P < 0.05–0.001) improvements in parameters of fast force production and by a minor ( P< 0.05) increase in maximal force. The continuous increases in fast force production during the entire training were accompanied by and correlated with the increases ( P < 0.05) in average IEMG‐time curve and with the increase (P < 0.05) in the FT:ST muscle fibre area ratio. The percentage of FT fibres of the muscle correlated ( P < 0.05) with the improvement of average force‐time curve during the training. The increase in maximal force was accompanied by significant ( P < 0.05) increases in maximum IEMGs of the trained muscles. However, the hypertrophic changes, as judged from the anthropometric and muscle fibre area data, were only slight during the training. It can be concluded that in training for fast force production considerable neural and selective muscular adaptations may occur to explain the improvement in performance, but that genetic factors may determine the ultimate potential of the trainability of this aspect of the neuromuscular performance.
Alterations in gas exchange were studied in man during exercise increasing in increments of 5 w each minute, to determine the noninvasive indicators of the onset of metabolic acidosis (anaerobic metabolism). Expired airflow and CO2 and O2 tensions at the mouth during the breath were continuously monitored with rapidly responding gas analyzers. These measurements were recorded directly as well as processed by a minicomputer, on line, to give minute ventilation (VE), CO2 production (VCO2), O2 consumption (VO2), and the gas exchange ratio (R), breath by breath. The anaerobic threshold (AT) could be identified by the point of nonlinear increase in VE, nonlinear increase in VCO2, an increase in end tidal O2 without a corresponding decrease in end tidal CO2, and an increase in R, as work rate was increased during an incremental exercise test. Of these measurements, R was found least sensitive. The AT was determined in 85 normal subjects between 7 and 91 yr of age, by these techniques. The lower limit of normal was 45 w (VO2 = 1 liter/min) while values for very fit normal adults were as high as 180 w. The patients studied with cardiac disease above functional class I have lower anaerobic thresholds than the least fit normal subjects. The 1 min incremental work rate test is associated with changes in gas exchange which can be used as sensitive on line indicators of the AT, thus bypassing the need for measuring arterial lactate or acid base parameters to indicate anaerobiosis.
1. Skinfold thickness and body density were measured on 105 young adult men and women and 86 adolescent boys and girls.
2. The correlation coefficients between the skinfold thicknesses, either single or multiple, and density were in the region of −0.80.
3. Regression equations were calculated to predict body fat from skinfolds with an error of about ±3.5%.
4. A table gives the percentage of the body-weight as fat from the measurement of skin-fold thickness.
Regularly performed endurance exercise induces major adaptations in skeletal muscle. These include increases in the mitochondrial content and respiratory capacity of the muscle fibers. As a consequence of the increase in mitochondria, exercise of the same intensity results in a disturbance in homeostasis that is smaller in trained than in untrained muscles. The major metabolic consequences of the adaptations of muscle to endurance exercise are a slower utilization of muscle glycogen and blood glucose, a greater reliance on fat oxidation, and less lactate production during exercise of a given intensity. These adaptations play an important role in the large increase in the ability to perform prolonged strenuous exercise that occurs in response to endurance exercise training.
The purpose of this study was to determine how individuals adapt to a combination of strength and endurance training as compared to the adaptations produced by either strength or endurance training separately. There were three exercise groups: a strength group (S) that exercised 30--40 min . day-1, 5 days . week-1, and endurance group (E) that exercised 40 min . day-1, 6 days . week-1; and an S and E group that performed the same daily exercise regimens as the S and E groups. After 10 weeks of training, VO2max increased approx. 25% when measured during bicycle exercise and 20% when measured during treadmill exercise in both E, and S and E groups. No increase in VO2max was observed in the S group. There was a consistent rate of development of leg-strength by the S group throughout the training, whereas the E group did not show any appreciable gains in strength. The rate of strength improvement by the S and E group was similar to the S group for the first 7 weeks of training, but subsequently leveled off and declined during the 9th and 10th weeks. These findings demonstrate that simultaneously training for S and E will result in a reduced capacity to develop strength, but will not affect the magnitude of increase in VO2max.
Nine men participated in an exercise program (five days a week for 10 weeks) that was designed to strengthen the quadriceps muscles. This study was undertaken to determine if heavy resistance training results in an increase in endurance, Vo2max and whether the differences that are normally observed during bicycle and treadmill Vo2max measurements in the same individuals are strength-related. Following training, endurance time to exhaustion significantly increased while cycling (47%) and while running (12%), when the subjects exercised at 100% of their pretraining Vo2max. There was a small increase in Vo2max (4%, P < 0.05) during bicycle exercise (3.40 l.min-1 to 3.54 l.min-1) after training, but no significant differences were observed when expressed in (ml.kg-1.min-1). Strength training had no effect on Vo2max when measured during treadmill exercise. Absolute differences between bicycle and treadmill Vo2max were essentially the same after training as before. Lactate concentration in blood after the bicycle and treadmill endurance tests were not elevated to a greater extent after training. Thigh girth increased significantly and muscle strength increased 40% with the training. These findings provide evidence that HRT is capable of dramatically increasing short-term endurance, when the muscles involved in the training are used almost exclusively during the testing without an accompanying increase in Vo2max. These data also suggest that the differences in Vo2max between bicycle and treadmill exercise are not the result of inadequate muscle strength.
