ArticlePDF Available

Parents' Perceptions of Their Involvement in Schooling

Authors:

Abstract

Parent involvement has an influence on children’s educational engagement during the elementary years. The objective of this study was to examine the perceptions of rural Turkish parents about their involvement in schooling with elementary school students based on Epstein’s (1995) six types of parental involvement (parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, and collaborating with the community). This study also investigated the differences among parent demographic characteristics (education level, income, marital status, and age) and parent involvement at the elementary grade level in rural areas of Turkey. 742 parents of elementary schools in three rural settings in the city of Konya, Turkey completed questionnaires and assessments. A quantitative analyze method is used to analyze verified data. Findings indicated that family income had a statistically significant impact on combined factors of parent involvement. Education level by Age interaction, Income by Age interaction, and Education level by Income by Age interaction had a statistically significant impact on combined factors of parent involvement. No significant differences were found in parent involvement among parents who are from different education levels, marital status, and age groups in Turkey. This study showed that family income is the most significant factor on parental involvement in schooling for Turkish parents in all regions.
ISSN: 2148-9955
www.ijres.net
Parents’ Perceptions of Their Involvement
in Schooling*
Mehmet Akif Erdener1, Robert C. Knoeppel2
1Balıkesir University
2Clemson University
To cite this article:
Erdener, M.A., & Knoeppel, R.C. (2018). Parents’ perceptions of their involvement in
schooling. International Journal of Research in Education and Science (IJRES), 4(1), 1-13.
DOI:10.21890/ijres.369197
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.
Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
Authors alone are responsible for the contents of their articles. The journal owns the
copyright of the articles.
The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or
costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of the research material.
International Journal of Research in Education and Science
Volume 4, Issue 1, Winter 2018
Parents’ Perceptions of Their Involvement in Schooling
Mehmet Akif Erdener, Robert C. Knoeppel
Article Info
Abstract
Article History
Received:
5 November 2017
Parent involvement has an influence on children’s educational engagement
during the elementary years. The objective of this study was to examine the
perceptions of rural Turkish parents about their involvement in schooling with
elementary school students based on Epstein’s (1995) six types of parental
involvement (parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home,
decision-making, and collaborating with the community). This study also
investigated the differences among parent demographic characteristics
(education level, income, marital status, and age) and parent involvement at the
elementary grade level in rural areas of Turkey. 742 parents of elementary
schools in three rural settings in the city of Konya, Turkey completed
questionnaires and assessments. A quantitative analyze method is used to
analyze verified data. Findings indicated that family income had a statistically
significant impact on combined factors of parent involvement. Education level
by Age interaction, Income by Age interaction, and Education level by Income
by Age interaction had a statistically significant impact on combined factors of
parent involvement. No significant differences were found in parent involvement
among parents who are from different education levels, marital status, and age
groups in Turkey. This study showed that family income is the most significant
factor on parental involvement in schooling for Turkish parents in all regions.
Accepted:
20 December 2017
Keywords
Parent involvement
Family studies
Schooling
Family income
Parent education level
Introduction
In the last two decades, educational researchers have been interested in the positive effects parental involvement
can have on students’ academic achievements and successes. Parent involvement increases students’ academic
achievement and self-esteem (Erdoğan & Demirkasımoğlu, 2010; Desimone, 1999) while decreasing
absenteeism and behavioral problems (Epstein & Sheldon, 2002a; Epstein & Sheldon, 2002b; Michael, Dittus,
& Epstein, 2007; Sezer & İşgör, 2010; Sezer, 2016). Epstein (2005b) emphasized “parental involvement as an
essential component of school improvement, linked to the curriculum, instruction, assessments, and other
aspects of school management” (p. 179).
Parent involvement is defined as requires asking about their children’s homework, contacting a teacher, and
also, watching every single move a student makes (Knisely, 2011). In addition, parent involvement includes
parent-student communication, family rules with consequences, parental support of academics, parent-school
communication initiated at a school level versus the teacher level as well as parents checking on homework
(Knisely, 2011). The level of parental involvement in education is a significant concern among educators,
because there is a strong relationship established between parental involvement and student success (Knisely,
2011). So, countless research studies have shown a consistent relationship between parental involvement overall
and academic achievement (Jeynes, 2005a).
Furthermore, parental involvement is an important ingredient for the remedy for many problems in education
and it has positive influences on students’ academic achievements (Fan & Chen, 2001). On the other hand, Fan
and Chen (2001) said that parental supervision had a weak relationship with students’ academic achievement;
though parental aspiration or expectation for children’s educational achievement had a considerably stronger
relationship with students’ academic achievement. Additionally, Coleman and McNeese (2009) claimed that
“the relationships between parental involvement and student motivation and parental involvement and academic
achievement both showed a negative correlation, which was unexpected” (p. 468).
On the contrary, parental involvement is an important factor in promoting the successful transition of youth with
disabilities (Geenen & Powers, 2001), and influences not only student’s motivation but also teacher’s
2
Erdener & Knoeppel
willingness to increase their performance (Jeynes, 2005a). Parent involvement is an efficient social investment
with a payoff far greater than its costs and it provides students equity and equal opportunity in education
(Currie, 1997; Desimone, 1999). Moreover, parent involvement promotes a strong belief about children’s well-
being (Desimone, 1999; Heclo, 1997; Sezer, 2013). Michael et al. (2007) explained that family, school, and the
community partnerships increase resources for student learning, strengthen families, and sustain healthier
communities.
Education policies support parent involvement, and the partnerships of home, school, and the community. The
Turkish Ministry of Education was supporting the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF) started a
project that is called “Haydi Kızlar Okula.” The purpose of the project was to provide girls, between the ages of
6 and 14 years, who did not go to school, had chronic absenteeism, and high drop-out rates, the opportunity to
go school with the goal closing the gender gap (Haydi Kızlar Okula, 2009; Tezci, 2005). The second purpose of
the campaign was to inform parents about the importance of education, and to provide them the opportunity to
be involved in the education process. To achieve this goal, teams were created by the Ministry of Education that
visited families door to door. The campaign was started in 2003 and in four years, it successfully enrolled
222,800 of the 273,447 girls in elementary and middle schools among who were not previously enrolled in any
school (The Ministry of Education, 2011). The project required collaboration among parents, schools, and the
community including local governors, religious leaders, journalists, and intellectuals.
Families influence their children’s educational engagement, and occupational aspirations (Rosenberg & Lopez,
2010), and they are their children’s first teachers (Erdoğan & Demirkasımoğlu, 2010). Epstein (2001) explained
that children learn from their families, teachers, peers, relatives, part-time employers, and other adults in the
community, so bridges among home, school, and community are certainly important. Additionally, family and
community involvement in schools might increase the academic achievement of students, ensure better school
attendance, and improve school programs and quality (Michael et al., 2007). Research by Epstein (2001)
stressed the following points: 1) families care about their children’s success; nevertheless, most parents need
more information from schools to be productively involved in their children’s education; 2) students learn more
than academic skills at home, at school, and in the community; 3) peers, families, and the organization of
activities in schools and classrooms positively or negatively influence students; and 4) community-based
programs supporting school and families might effectively increase students’ chances of success. Additionally,
Epstein (2005a) suggested that educators, parents, and community partners might work collaboratively to design
and conduct activities, so these activities improve student achievement, promote school goals for student
attendance and behavior, and create a positive climate of partnership. She also described how these activities
might be designed by teams including the principal, teachers, school council and parents who are accountable
for their plans and work. Such activities are also influential in the acquisition of self-regulatory learning skills
that also contribute to the lifelong learning of students (Aktan & Tezci, 2013).
Epstein conducted research over several decades using a model of parent involvement that she based on
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) social ecological model (Epstein, 1985; 1987). She categorized parent involvement
into six major types: (1) parenting, (2) communicating, (3) volunteering, (4) learning at home, (5) decision
making, and (6) collaborating with the community. These types are parenting involvement are defined below.
Parenting activities demonstrate how schools increase the understanding of families about student needs and
interests, as well as assist families to meet their parenting responsibilities at each grade level to influence child
growth and development (Epstein et al., 2009).
Communicating activities increase two way communications from home to school and from school to home in
order to develop understanding and cooperation between school and home. It is important for school personnel
to establish clear communication with families who speak languages other than English at home (Epstein et al.,
2009).
Volunteering activities encourage parents and community members to share their time and talents to help
schools, teachers, and students. These parents and community members might assist schools in the library,
computer room, playground, and cafeteria for after school activities, celebrations, sport activities and other
events (Epstein et al., 2009).
Learning at home activities guide parents to help their children with homework; to increase reading skills; to
select courses and school programs; to plan postsecondary education, and to benefit from other learning
opportunities (Epstein et al., 2009).
3
Int J Res Educ Sci
Decision Making activities encourage parents to become involved in the decision making process about school
programs, activities, and their children’s future academic plan. It informs all parents about school policies and
provides opportunities for parents to support their school and students (Epstein et al., 2009).
