ArticleLiterature Review

The science behind skin care: Cleansers

Wiley
Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology
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Abstract

Two of the most important skin care categories with profound dermatologic implications are cleansers and moisturizers. Cleansers are composed of alkaline soaps or the less barrier-damaging synthetic detergents, known as syndets. The lower skin irritation and dryness found with syndets are related to their reduced tendency to cause protein denaturation due to the charge density of protein-bound micelle-like surfactant aggregates. Many cleansing formulations are available for purchase to meet hygiene needs varying by sex, age, ethnicity, occupation, environment, personal preferences, and the presence or absence of skin disease. This discussion covers the science of skin cleansing.

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... Anionic and cationic surfactants are potent skin irritants that can damage proteins and lipids, contributing to epidermal barrier dysfunction. [4,5] Soap-based handwash products Soap-based handwash products are made through the process of saponification of a strong alkali with long-chain fatty acid-producing salt of fatty acid. [6] These soaps typically have a high pH ranging from nine to ten, far from the skin's physiological pH. ...
... [6] These soaps typically have a high pH ranging from nine to ten, far from the skin's physiological pH. [5,7] Synthetic detergents On the other hand, synthetic detergents contain synthetic surfactants, which, unlike soaps, their production does not involve a strong base. [4,7] As a result, their pH is neutral or slightly acidic, ranging from 5.5 to 7.0, making them less irritating than true soaps. ...
... [4,7] As a result, their pH is neutral or slightly acidic, ranging from 5.5 to 7.0, making them less irritating than true soaps. [4,5] Impact of skin cleansing on skin pH ...
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A BSTRACT Background The human skin, with a pH of 4 to 6, serves as a barrier against external pathogens. Alkaline handwash products (HWPs) can compromise this barrier and are widely used following the Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This study aims to determine the pH of a sample of HWPs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and assess the effect of environmental factors on their pH. Methods This is a cross-sectional, descriptive, observational study carried out in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The study involved a convenience sample of 33 liquid soaps, soap bars, and synthetic detergents (Syndets) from various brands. The pH of the handwash products was measured using laboratory-validated techniques. Data analysis was conducted using RStudio 2022 software. Results Of the HWPs, 16 (48.5%) had a highly alkaline pH (≥10), while 14 (42.4%) had an acidic pH (4.0-6.9). Most liquid soaps were acidic (84.6%), with a mean pH of 5.9, whereas soap bars had a mean pH of 10.3. Syndets had a mean pH of 6.0. Conclusions On average, liquid soaps and syndets offered a more physiological pH than soap bars. Liquid soaps were more affordable than synthetic detergents, making them a better value option among the three types of HWPs. Environmental factors such as exposure to hot weather did not have a significant impact on HWPs.
... The use of over-the-counter (OTC) products for skin cleansing in acne vulgaris is widely established but not well researched. 14,15,[19][20][21][22] Effective and safe skin cleansing to remove excess sebum, preventing pore blockage while avoiding skin irritation, is part of the daily routine to improve skin condition. [2][3][4][11][12][13][14][15] Mechanical cleansing using a sonic brush significantly (P<0.05) ...
... The optimal cleanser for acne removes sebum and debris while preserving intercellular lipids and moisturizing skin. 14,15,[19][20][21][22][23] Of all categories of cleansers, lipid-free cleansers have the lowest irritancy potential and do not influence the skin's pH. 23 This makes lipid-free cleansers particularly well suited as adjunctive therapies for patients experiencing adverse effects associated with the use of prescription acne therapies. ...
... As a result, the skin microbiota balance, especially in the sebaceous area, may be disturbed, triggering inflammation. 19,20 The additional benefit of using a mechanical cleansing device for acne is not well researched. ...
Article
Background: Gentle skin cleansing and exfoliation and the use of moisturizers as an adjunct to medical treatment should be part of the prevention, treatment, and maintenance of cutaneous conditions such as acne vulgaris (acne) psoriasis, and xerosis. A monofilament fiber debriding technology (MFDT) is used for effective, safe, and rapid skin cleansing and exfoliation and debris, slough, and biofilm removal. The current review addresses the clinical experience using MFDT for various cutaneous conditions that require cleansing or exfoliation or both and how to combine it with medical treatment. Methods: A literature review explored clinical insights into the role of skin cleansing and exfoliation for patients with various dermatological conditions. The searches yielded 29 publications, 7 guidelines/algorithms, 13 reviews, 8 clinical studies, and one in vitro study. Results: Mechanical cleansing using a device can be helpful; however, avoid injury of the skin as it may result in thickening of the epidermis leading to hyperkeratosis and disruption of the skin barrier. Clinical experience with MFDT for acne, psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and xerosis is discussed. Additionally, MFDT was used to exfoliate hyperkeratosis, actinic keratosis, and traumatic skin tattoos. Conclusions: Mechanical cleansing using MFDT was shown to be safe and beneficial for skin cleansing and exfoliation of various cutaneous conditions; however, only anecdotal evidence or small studies are available to support its use for these conditions.