The purpose of this study was to determine the validity and evaluate the accuracy of a portable telemetric oxygen uptake analyzer (K2). Two experiments were carried out: a) using a mechanical lung, the accuracy of the K2 to measure oxygen fractions and minute ventilation following 10 and 60 min of warm-up was determined; and b) two maximal graded exercise tests (GXT) on 15 subjects, one with the K2 system and the other with a standardized breath-by-breath (BBB) system, while heart rate (HR), minute ventilation (VE), and oxygen uptake (VO2) were compared. Following 10-min warm-up prior to calibration, the K2 underestimated the true oxygen fraction as early as 5 min into the test, and this value continued to decrease throughout the 30-min test. After 60 min of warm-up prior to calibration, the K2 accurately measured the true oxygen fraction for the first 15 min; at minute 20, and on to minute 30, the K2 underestimated the oxygen fraction. Ventilation volumes were not affected by warm-up time. Minute ventilation during the K2 GXT was significantly higher than VE for the BBB test. No significant differences were found between the HRs obtained with the BBB or K2 systems. No differences in VO2 for any stage of the GXT were identified between the K2 device, BBB device or when a respiratory exchange ratio (RER) correction factor was applied to the K2 derived values. However, the RER correction factor did minimize the VO2 differences between the BBB and K2 systems. Therefore, we conclude that the K2 accurately measures VO2 during a GXT; however, its accuracy can be compromised by limitations inherent to the system.
A new maximal anaerobic running power (MARP) test was developed. It consisted of n.20-s runs on a treadmill with a 100-s recovery between the runs. During the first run the treadmill speed was 3.97 m.s-1 and the gradient 5 degrees. The speed of the treadmill was increased by 0.35 m.s-1 for each consecutive run until exhaustion. The height of counter-movement jumps and blood lactate concentration ([la-]b) were measured after each run. Submaximal ([la-]b = 3 mmol.l-1 and 10 mmol.l-1) and maximal speed and power (W3mmol, W10mmol and Wmax, respectively) were calculated and W was expressed in oxygen equivalents according to the American College of Sports Medicine equation. Thirteen male athletes whose times over 400 m ranged from 47.98 s to 54.70 s served as subjects. In the MARP-test the speed at exhaustion was 6.89 (SD 0.28) m.s-1 corresponding to a Wmax of 118 (SD 5) ml.kg-1 x min-1. The peak [la-]b after exhaustion was 17.0 (SD 1.6) mmol.l-1. A significant correlation (r = 0.89, P < 0.001) was observed between the Wmax and the average speed in the 400-m sprint. The maximal 20-m sprinting speed on a track and W10mmol correlated with both the Wmax and the 400-m speed. It was concluded that the new method allows the evaluation of several determinants of maximal anaerobic performance including changes in the force-generating capacity of leg muscles and [la-]b relative to the speed of the sprint running. the [la-]b at submaximal sprinting speed was suggested as describing the anaerobic sprinting economy.
Several authors have defined velocities which may, as a group, be described as the velocity associated with VO2max. Although several names, definitions, and abbreviations have been introduced, in this paper we shall use vVO2max for them all. These vVO2max have been reported to be an indicator of performance in distance running events. However, protocols for data collection and definitions used in the calculation of vVO2max have differed between studies. The purpose of this investigation was to compare values of vVO2max obtained using five definitions that have been described in the literature. vVO2max was determined in 22 women track athletes as (a) the speed at which VO2max was attained in a speed-incremented 0%-slope treadmill test, (b) the highest speed in the test that could be sustained for 1 min, (c) the ratio of VO2max to the oxygen cost of submaximal running (C), (d) the ratio of (VO2max - VO2 at rest) to (C - VO2 at rest), and (e) the velocity determined by extrapolation of the submaximal velocity:VO2 relationship. Results of ANOVA suggested that there were significant differences among the values derived using the different methods (F4.84 = 7.80, P < 0.001). Correlations among the various pairs of values ranged from 0.68 to 1.00. It is concluded that there are five distinct parameters described by the five definitions. The value of each of these parameters is influenced by VO2max and the energy cost of running. In theory, three of the parameters have an anaerobic component; two do not.
Neuromuscular adaptation during strength training, aging, detraining, and immobilization
- K Hä Kkinen
Hä kkinen, K. Neuromuscular adaptation during strength training, aging, detraining, and immobilization. Crit. Rev. Phys. Reh.
Med. 6: 161-198, 1994.