Collaborating with the community activities help to increase the cooperation among schools, families,
organizations, community groups, and agencies. Community resources include human, economic, material, and
social resources. Such resources assist schools to improve student success and create a safe learning
environment (Epstein et al., 2009).
In the light of this model, Epstein (Epstein, 2005a; Epstein et al., 2002; Epstein et al., 2009) gave
recommendations about how schools should work with families and communities. Schools need to establish
action teams that focus on reading, writing, math, behavior, a positive school climate and other school
improvement goals. Each action team has a one year action plan (Epstein, 2005a), and these plans must
emphasize all six types of family and community involvement to create productive involvement at school, at
home, and in the community (Epstein et al., 2002). Also, Epstein’s (2005a) study showed that the action teams
for school improvement developed curriculum content and instructional approaches in classrooms as well as
increased the number of families and community partners from diverse cultural groups who were involved in
their students’ education. Epstein and Sanders (1998) studied home-school and community partnership
organizations to ensure all students have equal opportunities and to make families aware of children’s
development and the schooling process.
Moreover, Epstein (2005a) explained that home-school and community partnership programs help teachers and
families focus on helping students learn positive character traits such as honesty, listening, respecting others,
and being a friend. Well-designed programs build bridges among home, school, and the community and create
a sustained school culture and positive school climate to increase students’ achievement (Epstein, 2001; Tezci,
2011). Also important are home, school, and community advocacy efforts that encourage school health
programs in states, districts, schools, and classrooms nationwide (Michael et al., 2007).
Parents’ demographic characteristics (e.g., parents’ education level, socioeconomic status, and marital status)
have been found significantly related to parent involvement in education. Parents with post-secondary
education have a positive effect on children’s interest in literacy activities (Baroody & Dobbs-Oates, 2009). In
addition, these parents encourage their young children’s self-concept development (Ayhan, 2008). There is a
correlation between parent’s education level and student academic achievement (Hortacsu, 1995) and students
with educated parents have less behavioral problems in the school (Hill et al., 2004). In addition, Cooper (2010)
noted that families’ socio-economic status during kindergarten may have an impact on their children’s transition
through the early years of schooling. Poverty negatively affects parent involvement because, these families lack
the time, and money (Erdoğan & Demirkasımoğlu, 2010), which means that they may not provide cognitively
stimulating materials for their children (Cooper, Crosnoe, Suizzo & Pituch, 2010).
Additionally, Epstein and Sanders (1998) reported that parents of elementary students are more involved than
parents of children in secondary schools; mothers are more involved than fathers; and more educated parents are
more involved than less educated parents. In addition, marital status is influential on student achievement
(Jeynes, 2005b), and intact families have a positive impact on their children’s academic achievement (Cooper,
2010). Epstein and Sanders (1998) said researchers in many nations are working to understand the relationship
between school, home and community by using many different research methods to build knowledge in their
field. While parent education level and parent income affect parental involvement, one of the important factors
is to increase parental involvement is teachers willingness and smiling faces during meetings with parents
(Erdener, 2014). Parents everywhere care about their children and want them to be successful (Epstein &
Sanders, 1998, p. 392). Snyder et al. (2009) said that all teachers and staff in the school, parents and the
community developed to specifically target the positive development of student behavior and character. So, the
interaction of family, teacher and the community assists students to gain not only the knowledge, attitudes,
norms, and skills but also improves values, self-concept, family bonding, communication, and appreciation of
school.
Statement of the Problem
Families support children’s learning and growth from cradle to career, so they impact child development across
all grades (Rosenberg & Lopez, 2010). Parents’ demographics (e.g., parents’ education level, socioeconomic
status, and marital status) may be influential on parent involvement. There is a relationship between parents’
4
Erdener & Knoeppel
demographic characteristics and parent involvement (Baroody & Dobbs-Oates, 2009; Cooper, 2010; Cooper et
al., 2010; Crosnoe, 2001; Englund et al., 2004; Epstein & Sanders, 2002; Erdoğan & Demirkasımoğlu, 2010;
Hill et al., 2004; Hortacsu, 1995; Suizzo & Soon, 2006). Many studies have investigated the relationship
between parental involvement and student achievement or success, and parent’s demographics and parental
involvement. Epstein and her colleagues have studied the effects of parent involvement which they categorized
into six major types: (1) parenting, (2) communicating, (3) volunteering, (4) learning at home, (5) decision
making, and (6) collaborating with the community on student academic achievement and behaviors.
In contrast, investigations into the relationship between parent’s demographic characteristics and parent
involvement in Turkey are minimal. The extant knowledge about cultural influences on parents’ perceptions of
their involvement in schooling is limited. Therefore, this study analyzed Turkish parents’ perceptions of their
involvement in schooling at elementary schools in Turkey. The research also analyzed the differences between
Turkish parent’s demographic characteristics (e.g., parents’ education level, socioeconomic status, and marital
status) and Epstein’s six types of parental involvement.
Purpose of the Study
Studies have shown that parent involvement in schooling positively affect students’ academic achievement
(Epstein, 2001; Erdoğan & Demirkasımoğlu, 2010). Determining the effective level of parent involvement may
be associated with parents’ demographics. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate Turkish
parents’ perceptions of their involvement in schooling at elementary grades in rural areas of Turkey. The
second purpose of this study was to explore the cultural influences on Turkish parents with their involvement in
schooling. Thirdly, this study examined the differences among parent demographic characteristics (education
level, income, marital status, and age) and parent involvement at the elementary grade level in rural areas of
Turkey. The assessment of parent involvement was developed by Epstein using her model of parent
involvement as six types: (1) parenting, (2) communicating, (3) volunteering, (4) learning at home, (5) decision
making, and (6) collaborating with the community. Finally, this study explored the potential differences among
Epstein’s six aspects of parent involvement and rural parenting practices in Turkey. Understanding parents’
perceptions about parent involvement may help educators understand the weaknesses and strengths of the
relationship among home, school, and the community. So that school administrators and teachers may more
effectively promote parent involvement in schooling.
This research explored following question: What is the difference among parents’ perceptions when grouped
parent education level, income, marital status, and age on Epstein’s six factors of parent involvement as
described (parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with
the community) in Turkey?
First of all, parent involvement in education is a key component for students’ academic success. Many studies
showed a positive correlation between parental involvement and student achievement (Epstein, 2001; Erdoğan
& Demirkasımoğlu, 2010; Jeynes, 2005a; Shaw, 2008). The significance of this study was to examine the
perceptions of rural Turkish parents regarding effective parental involvement with elementary school students
based on Epstein’s (1995) six types of parental involvement. Therefore, this study’s results may indicate more
effective means of parental involvement. The findings of this study provided significant information that will
extend knowledge about the phenomenon of parent involvement.
Theoretical Framework
Human development is a process that is affected by interaction with changing environments (Bronfenbrenner,
1977). The theoretical framework used in this study is Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecoloogical theory that focused on
the interactions between the environment and the individual. Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory (1977;
1986) included five systems: 1) Microsystems, 2) Mesosystem, 3) Exosystem, 4) Macrosystem, and 5)
Chronosystem. Bronfenbrenner (1977) explained that the ecological theory is a lifespan theory and the mutual
accommodation progressive happens between the individual and changing environment. There are reciprocal
interactions between these systems and the child (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The child is at the center of the
systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1977); the relationship existing between the family and the school is a powerful factor
affecting the capacity of a child to learn in the classroom (Bronfenbrenner, 1986).
5
Int J Res Educ Sci
According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, the microsystem includes the interactions between the developing person
and environment (e.g., home, school, workplace, etc.). There is a direct interaction between the child and
school, the child and family, and the child and peers. The mesosystem includes the interrelations among major
settings containing the developing person (e.g., home, school, neighborhood, peers, religious affiliation, etc.).
The exosystem includes the major institutions of the society such as the neighborhood, the mass media, agencies
of government (local, state, and national), policies in education, communication and transportation facilities, and
informal social networks (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The exosystem is an extension of the mesosystem and it
directly and indirectly affects the child. Finally, the macrosystem includes institutional patterns of the culture or
subculture, such as the economic, social, educational, legal, and political systems, and also social interchanges
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Bronfenbrenner (1977; 1986) explained that children are affected by parents and
school independently and interactively. Each interaction between the child and the systems influences child
development and characteristics (Bronfenbrenner, 1986).
Parent involvement is a process of child development in social and educational environments. Furthermore,
Epstein’s (2010) overlapping spheres of influence model demonstrates the relationships of the school, family,
and community for a child’s success in school. Epstein (2010) recognized the child at the center as the focus
within the family, school, and community. Children have interactions with their families, their schools, and
their communities (Epstein, 1995). Families, their schools, and communities influence a child’s academic
achievement and success (Epstein, 1995). Epstein (2010) stated that each component of the external structure of
the overlapping spheres might act and interact with others and these actions influence student learning and
development.