... Selain itu epidermis juga berfungsi sebagai pertahanan kekebalan, perlindungan UV, dan perlindungan dari kerusakan oksidatif. Stratum korneum merupakan lapisan terluar dari epidermis yang berperan penting dalam keamanan kulit karena fungsinya sebagai protektor dari zat luar yang tidak diinginkan (Draelos, 2018). Lapisan ini tersusun dari sel-sel kulit mati yang akan selalu beregenerasi. ...
... Bentuk sediaan pembersih wajah yang popular digunakan seperti facial foam, emollient cleanser, milk cleanser, scrubs, dan toner. Mekanisme pembersihannya dikelompokkan menjadi tiga kategori utama, yaitu: pembersihan secara kimia, pembersihan secara fisika, kombinasi pembersihan secara kimia dan fisika (Draelos, 2018). ...
... Sediaan pembersih tangan meliputi sabun cair dengan agen antimikroba, pembersih tangan berbasis alkohol, serta pembersih tangan berbasis non alkohol. Namun, membersihkan tangan menggunakan sabun dapat menghilangkan lapisan lipid pelindung yang menyebabkan kulit menjadi kemerahan (Draelos, 2018). 4. Body Wash Body wash merupakan salah satu jenis sediaan pembersih tubuh dalam bentuk cair. ...
Article
Cleansing the skin is an important thing to do in maintaining a healthy body. The skin as the outermost structure of the human body has a function as a protector between the body and the environment, immune defense, UV protection, and protection from oxidative damage. As the main defense against impurities from the outside, many types of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and other minor groups are found. Adanya pollution from the environment can also have negative effects on the skin such as skin aging and skin pigmentation. In cleaning preparations, surfactants have an important role that can function as wetters, cleaners, foaming agents, solvents, conditioners, thickeners, and to produce emollients. The mechanism of surfactants in cleaning dirt in the skin is the formation of micelles. The hydrophobic part of the surfactant will bind to impurities in the skin and its hydrophilic part will be attracted closer to the water during the rinsing process. Abstrak. Membersihkan kulit merupakan hal yang penting dilakukan dalam menjaga kesehatan tubuh. Kulit sebagai struktur terluar dari tubuh manusia memilki fungsi sebagai pelindung antara tubuh dengan lingkungan, pertahanan kekebalan, perlindungan UV, dan perlindungan dari kerusakan oksidatif. Sebagai pertahanan utama terhadap kotoran dari luar, banyak ditemukan berbagai jenis mikroorganisme seperti bakteri, virus, jamur, protozoa, dan kelompok minor lainnya. Adanya polusi dari lingkungan juga dapat memberikan efek negatif terhadap kulit seperti penuaan kulit dan pigmentasi kulit. Dalam sediaan pembersih, surfaktan memiliki peran yang penting yang dapat berfungsi sebagai sebagai pembasah, pembersih, bahan pembusa, pelarut, kondisioner, pengental, dan untuk menghasilkan emolien. Mekanisme surfaktan dalam membersihkan kotoran di kulit yaitu dengan pembentukan misel. Bagian hidrofobik dari surfaktan akan berikatan dengan kotoran di kulit dan bagian hidrofiliknya akan tertarik mendekati air ketika proses pembilasan.
... This makes surfactants a key component of skin maintenance. However, not all surfactants are created equal, with some, namely soap-based surfactants, creating more problems than they address [3,9,10,13,16,17,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]. This review will: (1) compare and contrast the key attributes of soaps and syndets; (2) discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different types of surfactant and provide insight into their physicochemical properties, biological activity and potential effects; ...
... While soaps and syndets are similar in that they cleanse dirt and impurities from the surface of the skin, their distinct chemical properties and physiological effects can be markedly different [3,9,10,13,16,17,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31] (Figure 1). ...
... The key points of difference between soaps and syndets [3,9,10,13,16,17,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]]. ...