Method
Research Design
Instrument
This research study used a survey designed to identify the Turkish parents’ perceptions of their involvement in
schooling. The researcher adapted a survey by Epstein et al. (2009, p. 324-329). The survey included Epstein’s
six categories of parental involvement with an additional category of parental expectations. The survey
contained 29 parent involvement statements distributed among six categories of parental involvement. The
survey questions were based on 5-point Likert scale for perceptions ranging from a low score of 1 (never) to a
high score of 5 (frequently). Additionally, the instrument included a section on parent demographic
information. This section helped the researcher investigate the differences between parents’ demographic
characteristics and their school involvement as measured by Epstein’s survey and model of parent involvement.
Participants
The targeted populations in this study were parents of elementary schools students (grades 1-5) currently
enrolled in a public school system in rural areas of the city of Konya, Turkey. Participants were selected from
these parents by a cluster sampling technique (Huck, 2011). The researcher delivered the survey to schools and
schools sent the survey home with students to give to their parents. Both electronic as well as paper copies of
surveys were made available. The parents received the survey and a request letter that explained the intent of
the study and asked for their participation in the study. Parents were asked to complete the survey and return it
to schools. Parents were not required to provide any identifying information. The anonymity of the subjects
strengthens the validity of the instrument and the study. The means and standard deviations of participants’
demographic characteristics in this study are represented in Table 1.
Three hundred sixty-eight (49.6%) participants did not have a high school diploma, 199 (26.8%) graduated from
high school, 76 (10.2%) had some college coursework, 93 (12.5%) had bachelor’s degrees, and 6 (0.8%) had
graduate degrees. Moreover, three hundred ninety-one (52.7%) families were low income families, and had
1,000 Turkish liras (TL) or less monthly; 245 (33%) families had between 1,000 and 2,500 TL; 83 (11.2%)
families have gotten between 2,500 and 5,000 TL; 15 (2%) families had between 5,000 and 10,000 TL; and 8
(1.1%) families had 10,000 or more TL monthly. The last two groups were high-income families.
6
Erdener & Knoeppel
Table 1. Parent demographics
N
Min
Max
Sum
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Statistic
Std.
Error
Statistic
ED_LEVEL
742
1
5
1396
1.88
.040
1.077
INCOME
742
1
5
1230
1.66
.031
.837
AGE
742
1
5
2394
3.23
.024
.651
MARITAL
742
1
5
832
1.12
.020
.536
Valid N
742
Additionally, four (.5%) participants were 18 or 19 years old. These participants were probably the brother or
sister of the students. Sixty (8.1%) participants were between 20 and 29 years of age; four hundred sixty two
(62.3%) participants were between 30 and 39 years of age and this group had highest number of children who
enrolled the elementary school in Turkey. One hundred ninety-six (26.4%) participants were between 40 and 49
years old, and 20 (2.7%) parents of guardians were in 50 years and older. Furthermore, six hundred ninety-six
(93.8%) participants had been married once, and 20 (2.7%) participants were remarried. The cumulative
number of married families was seven hundred sixteen (96.5%), which reflects the intact family structure is high
in Turkey. Thirteen (1.8%) participants were separated, 8 (1.1%) participants were widowed, and 5 (0.7%)
participants were never married.
Analysis Overview
Once all surveys were returned, data analysis followed. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) (version 21.0). The researcher interpreted data using Exploratory Factor analysis and
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). Factor analysis provided the researcher with the ability to
reduce and cluster the complexity of the variables, so it was easier for the researcher to investigate the problem
(Huck, 2011; Mertler & Vannaatta, 2010). Davidov and Beuckelaer (2010) explained that some questions might
have different meanings and content for individuals from different cultures or who speak languages. The
survey’s original language was English, and the researcher translated it into Turkish. As such, Davidov and
Beuckelaer (2010) suggested that the researcher needed to evaluate the reliability of the survey instrument.
Factor analysis was used in this study to test for equivalence of the survey questions across cultural groups.
Field (2009) stated that MANOVA included many dependent variables in the same analysis and considered the
relationship between outcome variables. In addition, Mertler and Vannaatta (2010) explained that MANOVA
incorporated two or more dependent variables in the same analysis with nominal and ordinal independent
variables. MANOVA is designed to test the significance of group differences, and dependent variables that
share a common conceptual meaning should have some degree of linearity (Mertler & Vannaatta, 2010).
Results and Discussion
The data were collected from 742 elementary school students’ parents in Turkey. A factor analysis was
performed using the Principal Component extraction method and revealed the presence of 5 factors with
eigenvalues exceeding 1, explaining a total of 57.897 percent of variance. The Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) was
0.959 for sampling adequacy. Cronbach’s alpha was used to check the reliability of the study; the reliability was
0.945 of 29 items. Despite these results indicating a strong model, one of the five factors was very weak,
according to the Pattern Matrix. Questions 6, 11, 12, 27, 28, and 29 were removed and the factor analysis was
rerun with Principal Component Analysis. An inspection of the scree plot displayed a clear break after the
fourth factor. KMO was 0.948 with very good communalities, and the reliability was 0.934 of 23 items by
using Cronbach’s alpha. Direct Oblimin was used as a rotation method to interpret these four factors.
After the factor analysis was conducted, the factors were determined according to related questions and
Epstein’s typology labels. Factor 1 was labeled Parenting, and contained six items. The reliability of the
Parenting factor was 0.836 of 6 items by using Cronbach’s alpha. Factor 2 was labeled the Decision-Making,
and contained six items. The reliability of Decision-Making factor was 0.828 of 6 items by using Cronbach’s
alpha. Factor 3 was a mix of three questions relating to Communicating and four questions relating to the
Volunteering, and overall contained seven items. The researcher labeled this factor as School Interaction. The
reliability of the School Interaction factor was 0.852 of 7 items by using Cronbach’s alpha. The last factor was
7
Int J Res Educ Sci
labeled Learning at Home and contained four items. The reliability of the Learning at Home factor was 0.848 of
4 items by using Cronbach’s alpha.
These four new factors were the dependent variables of this study. Then, the full Multivariate Analysis of
Variance (MANOVA) was conducted. The output of MANOVA includes the test for homogeneity of variance
(Box’s test), so the interpretations begins with the results of Box’s test (Mertler & Vannaatta, 2010). The results
of the Box’s test of equality of variance, F (360, 13082.290) = 1.228, p = 0.002. The Box’s test was significant
and the groups were unequal, so the Pillai’s Trace was chosen. “The multivariate normality implies that the
sampling distribution of the means of each dependent variable in each cell is normally distributed” (Mertler &
Vannaatta, 2010, p. 122), because of the possible violation of normality might be assessed by interpreting the
results of Box’s test. Nonetheless, Mertler and Vannaatta (2010) explained that a violation of this assumption of
homoscedasticity will not prove fatal to analysis; despite this, a more robust multivariate test statistics, Pillai’s
Trace, was used to interpret the multivariate results.
The results of the multivariate test of parent involvement indicated that family income [Pillai’s Trace = 0.047, F
(16, 2424) = 1.814, p = 0.024, partial ƞ2 = 0.012] is significantly affecting the combined dependent variables of
Parenting, Decision-Making, School Interactions and Learning at Home. Education level by Age interaction
[Pillai’s Trace = 0.08, F (28, 2424) = 1.765, p = 0.008, partial ƞ2 = 0.020] is significantly affecting the
combined dependent variables of Parenting, Decision-Making, School Interactions and Learning at Home.
Income by Age interaction [Pillai’s Trace = 0.079, F (28, 2424) = 1.738, p = 0.01, partial ƞ2 = 0.020] is
significantly affecting the combined dependent variables of Parenting, Decision-Making, School Interactions
and Learning at Home. Education level by Income by Age interaction [Pillai’s Trace = 0.064, F (24, 2424) =
1.652, p = 0.024, partial ƞ2 = 0.016] significantly affect the combined dependent variables of Parenting,
Decision-Making, School Interactions and Learning at Home. Education level, Marital status, and Age do not
statistically affect the combined dependent variables of Parenting, Decision-Making, School Interactions and
Learning at Home. The results of multivariate test of parent involvement are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Multivariate test of parent involvement
Multivariate Testsa
Effect
Value
F
Hypothesis
df
Error df
Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Noncent.
Parameter
Intercept
.008
1.146b
4.000
603.00
.334
.008
4.585
ED_LEVEL
.036
1.377
16.000
2424.000
.143
.009
22.028
INCOME
.047
1.814
16.000
2424.000
.024
.012
29.021
AGE
.015
.585
16.000
2424.000
.898
.004
9.356
MARITAL
.037
1.402
16.000
2424.000
.131
.009
22.428
ED_LEVEL *
AGE
.080
1.765
28.000
2424.000
.008
.020
49.411
INCOME * AGE
.079
1.738
28.000
2424.000
.010
.020
48.656
ED_LEVEL *
INCOME * AGE
.064
1.652
24.000
2424.000
.024
.016
39.646
Note. Computed using alpha = .05
A Univariate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted as a follow-up test. Income [F (4, 606) = 3.131, p
= 0.015, partial ƞ2 = 0.020] significantly affects the Parenting, and also [F (4, 606) = 2.62, p = 0.034, partial ƞ2
= 0.017] significantly affects the School Interactions. Education by Income interaction [F (9, 606) = 2.45, p =
0.01, partial ƞ2 = 0.035], and Education by Marital status interaction [F (3, 606) = 2.833, p = 0.038, partial ƞ2 =
0.014] significantly affects the Learning at home. In addition, Education by Age interaction [F (7, 606) = 3.23,
p = 0.002, partial ƞ2 = 0.036] significantly affects the Decision-Making. The results of Univariate ANOVA are
presenting on Table 3.
Four factors of parent involvement were found to exist after conducting the factor analysis. They were named:
(1) parenting, (2) decision making, (3) school interactions, and (4) learning at home. Three of the factors
contained almost the same questions that Epstein’s factors had; as such, similar names were used for these
factors. The collaborating with the community factor was not found to exist in this study. The cultural
differences in the Turkish education system or decreased number of questions in the instrument might have been
the cause of the change in the number of factors. The new factors are described as the following: First,
parenting is an awareness of every step of child growth and development. Parents might be supported with
more information from teachers about parenting. Second, Decision-Making is defined as being a part of Parent
and Teacher Organizations at school so that parents are involved in the decision-making process for school
8
Erdener & Knoeppel
programs, and events. Involvement in Decision-Making may also be defined as parents discussing post-
secondary and career plans with their children. Third, school-interactions are defined as communicating with
schools and the community and volunteering for school activities and events. School-Interactions improve
parents’ and teachers’ awareness about their child’s talents, skills, and abilities. This helps teachers apply useful
teaching methods and it helps parents to understand their children’s capability so that they can better support
them in their schooling. Last, learning at home is defined as parents monitoring and discussing the schooling
process at home with their children. This can help parents to create better home conditions while sharing real
life experience with their children.
Table 3. Parent demographics’ effects on parent involvement
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Source
Dependent Variable
Type III
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean
Square
F
Sig.
Partial
Eta
Squared
Noncent.
Parameter
Corrected
Model
Parenting
180.133a
135
1.334
1.442
.002
.243
194.628
Decision Making
172.679b
135
1.279
1.364
.008
.233
184.128
School Interaction
207.104c
135
1.534
1.741
.000
.279
235.074
Learning at Home
197.298d
135
1.461
1.629
.000
.266
219.905
Intercept
Parenting
.255
1
.255
.276
.600
.000
.276
Decision Making
.319
1
.319
.341
.560
.001
.341
School Interactions
.056
1
.056
.064
.801
.000
.064
Learning at Home
2.070
1
2.070
2.307
.129
.004
2.307
INCOME
Parenting
11.591
4
2.898
3.131
.015
.020
12.523
Decision Making
5.491
4
1.373
1.464
.212
.010
5.855
School Interactions
9.231
4
2.308
2.620
.034
.017
10.478
Learning at Home
3.733
4
.933
1.040
.386
.007
4.161
ED_LEVEL
* AGE
Parenting
11.287
7
1.612
1.742
.097
.020
12.195
Decision Making
21.203
7
3.029
3.230
.002
.036
22.609
School Interactions
5.851
7
.836
.949
.468
.011
6.641
Learning at Home
3.628
7
.518
.578
.774
.007
4.044
INCOME *
AGE
Parenting
11.914
7
1.702
1.839
.077
.021
12.873
Decision Making
11.001
7
1.572
1.676
.112
.019
11.730
School Interactions
9.762
7
1.395
1.583
.138
.018
11.080
Learning at Home
9.531
7
1.362
1.518
.158
.017
10.623
ED_LEVEL
* INCOME *
AGE
Parenting
5.356
6
.893
.964
.448
.009
5.787
Decision Making
9.514
6
1.586
1.691
.121
.016
10.144
School Interactions
8.850
6
1.475
1.674
.125
.016
10.046
Learning at Home
9.940
6
1.657
1.846
.088
.018
11.079
Error
Parenting
560.867
606
.926
Decision Making
568.321
606
.938
School Interactions
533.896
606
.881
Learning at Home
543.702
606
.897
Total
Parenting
741.000
742
Decision Making
741.000
742
School Interactions
741.000
742
Learning at Home
741.000
742
Corrected
Total
Parenting
741.000
741
Decision Making
741.000
741
School Interactions
741.000
741
Learning at Home
741.000
741
Note. a. R Squared = .243 (Adjusted R Squared = .074)
b. R Squared = .233 (Adjusted R Squared = .062)
c. R Squared = .279 (Adjusted R Squared = .119)
d. R Squared = .266 (Adjusted R Squared = .103)
e. Computed using alpha = .05
The four factors were used as dependent variables to conduct the Multivariate Analysis of Variance
(MANOVA). The findings indicated that family income level significantly affected the combined parent
involvement factors of Parenting, Decision-Making, School Interactions and Learning at Home. On the other
9
Int J Res Educ Sci
hand, parent education level, marital status, and age did not significantly affect the combined dependent
variables of Parenting, Decision-Making, School Interactions and Learning at Home. As earlier research
indicated, educated parents have a positive effect on children’s interest in literacy activities and motivation in
early ages (Ayhan, 2008). In addition, in a study in of parents of fourth grade students in Ankara, Turkey,
Hortacsu (1995) found that educated parents also affected children’s cognitions, development, and their
academic achievement. Nevertheless, this study was conducted in rural areas, and the number of parents who
had bachelors and graduate degrees were low. More than 96% of participants had intact families, so the sample
did not include a large enough number of participants who were separated, widowed, and never married.
Although, education level, marital status, and age did not significantly affect the combined parent involvement,
there were some interactions among the independent variables that showed significant differences on parent
involvement factors. The interaction between education level and age significantly affected the combined
dependent variables of parent involvement. Also, the interaction between family income and age significantly
affected the combined dependent variables of parent involvement. The finding is consistent with previous
studies (Cooper, 2010; Erdoğan & Demirkasımoğlu, 2010; Hill et al., 2004; Reynolds, 1991) that indicated that
parents who work in minimum wage jobs might not be involved in many school activities because they lack the
time. Furthermore, poverty might limit these parents ability to obtain resources for their children’s education.
Finally, the interaction among education level, family income, and age, as well as the interaction among family
income, and age significantly affected the combined dependent variables of parent involvement.
Moreover, the results of the follow-up test, the Univariate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), indicated that some
interactions of independent variables, and income separately affected the Parenting, the Decision-Making, the
School Interactions and the Learning at Home factors. Income statistically affected the Parenting, and the
School Interactions factors. The interaction between education and income, and also education and marital
status statistically affected the Learning at Home factor. More than half of families earned the minimum wage,
and almost 80% of families had low income in rural areas of the city of Konya. There are not private schools,
so all parents send their children to public schools. Nevertheless, high income and middle income families
might send their children to private learning centers and might also be able to afford tutoring expenses, and
transportation. In addition, the government provides free textbooks for all children; however, there were many
other schooling materials such as technology, the internet, new books etc. In the last decade, teachers have
promoted the use of technology by students for their homework and projects. Although, high income and
middle-income families might offer these materials to their children, low-income families cannot afford the
internet, computers, and touchpad for their children.
Also, high income parents and one of the middle income levels were involved in school interactions for all three
districts. These families had good communication with teachers. They were attending school activities and
events. These parents also joined the school activities as volunteers. They were informed about how to monitor
their children’s schooling process.
In addition, the interaction between education and age statistically affected the Decision-Making factor.
Educated parents in the Çumra district were involved in school interactions for all age groups except parents
who had bachelor’s degrees between the ages of 20-29 and 40-49. None of the parents in Akşehir had graduate
degrees. The most involved parents in Cihanbeyli were in the age groups of 20-29 years and 40-49 years. All
parents in this region were significantly involved in school interactions except those who had less than a high
school degree. The most involved parents in this region had bachelor’s degree and they were from the middle
age groups. Therefore, highly educated parents from the middle and young age groups were involved in school
activities and regularly communicated with teachers. The importance of education has increased among the
Turkish people during the last two decades. Thus, educated parents paid attention to the significance of
education for their children and they take the time to become involved in their children’s schooling. In Çumra
district, low income parents for all age groups were more likely to be involved in both the decision-making and
the learning at home process more than high income families. High income and middle income parents who are
in the 30-39 years of age were only involved in the decision-making process in Çumra. In addition, high income
and middle income parents for different age groups were most likely to be involved in the decision-making and
the learning at home process in Cihanbeyli and Akşehir districts. These parents joined the Parent and Teacher
Organizations to make decision about school programs and activities. Also these parents discussed and
monitored the schooling processes at home with their children. In the Çumra district, many people work at
farming and breading livestock, so there are many low income families. This is an important finding because it
was contrary to existing literature that low income parents are less involved in the decision making process at
school than higher income families. Although this only happened in one region, the finding was noteworthy.
10
Erdener & Knoeppel
The study had several limitations. Survey research is a design that permits the collection of data from large
numbers of participants, but depends on the participants’ willingness to respond to a written data collection
instrument (Pinsonneault & Kraemer, 1993). Surveys are useful in collecting participants’ perceptions about
behavior, but are limited by the participants’ honesty, willingness to answer questions, and their recall of
situations or events. All these limitations of the research design of surveys pertain to this study (Green, Camilli,
& Elmore, 2006).