Article
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Products designed to cleanse the skin commonly do so through surfactant action, which leads to the lowering of the surface tension of the skin to facilitate the removal of dirt from its surface. Skin cleansers generally come in one of two types: soap-based and synthetic detergents, or syndets. While the latter can effectively maintain the native skin structure, function and integrity, the former tends to negatively affect the skin by causing barrier disruption, lipid dissolution and pH alteration. Despite this, soap is still often preferred, possibly due to the negative connotations around anything that is not perceived as ‘natural’. It is, therefore, important that the science behind cleansers, especially those designed for the maintenance of healthy skin and the management of common skin conditions such as eczema, be understood by both formulators and end-users. Here, we carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of surfactant—the key ingredient(s) in skin cleansers—and provide insight into surfactants’ physicochemical properties, biological activity and potential effects. Fine-tuning of the complex characteristics of surfactants can successfully lead to an ‘optimal’ skin cleanser that can simultaneously be milder in nature, highly effective and beneficial, and offer minimal skin interference and environmental impact.
... Sin embargo, denota una identidad química específica. 10 Los jabones son productos alcalinos (pH 8.5-11) obtenidos de la saponificación de ácidos grasos, es decir, de la reacción química entre una base (hidróxido de sodio o de potasio) y un ácido graso. La molécula resultante (tensoactivo) tiene la capacidad de interaccionar con el agua y los lípidos (grasas o aceites). ...
... Para mejor limpieza y cuidado de la piel algunos productos suelen combinar tensoactivos tanto de origen natural como sintéticos. 10 La característica anfipática (consta de una parte polar y una no polar) del jabón le permite interaccionar con el agua y los lípidos presentes en la suciedad a través de la formación de micelas, que posteriormente son eliminadas de la piel por arrastre con el agua. La capacidad de los jabones de desnaturalizar proteínas y disolver lípidos presentes en las membranas celulares y en la envoltura de algunos virus favorece la fragmentación de estas estructuras, causando la muerte de las bacterias e inactivación de los virus. ...
Article
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La higiene de manos es una medida simple y efectiva para disminuir la tasa de transmisión de agentes infecciosos como bacterias y virus. Esta práctica fue adoptada a partir de observaciones e hipótesis sobre la relación entre la transmisión de enfermedades y las manos sucias. Los estudios científicos muestran que el mecanismo de acción del jabón y el alcohol es similar, ambos tienen la capacidad de desnaturalizar proteínas y disolver lípidos que se encuentran en bacterias y virus, provocando su lisis. La higiene excesiva puede también alterar las características de la piel. Debido a la propagación de enfermedades infecciosas potencialmente mortales, la higiene de manos sigue siendo un tema de estudio, controversia, y preocupación mundial.
... O principal ingrediente comumente encontrado nas barras de syndets é o cocoil isotionato de sódio, um surfactante sintético suave. Muitos sabonetes do tipo syndet contêm hidratantes que permitem uma limpeza eficaz da pele com o mínimo de remoção dos componentes importantes do estrato córneo (RIBEIRO, 2010;DRAELOS, 2017). É possível combinar tanto os sabões modernos quanto os sabonetes do tipo syndets numa única formulação denominada combar, assim chamada por ser uma contração do termo designado em inglês combination bar (RIBEIRO, 2010;DRAELOS, 2017). ...
... Muitos sabonetes do tipo syndet contêm hidratantes que permitem uma limpeza eficaz da pele com o mínimo de remoção dos componentes importantes do estrato córneo (RIBEIRO, 2010;DRAELOS, 2017). É possível combinar tanto os sabões modernos quanto os sabonetes do tipo syndets numa única formulação denominada combar, assim chamada por ser uma contração do termo designado em inglês combination bar (RIBEIRO, 2010;DRAELOS, 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Higiene e lavagem das mãos foram valorizadas no pós-pandemia. Com a intenção de inovar na produção de sabonetes em barra, foi feito um estudo com diferentes bases estruturante naturais associadas ao óleo essencial de bergamota com foco na aromaterapia. Sabonetes suaves utilizando polímeros naturais como gelatina e ágar-ágar foram desenvolvidos com associação do óleo essencial de bergamota, visando garantir um clima de tranquilidade, equilíbrio emocional e um ambiente mais agradável na rotina da higiene pessoal. A pesquisa também buscou realizar análise sensorial e verificar o desempenho dos produtos durante a lavagem das mãos. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram a possibilidade do uso de polímeros naturais na obtenção de sabonetes em barra macios e suaves. Os atributos sensoriais dos sabonetes proporcionaram um clima de tranquilidade e um ambiente mais agradável na rotina da higiene pessoal.