Conclusion
The findings of this study extended the work of previous research on parent involvement in the schooling
process. This investigation revealed how the partnership between home and school is necessary in Turkey.
Significant differences were found between family income levels on combined parent involvement factors.
Also, there were significant differences between the parent demographic characteristics on combined or separate
parent involvement factors.
Many parents agreed that educated parents and society affect student achievement because these groups of
people have better communication with teachers and principals (Erdener, 2014). Parent involvement has an
influence on children’s educational engagement for all school levels (Erdener, 2016). Educated parents are
involved in the decision making process about their children’s post-secondary education plans, career plans, and
parents think that students from high income families are more successful. In addition, parents claimed that
family problems prevented their involvement in the schooling process. For the most part, poverty was the cause
of these problems. The parent’s comments suggested that parents agreed that parent involvement is definitely
significant for students’ academic achievement and behaviors problems, but they still believed that schools are
responsible for schooling.
Therefore, the education system might require professional development for the school administrators and
teachers about increasing parent involvement in their children’s schooling. A school administrators' fairness and
working in harmony can make it easier for teachers to increase their job motivation levels (Deniz & Erdener,
2016b). Principal might increase their instructional supervision about teachers’ classroom activities and lead
them to communicate with parents (Deniz & Erdener, 2016a). Also, teacher candidates might be informed about
why parent involvement is necessary and how they can provide the partnership between home, school and the
community in bachelor’s degree. Some courses might be offered for educators by the school of education.
Recommendations
The significance of parent involvement in schooling has been occurred in Turkey. Next studies and researches
will solve the problems which are the barrier of parent involvement. Future researches might be about teacher
attitudes about parent involvement in different regions.
Acknowledgements
This study is a part of a doctoral dissertation. The research was supported by a grant from the Turkish Ministry
of National Education. We sincerely thank Dr. Curtis Brewer, Dr. Bonnie Holaday, Dr. Jane Clark Lindle, and
Dr. Russ Marion for their guidance.
References
Aktan, S., & Tezci, E. (2013). Matematikte öz düzenleyici öğrenme stratejileri ölçeğinin geçerlik ve güvenilirlik
çalişmasi [The study of validity and reliability of self regulated learning strategies scale in
mathematics]. e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, (8),1, 46-62.
Ayhan, A. (2008). Altı yaş grubundaki çocukların kavram gelişimlerinin cinsiyete, anne-baba ögrenim
düzeyine ve ana okuluna devam süresine göre incelenmesi [An examination of six-year-old children’s
concept development with respect to gender, parents’ education level and time spent in preschool].
Cagdas Egitim Dergisi, (350), 33-38.
11
Int J Res Educ Sci
Baroody, A., & Dobbs-Oates, J. (2009). Child and parent characteristics, parental expectations, and child
behaviors related to preschool children’s interest in literacy. Early Child Development and Care,
181(3), 345359.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist,
32, 513 - 531.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives.
Developmental Psychology, 22(6), 723 - 742.
Coleman, B & McNeese, M.N. (2009). From home to school: The relationship among parental involvement,
student motivations, and academic achievement. International Journal of Learning, 16 (7), 459-470.
Cooper, C. E. (2010). Family poverty, school-based parental involvement, and policy-focused protective
factors in kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(4), 480-492.
Cooper, C. E., Crosnoe, R., Suizzo, M. A., & Pituch, K. A. (2010). Poverty, race, and parental involvement
during the transition to elementary school. Journal of Family Issues, 31(7), 859-883. doi:
10.1177/0192513X09351515
Crosnoe, R. (2001). Academic orientation and parental involvement in education during high school.
Sociology of Education, 74, 210-230.
Currie, J. M. (1997). Choosing among alternative programs for poor children. The Future of Children, 7, 113-
131.
Davidov, E., & Beuckelaer, A. D. (2010). How harmful are survey translations? A test with Schwartz’s human
values instrument. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 22(4), 487-510.
Deniz, Ü. ve Erdener, M. A. (2016a). Okul müdürlerinin sergilediği öğretimsel denetim davranışlarına ilişkin
öğretmen görüşleri. Tüfekçi, Ö. K. (Ed.). Sosyal bilimlerde stratejik araştırmalar (ss. 69-81).
Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Deniz, Ü. ve Erdener, M. A. (2016). Öğretmenlerin motivasyonlarını etkileyen etmenler. Tüfekçi, Ö. K.
(Ed.). Sosyal bilimlerde stratejik araştırmalar (ss. 29-41). Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Desimone, L. (1999). Linking parent involvement with student achievement: Do race and income matter? The
Journal of Educational Research, 93(1), 11-30.
Englund, M. M., Luckner, A. E., Whaley, G. J. L., & Egeland, B. (2004). Children’s achievement in early
elementary school: Longitudinal effects of parental involvement, expectations, and quality of
assistance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 723-730.
Epstein, J.L. (1985). Home and school connections in schools of the future: Implications of research on parent
involvement, Peabody Journal of Education, 62 (2), 18-41. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01619568509538471
Epstein, J. L. (1987). Toward a theory of family-school connections: Teacher practices and parent
involvement. In K. Hurrelmann, F. Kaufmann, and F. Lösel (Eds.). Social intervention: Potential and
constraints, (pp. 121-136). New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the children we share. The Phi Delta
Kappan, 76(9), 701-712.
Epstein, J. L. (2001). Building bridges of home, school, and community: The importance of design. Journal of
Education for Students Placed at Risk, 6(1/2), 161-168.
Epstein, J. L. (2005a). A case study of the partnership schools comprehensive school reform (CSR) model.
Elementary School Journal, 106(2), 151-170.
Epstein, J. L. (2005b). Attainable goals? The spirit and letter of the No Child Left Behind Act on parental
involvement. Sociology of Education, 78(2), 179-182.
Epstein, J. L. (2010). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving
schools (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Epstein, J., & Sanders, M. G. (1998). What we learn from international studies of school-family-community
partnerships. Childhood Education, 74(6), 392-94.
Epstein, J. L., & Sanders, M. G. (2002). Family, school, and community partnerships. In M. H. Bornstein
(Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 5. Practical issues in parenting (pp. 407-437). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Epstein, J. L., Sanders, M. G., Simon, B. S., Salinas, K. C., Jansorn, N. R., & Van Voorhis, F. L. (2002).
School, family, and community partnerships. Your handbook for action (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.
Epstein, J. L., Sanders, M. G., Sheldon, S. B., Simon, B. S., Salinas, K., Jansorn, N., Van Voorhis, F. L.,
Martin, C. S., & Williams, K. J. (2009). School, family, and community partnerships: Your handbook
for action (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Epstein, J. L., & Sheldon, S. B. (2002a). Improving student behavior and school discipline with family and
community involvement. Education and Urban Society, 35(4), 4-26.
12
Erdener & Knoeppel
Epstein, J. L., & Sheldon, S. B. (2002b). Present and accounted for: Improving student attendance through
family and community involvement. Journal of Educational Research, 95(5), 308-318.
Erdener, M. A. (2014). The Factors Which Contribute or Limit Parent Involvement in Schooling. NWSA-
Education Sciences, 9(1), 36-47.
Erdener, M. A. (2016). Principals and Teachers Practices about Parent Involvement in Schooling. Universal
Journal of Educational Research, 4(12A), 151-159., doi: 10.13189/ujer.2016.041319 (Yayın No:
2981226)
Erdoğan, Ç., & Demirkasımoğlu, N. (2010). Ailelerin eğitim sürecine katılımına ilişkin öğretmen ve yönetici
rüşleri [Teachers’ and school administrators’ views of parent involvement in education process].
Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi [Educational Administration: Theory and Practice], 16(3),
399-431.
Fan, X. & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis.
Educational Psychology Review, 13 (1), 1-22.
Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Geenen, S., & Powers, L. E. (2001). Multicultural aspects of parent involvement in transition planning.
Exceptional Children, 67(2), 265-282.
Green, J. L., Camilli, G., & Elmore, P. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of complementary methods in education
research. Philadelphia: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Haydi Kızlar Okula. (2009). The purpose of the girls’ education campaign. Retrieved from
http://haydikizlarokula.meb.gov.tr/index.php
Heclo, H. H. (1997). Values underpinning poverty programs for children. The Future of Children, 7, 141-148.
Hill, N. E., Castellino, D. R., Lansford, J. E., Nowlin, P., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E. (2004). Parent academic
involvement as related to school behavior, achievement, and aspirations: Demographic variations
across adolescence. Child Development, 75(5), 1491-1509.
Hortacsu, N. (1995). Parents’ education levels, parents’ beliefs, and child outcomes. The Journal of Genetic
Psychology, 156(3), 373-383.
Huck, S. W. (2011). Reading statistics and research (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Jeynes, W. H. (2005a). A meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement to urban elementary school
student academic achievement. Urban Education, 40(3), 237-269. doi:10.1177/0042085905274540
Jeynes, W. H. (2005b). Effects of parental involvement and family structure on the academic achievement of
adolescents. Marriage & Family Review, 37(3), 99-116. doi: 10.1300/J002v37n03_06
Knisely, K. (2011). Literature Review: How much does parental involvement really affect the student’s
success? Retrieved from http://kniselymtt.pbworks.com/f/EDCI6300_kknisely_LiteratureReview.pdf
Mertler, C. A., & Vannaatta, R. A. (2010). Advanced and multivariate statistical methods: Practical
application and interpretation (4th ed.). Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
Michael, S., Dittus, P., & Epstein, J. (2007). Family and community involvement in schools: Results from the
school health policies and programs study 2006. Journal of School Health, 77(8), 567-587.
doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2007.00236.x
Pinsonneault, A., & Kraemer, K. L. (1993). Survey research methodology in management information
systems: An assessment. Journal of Management Information Systems, 10(2), 75-105.
Reynolds, A. J. (1991). Comparing measures of parental involvement and their effects on academic
achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7(3), 441-462.
Rosenberg, H., & Lopez, M. E. (2010, April). Family engagement from cradle to career. Family Involvement
Network of Educators (FINE) Newsletter, 2(1). Retrieved from http://www.hfrp.org/publications-
resources/browse-our-publications/family-engagement-from-cradle-to-career
Sezer, F., & İşgör, İ. Y. (2010). İlköğretim ve ortaöğretim kurumlarındaki öğrencilerin problem alanlarının
tespiti (Erzurum ili örneği). Millî Eğitim Dergisi, 39(186), 235-247.
Sezer, F. (2013). Factors that affect psychological wellbeing. Education Sciences, 8(4), 489-504
Sezer, F. (2016). Causes of failure from students’ point of view Öğrenci gözüyle başarısızlığının
nedenleri. Journal of Human Sciences, 13(3), 4818-4830.
Shaw, C. A. (2008). A study of the relationship of parental involvement to student achievement in a
Pennsylvania career and technology center. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Pennsylvania
State University. State College, PA.
Snyder, F., Flay, B., Vuchinich, S., Acock, A., Washburn, I., Beets, M., & Li, K.K., (2009). Impact of a
social-emotional and character development program on school-level indicators of academic
achievement, absenteeism, and disciplinary outcomes: A matched-pair, cluster-randomized, controlled
trial, Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 3(1), 26-55, DOI:
10.1080/19345740903353436
SPSS Inc. (2011). SPSS Base 20.0 for Windows. IBM inc., Chicago, IL.
13
Int J Res Educ Sci
Suizzo, M.A., & Soon, K. (2006). Parental academic socialization: Effects of home-based parental
involvement on locus of control across U.S. ethnic groups. Educational Psychology, 26, 827-846.
Tezci, E. (2011). Turkish primary school teachers’ perceptions of school culture regarding ICT
integration. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59(3), 429-443.
Tezci, E. (2015). Türkiye'de ilköğretim politikaları. (Ed.: Gümüş, Arife) Türkiye'de Eğitim Politikaları (s.237-
272). Ankara: Nobel Yay.
The Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Turkey. (2011). Haydi Kizlar Okula. Retrieved from
http://www.meb.gov.tr/
Turkish Statistical Institute. (2011). Education statistics. Retrieved from
http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?tb_id=14&ust_id=5
Author Information
Mehmet Akif Erdener
Balıkesir University
Necatibey School of Education
Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership
Altıeylül, Balıkesir / Turkey
Contact e-mail: erdener@balikesir.edu.tr
Robert C. Knoeppel
Clemson University
Professor & Chair of Educational & Organizational
Leadership Development
Clemson, SC / USA 29634
... Their views can shape their children's attitudes about school, affect their family-school engagement levels, and influence their residential and school enrollment decisions. Furthermore, it was found out that parents of younger children, on average, had a more positive perception of the school's climate than did parents of older children (Erdener & Knoeppel, 2018) [8] . ...
... Their views can shape their children's attitudes about school, affect their family-school engagement levels, and influence their residential and school enrollment decisions. Furthermore, it was found out that parents of younger children, on average, had a more positive perception of the school's climate than did parents of older children (Erdener & Knoeppel, 2018) [8] . ...
... The data suggest that the majority of the respondents were married. Married parents may have more opportunities and time to be involved in community and school activities, such as joining parent-teacher associations, volunteering at school events, and participating in school decision-making processes (Erdener & Knoeppel, 2018) [8] . In contrast, single parents and widowed parents may face more significant challenges in balancing work, household responsibilities, and school involvement. ...
... Parents' perceptions were typically found to be positive, where neither age nor education was connected to parents' attitudes toward media (Vittrup et al., 2016). Similar results about the demographic factors were observed in a Turkish study where it was also explored that economic factors also play an important role in parents' involvement in wards' education (Erdener & Knoeppel, 2018). Besides the above-cited constructs, awareness towards EdTech products also plays an instrumental role towards their perception and adoption (Crist, 2002). ...
Article
Full-text available
There have been numerous Educational Technology (Ed-Tech) companies investing in the Online Teaching & Learning ecosystem in the last few years. Parents play a significant role in making academic decisions for their kids. However, the peer pressure of kids, the educational background of parents, and the academic performance of wards would play an essential role in intending to subscribe to Ed-tech services. The research design is based on a self-administered questionnaire is developed to collect data from the parents of school-going students of the age between 10 years to 16 years. Convenience sampling was used to manage the data from 208 samples. The findings of the study showed that parents' awareness of ed-tech (PAE), wards' peer influence (WPI), and academic performance of ward (APW) significantly affect attitude towards ed-tech (ATE), whereas peer influence of parents (PIP) has no significant impact on their attitude towards ed-tech. The study will help stakeholders make online learning platforms more effective, engaging, and reachable. Existing literature contributes regarding the digital facility, and satisfaction of online learning. However, very limited research has been done in the area of parents' subscribing attitude to Ed-tech services.
... Albert, (1996) opined that it is not important to get a one sided view about the role parents can play in shaping the classroom efforts. Moreover, [10] [32] added that the idea of valuing cooperation between schools, families and the communities as having a great impact on the students' education. ...
... Moreover, they do not encourage their children to read and write in preschool. When it comes to parents' perceptions, Erdener (2013) indicates that the family income plays a role in how they perceive their involvement in schooling, whereas educational levels, marital status, regions or age groups do not. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, in particular Goal 4 (Quality Education) and Goal 10 (Reducing Inequalities), underline the need to provide equitable educational opportunities to people in vulnerable situations, including those with a migrant background. Research by Apeltauer (20224) shows that a significant proportion of children in Germany with a migrant background face barriers to basic secondary education, mainly due to language barriers. In response to this challenge, Inceel (2018) advocates the implementation of multilingualism through music education as a means of reducing linguistic barriers. This paper focuses on the Community Music in Day Care Centres (KiTZ) project in Munich, which began in late 2021 and was administered by the Department of Education and Sport, KITA Division, Specialist Advice and Planning Department, and encompassed eight Munich day care centres. The primary aim of the initiative was to provide children and families living in socio-economically disadvantaged areas with opportunities for cultural engagement through an inclusive music project characterised by minimal preconditions for participation. Project activities took place in public spaces close to nurseries or childcare centres, including playgrounds and parks, where families and local residents were encouraged to make social connections through making music together. This study seeks to delineate the interrelationships between music education, migration and multilingualism, and subsequently to assess their collective influence on sustainability. The study of the Munich Community Music project illustrates how a multilingual approach to music education can act as a catalyst for promoting cultural inclusivity and alleviating language-related challenges faced by children from migrant backgrounds. Moreover, by providing opportunities for family and community participation in shared music-making in public spaces, the project not only addresses immediate educational needs, but also contributes to the broader goals articulated in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
... This signifies that the LSENs have well-developed their knowledge in the inclusive settings in the locality. Parents' perceptions on knowledge development is essential so that they can provide guidance and assistance to the teachers with regards to their children's learning at home (Erdener & Knoeppel, 2018). Knowledge should be developed well because it is the foundation of learning in the basic years. ...
Article
This study examined the development of 22 learners with special educational needs (LSENs) in inclusive education at Balamban SPED Center Elementary School in the Philippines. Surveys were used for data collection, and the analysis included descriptive statistics and comparative analysis. Most participants were 5-12-year-old females with three or four siblings. Their families had a monthly income of Php 10,000 or below. Autism was the most common particular need among successful learners, followed by hearing impairment and intellectual disability. According to parents, LSENs exhibited well-developed knowledge, attitude, skills, and behavior. Teachers, however, perceived that only knowledge and behavior were well-developed, while attitudes and skills showed moderate development. Perceptions of parents and teachers regarding child development did not differ significantly. The study concluded that inclusive education plays a crucial role in the success and development of LSENs. Successful learners demonstrated high levels of knowledge and behavior, as assessed by both parents and teachers. Teachers rated attitudes and skills as moderately developed. LSENs achieved functional literacy and adaptive behaviors necessary for daily life and prospects. Collaboration between parents and teachers was emphasized for enhancing child development and fostering holistic learners at home, school, and community. The study recommends that administrators use the findings to develop appropriate programs for LSENs, while teachers and parents utilize the results as an action plan to address educational gaps. The study can serve as a baseline for future research on the benefits of inclusive education for LSENs.