... Inoltre, lo strato dei corneociti viene alterato e l'attività enzimatica nello spazio intracellulare risulta aumentata causando un incremento della perdita di acqua transepidermica con alterazione dello strato lipidico sulla superficie cutanea e aumento della penetrazione di irritanti e allergeni che sono responsabili della dermatite 11 . Tra i prodotti che abbiamo a disposizione per il lavaggio delle mani troviamo: i saponi, i detergenti sintetici, i saponi antisettici, gli igienizzanti mani a base di alcol e le salviette disinfettanti 12 : • i saponi sono sali di acidi grassi con proprietà detergenti 13 . Il sapone rimuove lo sporco e inattiva i virus, distruggendo sia la membrane lipidica che i lipidi intracellulari, ma rimuove anche i lipidi intracellulari benefici e le proteine dello strato corneo dell'epidermide causando irritazione della pelle 14 ; • i detergenti sintetici derivano dal petrolato e contengono tensioattivi chimici che si fondono con la membrana lipidica del virus causandone la rottura, insieme alla distruzione di lipidi naturali presenti nello strato corneo 14,15 . ...
... Questi sono efficaci nell'uccidere i virus con rivestimento lipidico, come il SARS-CoV-2. I detergenti sintetici possono contenere al loro interno idratanti (ad esempio il petrolato, gli oli vegetali e il burro di karité) che favoriscono la pulizia della pelle con una rimozione minima dei componenti essenziali dello stato corneo 13 . Il grado di xerosi cutanea, irritazione e infiammazione indotta dai detergenti sintetici dipende dalle concentrazioni specifiche del tensioattivo 14 ; • gli antisettici sono saponi o detergenti sintetici che hanno una componente antimicrobica aggiuntiva che va ad agire sull'integrità della membrana virale 1 . ...
Article
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La recente pandemia da infezione da Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) ha portato a una maggiore consapevolezza dell’importanza dell’igiene e della pulizia delle mani. Per prevenire la trasmissione del virus, il Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) raccomanda di lavarsi frequentemente le mani con acqua e sapone. I prodotti per l’igiene delle mani sono disponibili in diverse formulazioni e, sebbene ciascuna di queste sia efficace contro il SARS-CoV-2 possono anche alterare l’integrità e la funzione della barriera cutanea. Il frequente lavaggio delle mani con disinfettanti ha portato a un aumento delle dermatiti delle mani sia nella popolazione generale che nel personale sanitario. I disinfettanti per le mani a base di alcol con creme idratanti hanno minor rischio di causare sensibilizzazione e irritazione rispetto ai saponi e ai detergenti sintetici. Questo articolo fornisce una panoramica dei prodotti per l’igiene delle mani più utilizzati e della loro associazione con la dermatite da contatto. Infine, vengono fornite alcune raccomandazioni su come trattare e prevenire l’insorgenza di queste dermatiti.
... Micellar water is a skincare product that utilizes micellar technology to effectively cleanse the skin of impurities, including makeup, sunscreen, and dirt. It typically consists of water mixed with surfactants (surface-active agents), such as cetrimonium bromide or other gentle detergents [1]. In a micelle, the hydrophilic parts of the surfactant molecules are oriented towards the surrounding water, while the hydrophobic parts are sequestered in the core of the micelle, away from the water. ...
Article
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Micellar waters are widely used skincare cleansing products. It is commonly considered that micellar waters do not need to be rinsed off. Products left on the skin can affect its pH, which typically ranges from 4.1 to 5.8. and plays a vital role in maintaining the integrity of the skin barrier. Our objective was to evaluate the pH of micellar waters and investigate product claims, and differences according to target skin type. The pH of 30 samples of different micellar waters was tested. The products were categorized into groups based on target skin type. Statistical analysis was performed on both quantitative and qualitative data. In addition to descriptive statistics, the Shapiro–Wilk test, Fischer’s Exact test, and the Kruskal–Wallis test were used considering the minimal significance level of 95%. The pH of the tested micellar waters ranged from 4.25 to 7.87. Most samples, 21 (70%), claimed to have a no-rinse formula. Most products, 18 (60%), also reported some type of testing having been performed. There were no statistically significant differences in pH between target skin types but products “for all skin types” were the most likely to lack rinsing instructions. In conclusion, most micellar water samples had skin-friendly pH levels and providers should carefully consider product characteristics for patients with skin conditions.