... Parental support includes parent-student engagement, family rules with responsibilities, parental educational support, parent-school communication that begins at the school level rather than at the teacher level, and homework checking by parents. As there is a demonstrable correlation between parental involvement and student accomplishment, educators are interested about the extent of family involvement in the education (Erdener and Knoeppel, 2018). Regardless of the fact that parental support appears to be the target of various domestic and international research, parental support and what constitutes effective parental involvement in students' learning continue to be a source of worry (Kausar and Nasir, 2022). ...
Article
Full-text available
Children build relationships with a variety of people throughout their youth; including parents, teachers, and peers, so it's critical to understand how these interactions affect school performance, particularly with teachers. The objective of the study was to find the perceptions of teachers’ regarding parents’ teachers meeting and students’ performance. The population was comprised of all elementary school of district vehari. The instrument of the study was questionnaire. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. The findings of the study revealed that PTM increase students’ participation in class, improve students’ grades, their attendance, and improve management in class and many other things which indicate discipline.
... Đurišić and Bunijevac (2017) suggest that educational and occupational aspirations are associated with how parents shape their children's activities, time, and learning environments. The aspirations bring about an increase in their children's academic performance and better school attendance (Erdener & Knoeppel, 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
Parents are an important part of any educational progress, and they are recognised as of key importance in children’s learning. In addition, fruitful parents’ participation in children’s education has been reported to facilitate the development of learners’ values, positive attitudes, and behaviour in which their emotional balance and maturity have also been reported to be supported and boosted. With this study, we sought to investigate narratives of parents’ participation in their children’s education at a secondary school in the Amathole West district of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. The study was underpinned by Epstein’s theory of parental involvement and the ecological framework. A qualitative approach was adopted in this study, with a sample of 8 participants (parents), and data were collected through interviews. The findings reveal that parents who were fully involved in their children’s education could track and monitor their children’s progress at school and such parents quickly knew about any problems and talked to their children’s teacher about it. Consequently, we recommend that parents must be more actively involved in their children’s education by collaborating with their children’s teachers to bring out the best in their children.
... Epstein [4] conceptualizes family involvement as occurring on multiple levels, considers the overlapping spheres of influence that families and schools have on students and how those spheres interact, and calls for a greater overlap between roles than those which often exist in schools as well as for greater partnerships between home and school. Studies conducted in recent years have supported the importance of this collaboration [5] which have encouraged learning-at-home activities and a strong relationship between the home and school arenas [6,7] and have demonstrated the variety of ways that families are involved in children's education, as well as the positive outcomes in terms of better performance, better attitudes toward school, and higher graduation rates [5,8,9]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The present study focuses on the involvement of a parent in their child’s learning processes, particularly, their help-giving orientation while learning at home. The main goal of the study was to identify the connection between the parent’s personal characteristics and the help-giving orientation the parent provides to their child: autonomous vs. dependent (parent as student) help-giving. The sample was collected using online participant recruitment surveys in Israel. In total, 306 parents aged 27–59, who had at least one child in elementary school, answered five questionnaires measuring the research variables: the short grit scale; the satisfaction with life scale; the advice/affect management–overparenting subscale; the parenting sense of competence scale; the parental help-giving orientations scale (PHGOs), and a background questionnaire. The findings identified negative associations between parental personal characteristics (grit, advice/affect management, well-being) and parent-as-student orientation and positive associations between the parent’s characteristics and parental autonomous help-giving orientation, with all of these effects at least partially mediated by parental self-efficacy (indirect effects). The results provide greater insight into the relationship between a parent’s personal characteristics and their choice of assistance to their child and contribute to the knowledge regarding parental involvement in learning at home and educational contexts in general.
Article
Full-text available
This research aims to determine the differences and influence of independent learning on communication and collaboration skills. This research uses survey methods and a quantitative-descriptive approach. Data was obtained using a questionnaire with a Likert scale. The research subjects using random sampling techniques consisted of 33 female students and 82 female students in the Islamic religious education study program at UIN Datokarama Palu, Indonesia. The questionnaire contains 18 statements: 10 indicators of learning independence (LII), 3 indicators of communication skills (COM) and 5 indicators of collaboration skills (CLB). According to the results of data analysis using the Winsteps (Rasch model), male students have the best collaborative skills while female students are better at autonomous learning and the capacity to listen to information is the COM that is hardest to obtain. After applying one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), a statistical significance of sig<0.05 was found indicating that male and female students exhibited distinct skill sets in the post hoc Games-Howell type follow-up test. The results show that for male and female students, learning independence is more dominant than communication and collaboration skills. The distinction lies in the fact that female students prefer communication skills while male students prefer collaboration skills. Further results obtained through the general linear model (GLM) test show that independent learning has an effect on communication skills (96.8%) and collaboration skills (93%). Finally, it can be stated that there is a positive relationship between learning independence and communication and collaboration skills.
Chapter
Full-text available
Bu araştırmanın amacı, Bursa ilinde görev yapan öğretmenlerin görüşleri esas alınarak okul müdürlerinin öğretimsel denetim davranışlarının belirlenmesidir. Araştırma, 2015-2016 eğitim-öğretim yılında Bursa ilinde yer alan ilkokul, ortaokul ve liselerde çalışan 964 öğretmen üzerinde uygulanmıştır. Araştırmada ihtiyaç duyulan veriler, nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden tarama modeline uygun olarak İlğan (2014) tarafından geliştirilen “Okul Müdürünün Öğretimsel Denetim Davranışları Ölçeği” aracılığıyla sağlanmıştır. Elde edilen veriler, öncesinde Lisrel programı kullanılarak doğrulayıcı faktör analizi (DFA), sonrasında SPSS 24 programı kullanılarak çoklu varyans analizi (MANOVA) ile analiz edilmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda, cinsiyet, okul türü ve kişisel duygu değişkenleri öğretimsel liderlik davranışları üzerinde etkili olurken kıdem değişkeninin öğretimsel liderlik davranışları algısı üzerinde herhangi bir etkiye sahip olmadığı görülmüştür. Sınıf denetimlerinde bayan öğretmenlerin erkek öğretmenlere göre öğretimsel liderlik davranışları algılarının daha yüksek olduğu görülmüştür. Ayrıca, sınıf denetiminde ve öğretmen geliştirme üzerinde ortaokulda çalışan öğretmenlerin ilkokul ve lisede çalışan öğretmenlere kıyasla öğretimsel liderlik davranışları algılarının daha yüksek olduğu görülmüştür.
Article
Full-text available
Parent involvement has an influence on children’s educational engagement for all school levels. The objective of this study was to examine public school principals' and teachers' practices for improving parent involvement in schooling. This study used a mixed method to identify the school administrators’ and teachers’ perceptions about parent involvement in schooling. Data was collected from 64 public schools' administrators and teachers of elementary, middle and high schools. Six hundred and sixty one (55%) of surveys returned from 28 elementary schools, 27 middle schools, and 9 high schools. Data was analyzed with Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). For qualitative part, phenomenological research method was used to investigate principals' and teachers' experiences to promote parent involvement. Findings indicated that school levels and teachers' education levels had a statistically significant impact on combined factors of parent involvement. No significant differences were found in parent involvement among principals and teachers who are from different major, gender, and seniority groups. This study showed that educator' attitudes is the most significant factor on parental involvement in schooling. Additionally, this study claimed when principals offer different time schedule for parent and teacher meetings, parent involvement is increased. One of parents is selected by Parent Teacher Organization for each grade so parents might use social media for all of meetings, offers, events, and announcements.
Article
Full-text available
Parent involvement is a significant factor in schooling process. Epstein et al. (2009) stated that home, and school partnership directly and indirectly affect child growth and development. There are many factors which support or restrict parent involvement in schooling. This study explored positive and negative factors about parent involvement via a qualitative research method in three regions of rural area, the city of Konya. A total number of 578 parents responded open-ended questions in this study. Low income level was the highest problem that limited parent involvement for families. Additionally, parent education level, teachers' and principals' attitudes, education policies, school activities, PTOs, etc. were effective factors about parent involvement in schooling. AİLENİN EĞİTİME KATILIMINI ENGELLEYEN VE DESTEKLEYEN FAKTÖRLER ÖZET Ailenin eğitime katılımı eğitim-öğretim sürecini etkileyen en önemli faktörlerden biridir. Epstein ve diğerleri (2009) aile ve okul işbirliğinin çocuğun gelişimi ve büyümesi üzerinde direk ve dolaylı olarak etkilere sahip olduğunu belirtmektedir. Ailenin eğitim-öğretim sürecine katılımını engelleyen ve destekleyen birçok faktör bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışma Konya ilinin üç farklı kırsal bölgesinde yaşayan ailelerin eğitime katılımlarını pozitif ve negatif olarak etkileyen etkenleri nitel araştırma deseni kullanarak incelemiştir. Toplamda 578 veli açık uçlu soruları cevaplandırmıştır. Düşük gelir düzeyi ailelerin eğitime katılımını etkileyen en önemli faktör olarak önümüze çıkmaktadır. Bundan başka ailelerin eğitim seviyeleri, öğretmen ve yönetici davranışları, eğitim politikaları, okul aktiviteleri, okul-aile birliği vs ailelerin bu süreçte katılımını engelleyen ve destekleyen diğer faktörlerdir.