... It can be used to remove dirt, oils, and impurities from both skin and surfaces [2], and it is also critical in preventing the spread of harmful microorganisms, which promotes public health. Modern soap formulations contain moisturizing ingredients that contribute to skin care [3], effectively eliminate odor-causing sub-stances, assist in stain removal, and can be used as a multipurpose tool for household cleaning activities. ...
Article
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Bar soap is a widely used cleansing and lubricating product. It primarily comprises fatty acid salts and surfactants that help remove dirt and impurities from the skin. This research innovates the production of soap that can serve as both a cleaning agent and a medication. Baeckea frutescens is a wild herb with a historical track record for its medicinal applications, such as treating fever and sunstroke. This investigation involved extracting the oil for the saponification process, followed by an analysis using Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The validation of C-H ν and C=C aromatic signals at 2923.04 cm-1 and 1609.12 cm-1 , respectively, in the FTIR data has been corroborated through Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GCMS) analysis. The result illustrates the mass spectrum, confirming the presence of 1-ethyl-3-methylbenzene with a molecular ion [M + ] at m/z 120. This observation is consistent with the mass spectrometric properties of the genuine standard, 1-ethyl-3-methylbenzene, thereby strengthening the reliability of our analytical findings. The soap's unique spherical design not only acts as a barrier against microbial growth but also highlights the oil's potential aesthetic and health benefits. This research highlights the potential of Baeckea frutescens soap as an eco-friendly and therapeutic alternative that combines natural healing characteristics with contemporary skincare requirements. Soap has been used for thousands of years and is essential for personal hygiene, cleanliness, and a wide range of cleaning applications [1]. It can be used to remove dirt, oils, and impurities from both skin and surfaces [2], and it is also critical in preventing the spread of harmful microorganisms, which promotes public health. Modern soap formulations contain moisturizing ingredients that contribute to skin care [3], effectively eliminate odor-causing substances , assist in stain removal, and can be used as a multipurpose tool for household cleaning activities.
... Physical exfoliation usually uses two types of ingredients, synthetic and natural sources. Commonly, synthetic materials used as microbeads are made of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), or cross-linked polymethacrylate in a spherical shape (Napper et al. 2015;Draelos 2018). However, the properties of synthetic beads that are difficult to decompose and build food chains become considered. ...
Chapter
Biomass, as a renewable and abundant resource, holds significant potential for improving human lives across various sectors. One promising avenue is the utilization of biomass for the production of activated carbon, which has multi-benefit resources and demonstrated exceptional properties for numerous applications. This review focuses on exploring the potential biomass-derived activated carbon, especially in the context of cosmetic applications, and also be a significant reference for researchers to determine the future technological and application needs of activated carbon-based cosmetics. Activated carbon derived from biomass processes has several advantageous characteristics, including its high porosity, large surface area, and unique chemical composition. These attributes make it an excellent material for various applications, especially for cosmetics formulations and treatments, owing to its adsorption, purification, and detoxification capabilities. In cosmetic applications, activated carbon from biomass serves as a versatile ingredient with multiple benefits. Its adsorption properties allow it to effectively remove impurities, pollutants, and excess sebum from the skin, resulting in a deep cleansing and detoxifying effect. Additionally, activated carbon can aid in controlling oiliness, reducing the appearance of pores and improving overall skin texture. The potential applications of biomass-derived activated carbon extend beyond skin care. It can be utilized in hair care products to remove pollutants, excess oils, and chemical residues from the scalp, promoting a healthy environment for hair growth. Moreover, activated carbon has the ability to neutralize odors, making it suitable for use in deodorants and oral care products. In conclusion, biomass-derived activated carbon holds immense promise for enhancing human lives through its application in cosmetics. Its unique properties offer opportunities for deep cleansing, detoxification, and eco-friendly formulations. Embracing this sustainable and renewable resource can revolutionize the cosmetics industry, providing consumers with innovative, effective, and environmentally conscious beauty products.
... Nilai fungsi sampo dapat ditingkatkan dengan bahan herbal yang sangat beragam yang memiliki kandungan antimikroba, antioksidan dan antiketombe. Menurut Draelos (2018), dengan menambahkan zat aktif tambahan berbagai ekstrak tumbuhan akan meningkatkan sifat fungsional sampo. Salah satu bahan alami yang dapat digunakan sebagai antibakteri adalah minyak nilam. ...
Article
Sampo merupakan sebuah produk perawatan tubuh yang digunakan untuk membersihkan dan menjaga kesehatan rambut serta kulit kepala dari kotoran. Indonesia berpeluang merebut pangsa pasar dunia pada produk sampo dengan keunggulan berupa penggunaan bahan dasar alami dan herbal tradisional. Salah satu kandungan yang terdapat pada minyak nilam adalah patchouli alcohol yang dapat berfungsi sebagai antibakteri. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui konsentrasi minyak nilam terbaik pada formulasi pembuatan sampo cair. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode eksperimen laboratorium dengan analisis deskriptif. Perlakuan yang diberikan adalah variasi konsentrasi minyak nilam yang ditambahkan dalam sediaan sampo cair yaitu 0%; 1,0% (b/b) ;1,5% (b/b); dan 2,0% (b/b). Parameter penelitian yang digunakan adalah nilai rendemen, nilai kadar air,nilai pH, dan organoleptik. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pembuatan sampo cair dengan penambahan minyak nilam memenuhi kriteria sebagai produk sampo yang baik berdasarkan SNI Sampo 06-2692-1992. Sampo dengan perlakuan A yang memiliki variasi konsentrasi minyak nilam sebesar 1,0% (b/b) dipilih sebagai formula terbaik dalam penilaian nilai rendemen, nilai pH, nilai kadar air dan organoleptik. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa produk sampo cair dengan penambahan minyak nilam efektif digunakan sebagai bahan tambahan dalam pembuatan sampo cair untuk meningkatkan sifat antibakteri.
... When referring to cleansers, the term soap is often used interchangeably. However, this is incorrect as soap refers to an end-product of when a fat interacts with an alkali resulting in a fatty acid salt with detergent properties (an anionic surfactant) [35]. ...
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Purpose of Review Atopic dermatitis (AD) or eczema is a frequent chronic inflammatory skin disease. Taking care of the eczematous skin is important to reduce the inflammation and return it to a healthier looking nourished skin. Beyond recommending topical anti-inflammatory drugs and the use of emollients, recommendations on the correct use of other everyday skin products, as cleansers or make-up products, are lacking. Recent Findings The dry, itchy, and inflamed eczematous skin causes anxiety, poor self-image, low self-esteem, decreased social skills, and an overall decrease in a patients’ quality of life. The use of make-up has been shown to ameliorate these impacts. Knowledge on the components of cosmetic products can help suit the products to an eczematous skin. Existing data identifies agents more likely to cause allergic contact dermatitis and shows how to identify cosmetics that follow the principles of “hurdle technology,” how rubbing during cleansing is a significant and previously unrecognized exacerbation factor, and how cleansers interact with eczematous skin. An adequate choice of all these products allows a patient to enjoy its benefits, while preserving a healthier skin. Summary Guiding healthcare professionals on the composition of the cosmetics used, avoiding products with high allergenic properties, identifying products that follow the principles of “hurdle technology,” and educating patients on the appropriate use of make-up and cleansing products have a positive impact on the care of atopic dermatitis and should be part of a holistic approach to a patient. Key messages - Adverse reactions to cosmetics can come from allergic sensitization or irritant stimuli (like the rubbing associated with washing the skin). - Optimizing the composition of the cosmetics used is essential. Ideally, the patients should distinguish the multiple components of a cosmetic, identifying potential risks. - Avoid products with high allergenic properties, like fragrances or preservatives. Select products which follow the principles of “hurdle technology”: sterile cosmetic technology, good manufacturing practices, appropriate packaging, emulsion form, water activity, and pH control. - Appropriate use of make-up is important for better care and quality of life of AD patients. Guidance on their use and appropriate cleansing products and techniques are essential to prevent exacerbations.
... This finding was in line with a previous study conducted by Mehanna et al. which demonstrated that nonionic surfactants could lead to relatively low zeta potential values while providing stability to the formulation [42]. Moreover, the pH of the optimized KME was within the acceptable range of 5 -7 which was important for topical usage to ensure compatibility with the skin and to minimize potential irritation [43]. The in vitro permeation study evaluated the ability of KME to permeate through a membrane, providing insights into its potential for effective drug delivery. ...