Article
Full-text available
zet Bu araştırmanın amacı, ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim kurumlarındaki öğrencilerin eğitim-öğretimle ilgili ne tür problemler yaşadıklarını tespit etmek-tir. Bu çalışma, Erzurum il merkezindeki ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim okullarında okuyan toplam 3941 öğrenci üzerinde yapılmıştır. Araştırmada elde edilen verilerin analizinde frekans ve yüzdelik değerler kullanılmıştır. Verilerin anali-zi sonucunda ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim kurumlarında öğrenim gören öğrenci-lerin sağlık, okul, aile, ders, kişilik, meslek, gelecek, toplumsal ilişkiler alanla-rında önemli oranda problemlerinin olduğu saptanmıştır. Anahtar Sözcükler: Problem alanları, ortaöğretim, ilköğretim, eğitim öğretim Gi riş Genel bir perspektiften baktığımızda eğitim-öğretimin problem alanlarının modernitenin gelişim seyri ile paralel gittiğini söylemek klasik bir değerlendirme olsa gerek. Ancak eğitim-öğretim alanı ile ilgili yapılan her türlü değerlendirmenin klasik olma özelliğinden çok, bu değerlendirmeler ışığında sağaltıma yönelik atılan adımla-rın etkinliğini daha can alıcı bir konumda görmekteyiz. Elbette ki eğitim-öğretimin problem alanları kültürel ve ekonomik değişimler ekseninde şekil alacaktır. Kaldı ki eğitim-öğretim bugün birçok alanda sıkça dem vurulan kavramlardan küreselleşme-nin etkisini en çok hissettiğimiz alanların başında yer alır. Özellikle uzağı yakınlaştı-ran, bilinmeyen dünyaları deşifre eden ve insanlığı adeta birtakım teknolojik olanak-larla farklı tarzda uyaran bombardımanına tutan küreselleşme, bireyleri farklı prob-lemlerin de odağı haline getirmektedir. Ve dahası bu yüzden insan davranışlarının kestirilebilirliği her geçen gün karmaşık bir yapı almaktadır. İşte bu durumdaki bire-ye verilecek eğitimin de ne yönde olacağı giderek içinden çıkılması güç bir olgu ola-rak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Evrensel anlamda eğitim alanındaki bu çaresiz kalışın en güzel fotoğraflarını görsel ve yazılı medyada yer alan okul içi şiddet, okulların fiziki yetersizliği, öğret-menlerin alan bilgisi konusundaki yetersizliği, öğrenci kişilik problemleri ve öğrenci-lerin sağlık problemleri gibi olumsuz birtakım olaylarla izlemekteyiz. Çözüm adına
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this study was to identify how factors related students, their families and school (the teachers) have an effect on the failure of the students in primary and secondary schools. The study sample composed of a total of 755 students from 10 primary schools and 8 secondary schools in province of Balıkesir. Of 755 students, 358 students are from primary schools whereas 397 students are from secondary schools. Findings of this research showed that students are more likey to see themselves as the cause of their failures. Students have also indicated some other factors caused by their families, schools and teachers as the causes of failure although these factors have less effect than those caused by the students themselves.
Chapter
Full-text available
In this study, elementary, middle and high school teachers' work motivations are examined in terms of different variables. This research is a descriptive study as scanning model for identification of the situation. The scope of this research is the academic year 2015-2016 in the districts of Bursa and Balıkesir elementary, middle and high schools teachers who are full-time working. The sample of Bursa and Balıkesir teachers are randomly selected from public schools and the number of sampling is 1270. This study uses the survey which is adapted to the educational organization "Business Motivation Scale". Survey was developed by Aksoy (2006) and practiced by Tanriverdi (2007) in educational organizations. In the analysis of data obtained Exploratory Factor Analysis using SPSS 23 program (EFA), then Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was used. In the results of this study, teachers' education level and personal feeling are significantly affecting the work motivation, while seniority and gender are no significantly affecting the work motivation. Additionally, work motion of teachers who have graduate and bachelor's degree are higher than teachers who have some college degrees. Bu araştırmada ilkokul, ortaokul ve lise öğretmenlerinin iş motivasyonlarının farklı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma var olan durumu tespit etmeye yönelik tarama modelinde betimsel bir araştırmadır. Araştırmanın evrenini, 2015-2016 eğitim-öğretim yılında Bursa ve Balıkesir illerinde ilkokul, ortaokul ve lisede görev yapan öğretmenler; örneklemini ise Bursa ve Balıkesir illerinden basit seçkisiz örnekleme yoluyla seçilen 1270 öğretmen oluşturmaktadır. Veri toplama aracı olarak Aksoy (2006) tarafından geliştirilen ve Tanrıverdi (2007) tarafından eğitim örgütlerine uyarlanan “İş Motivasyonu Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen verilerin analizinde SPSS 21 programı kullanılarak Açımlayıcı Faktör Analizi (AFA), sonrasında Çoklu Varyans Analizi (MANOVA) kullanılmıştır. Çalışmanın bulgularında, kadın öğretmenlerin erkek öğretmenlerden,ortaokulda çalışan öğretmenlerin ilkokul ve lisede çalışan öğretmenlerden, lisans ve lisansüstü eğitime sahip olan öğretmenlerin meslek yüksek okul mezunu öğretmenlerden iş motivasyonlarının daha yüksek olduğu görülmüştür.
Chapter
Full-text available
The purpose of this study is to determine principals' instructional leadership behavior during supervision according to perceptions of teachers who work at public schools city of Bursa and Balıkesir. Tha data is collected from 1270 teachers at the elementary, middle and high school in the districts of Bursa and Balikesir. The survey which was developed by İlğan (2014) as “Control of the School Principal Instructional Behaviors Scale” is used in this study. The collected data firstly is analyzed by using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) at LISREL program, then Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) conduct for data analyze. As a result, gender, school level and personal feeling are significantly affecting the instructional supervision, while seniority is no significantly affecting the instructional supervision. Meanwhile, female teachers' instructional leadership perspectives are highly effective than male teachers, and middle school teachers' instructional leadership are more effective than elementary and high school teachers about instructional supervision. Bu araştırmanın amacı, Bursa ve Balıkesir ilinde görev yapan öğretmenlerin görüşleri temelinde okul müdürlerinin öğretimsel denetim davranışlarının belirlenmesidir. Araştırma, 2015-2016 eğitim-öğretim yılında Bursa ve Balıkesir ilinde yer alan ilkokul, ortaokul ve liselerde çalışan 1270 öğretmen üzerinde uygulanmıştır. Araştırmada ihtiyaç duyulan veriler, nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden tarama modeline uygun olarak İlğan (2014) tarafından geliştirilen “Okul Müdürünün Öğretimsel Denetim Davranışları Ölçeği” aracılığıyla sağlanmıştır. Elde edilen veriler, öncesinde Lisrel programı kullanılarak doğrulayıcı faktör analizi (DFA), sonrasında SPSS programı kullanılarak çoklu varyans analizi (MANOVA) ile analiz edilmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda, kadın öğretmenlerin erkek öğretmenlere, ortaokulda çalışan öğretmenlerin ilkokul ve lisede çalışan öğretmenlere, aynı okulda 11 ve üzeri görev süresine sahip öğretmenlerin 1-5 ve 6-10 yıl arası görev süresine sahip öğretmenlere kıyasla öğretimsel liderlik davranışları algılarının daha yüksek olduğu görülmüştür.
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this study is to adapt sub scale of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich, 1991) to Turkish in order to evaluate primary school students self-regulated learning strategies in Mathematics. The scale was administrated to 273 students from 8 primary schools in Balikesir. Analysis was conducted 273 valid questionnaires. Results of confirmatory factor and reliability analysis show that self-regulated learning strategies scale has eight factors. Internal consistency coefficient varied between .74-.91. Corrected item total correlations ranged from .32 to .82. On the other hand, factors of scale are to show that highest correlation between each other. Thus, Self-regulated learning strategies scale can be used as a valid and reliable instrument in evaluation of fifth grade students’ self-regulated learning strategies in mathematics.
Book
Ideal for non-math majors, Advanced and Multivariate Statistical Methods teaches students to interpret, present, and write up results for each statistical technique without overemphasizing advanced math. This highly applied approach covers the why, what, when and how of advanced and multivariate statistics in a way that is neither too technical nor too mathematical. Students also learn how to compute each technique using SPSS software. New to the Sixth Edition Instructor ancillaries are now available with the sixth edition. All SPSS directions and screenshots have been updated to Version 23 of the software. Student learning objectives have been added as a means for students to target their learning and for instructors to focus their instruction. Key words are reviewed and reinforced in the end of chapter material to ensure that students understand the vocabulary of advanced and multivariate statistics.