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Loading ketoconazole in microemulsions can enhance the solubility and permeation of ketoconazole into the skin. The systematic approach as quality by design (QbD) can help for better product and process understanding. This study aimed to develop topical ketoconazole-loaded microemulsions (KME) based on the QbD approach. After risk assessment, the design of experiment was utilized to determine the optimal ratio of water, isopropyl myristate, and surfactant mixture (polysorbate 80 and ethanol), which were chosen as critical material attributes. The particle size and polydispersity index, selected as critical quality attributes, were evaluated as responses. Then, characterizations, in vitro permeation, cytotoxicity, and antifungal activity studies were tested. As result, the equations from the D-optimal mixture design model successfully predicted the composition of the optimized formulation and obtained the acceptable design space. The optimized KME was 16.00 % w/w of isopropyl myristate, 73.50 % w/w of surfactant mixture, and 8.50 % w/w of water resulted in a water-in-oil system. The particle size and polydispersity index of KME were 21.1 ± 1.6 nm and 0.329 ± 0.020, respectively. KME showed prolonged skin retention after 24 h and was non-toxic. KME exhibited a broader zone of inhibition and lower inhibition concentration compared to unloaded ketoconazole against dermatophytes, indicating that KME enhanced effectiveness in antifungal activity for skin infection. The results of the KME meeting the quality target indicated a well-designed and suitable microemulsion for topical usage. Therefore, employing QbD in identifying the process and formulation is a promising approach for future development of high-quality topical KME products. HIGHLIGHTS The topical ketoconazole-loaded microemulsions (KME) were developed based on quality by design approach for further industrial production The D-optimal mixture design model successfully predicted the design space of desired KME formulation KME showed prolonged skin retention after 24 h KME was non-toxic for a topical dosage form KME exhibited antifungal activity greater than unloaded ketoconazole GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
... They contain ingredients like surfactants, moisturizers, and adhesives. 10 Surfactants are mainly responsible for the cleansing effectbut may lead to dry and itchy after use. Studies have demonstrated a correlation between the skin microbiota of AD patients and disease severity, with Staphylococcus being the dominant skin flora in AD patients. ...
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Objective To observe the effect of niacinamide‐containing body emollients combined with a cleansing gel on the clinical symptoms of mild atopic dermatitis (AD) in adults. Methods From July 2022 to January 2023, adults with mild AD were enrolled at Huashan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University using single‐center, randomized and placebo‐controlled methods. They were divided into three groups: the control group, treatment group 1 (T1) receiving niacinamide‐containing body emollients alone, and treatment group 2 (T2) receiving emollients plus niacinamide‐containing cleansing gel. All patients were orally administered 10 mg of ebastine tablets daily. AD severity (SCORAD score), peak pruritus numeric rating scale (PP‐NRS), patient‐oriented measure of eczema (POEM), dermatological quality of life index (DLQI) score, transepidermal water loss (TEWL), and stratum corneum water content (SCWC) were measured by the same dermatologist at days 0, 7, 14, and 28. Results A total of 122 patients were enrolled, including 38 in the control group, 42 in the T1 group and 42 in the T2 group. There were no obvious adverse reactions at the end of the study and the clinical scores and stratum corneum barrier of all the groups improved significantly relative to baseline. The SCORAD, PP‐NRS, DLQI, TEWL and SCWC scores in T1 group (12.43 ± 3, 3.3 ± 0.9, 7.1 ± 2.33, 17.1 ± 9.12, 67.2 ± 21.46, seperately) and T2 group (11.17 ± 3.26, 3 ± 1.3, 6.5 ± 2.11, 16.3 ± 9.12, 69.4 ± 24.52, seperately) were significantly improved than the control group(15.1 ± 3.64, 4.3 ± 1.7, 9.5 ± 2.46, 21.2 ± 9.47, 52.7 ± 22.43, seperately) at the endpoint of the study, while compared the POEM scores, only T2 group showed the difference with control group (5.2 ± 1.4 vs. 6 ± 1.6). The epidermal barrier parameters of TEWL and SCWC in the T2 group (17.57 ± 5.24, 66.46 ± 21.38, seperately) were significantly better than that of the T1 (19.96 ± 4.45, 56.45 ± 20.48, seperately) and control group(21.89 ± 7.03, 51.56 ± 16.58, seperately) on the 14th day of follow‐up. Conclusion The use of niacinamide‐containing body emollients can significantly improve the clinical symptoms, quality of life, and skin barrier function in patients with mild AD. The addition of niacinamide‐containing cleansing gel can also affect the clinical efficacy at certain time points.
... Oily, dirty components are captured by the non-polar parts, then rinsed off with water in an emulsified form [9,12,13], more easily than with water alone [14]. In addition to surfactant-based cleansers, other established formulation approaches are available, such as soap bars, emulsions, cleansing ('micellar') waters, alcohol-or oil-based products and exfoliating products, etc. [15]. ...
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Objective: Cleansing is an important human ritual practiced for hygiene, well-being, and relaxation over centuries. As part of body care it is often taken for granted, yet its relevance cannot be underestimated. Although cleansing the skin may seem trivial to some, it is accepted, that this fundamental function of skin cleansing products is highly complex, diverse, and crucial for a variety of reasons in the personal, public, healthcare, and dermatological settings. Employing a comprehensive and strategic approach in viewing cleansing and its rituals, supports innovation, understanding, and development. Apart from being a fundamental function, as far as we know, there is no comprehensive presentation of skin cleansing with all its effects besides "removing dirt". To our knowledge, comprehensive analyses on the multi-dimensional facets of skin cleansing are either rare or not published. Against this background, we examine the importance of cleansing in terms of function, relevance, and concepts. Methods: First, the key functions and efficacies of skin cleansing were investigated by literature research. Based on this survey, the functions were analysed, sorted, and merged and a novel approach of skin cleansing "dimensions" was developed. Herewith, we took into consideration the evolution of skin cleansing in terms of concept evolution, complexity, and testing methods for cleansing products and their claims. Conclusion: Several multi-dimensional functions of skin cleansing were identified and then established to five skin cleansing dimensions, namely: Hygienic and medical importance; Socio-cultural and interpersonal relevance; Mood, emotion, and well-being; Cosmetic and aesthetic function; and Corneobiological interactions. It became obvious, that these five dimensions with their corresponding eleven sub-dimensions, are influenced by each other throughout history by culture and society, technical progress, scientific knowledge and consumer trends. This article presents the enormous complexity of skin cleansing. Skin cleansing has evolved from basic care up to a highly complex and diverse cosmetic product category in terms technology, efficacy, and usage routine(s). In view of future challenges, such as the effects of climate and associated lifestyle changes, the development of skin cleansing will remain an exciting and important topic and thus will finally, again, further increase the complexity of skin cleansing itself.
... The history of soap, which is the predecessor of modern facial cleaning products, dates back to 2500 BC with the Sumerians. With the increase in cosmetic expectations other than health and hygiene, facial cleaning products are now offered in creams, gels, foams, bars, and liquids [1,2]. ...
Article
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Background: The goal of skin cleansing is to reduce sebum and exogenous pollutants and control the skin microbiome. Surfactants in cleansers dissolve hydrophobic substances in an aqueous phase and allow them to move away from the skin's surface. The negative effect of surfactants on the skin barrier can be reduced by changing the solution properties. As a dermatologist in the group of patients we encounter in our clinical dermatology practice who recommends face wash products, we thought of conducting this research in order to determine the product contents to identify the products with the highest user satisfaction so that we can easily make the selection of the right product and direct the patients correctly. Materials and methods: We planned to conduct cross-sectional research. Ten facial cleansing products sold on the most popular website that sells dermo-cosmetic products online in our country were selected. In the selection of the website, the criterion of having the most Internet traffic was sought. Internet traffic data was obtained from www.similarweb.com. The classification of the identified key ingredients according to their chemical properties was used on https://cosmeticanalysis.com. Reviews for each of the ten products in total were examined from the most recent date to the oldest. Results: We detected 87 different chemicals in ten different products. These basically consisted of surfactants, emollients (moisturizers), emulsifiers (cleansers), buffering (denaturators), herbal ingredients-antioxidants, solvents, and moisturizers. A total of 30 different surfactants were identified as the main cleaning ingredient in the examined products. Counterfeit product reporting was especially high on expensive products. No correlation was found between the number of surfactants in the products and the positive effects, such as cleansing and acne reduction and increase, and the negative effects, such as dryness, redness, burning, and smoothing/softening (p>0.05). There was a negative correlation between the cleansing effect of the products and the improvement and worsening of acne (p<0.05, p<0.001, respectively). Conclusion: The bottom line is that a good facial cleansing product doesn't have to contain a lot of chemicals and surfactants. It should be kept in mind that expensive products may be counterfeit and should question whether the product is original or not on the local product detection system from the barcode number.
... Body wash merupakan sediaan pembersih yang umum digunakan untuk membersihkan kulit dengan pH sediaan sekitar 8,6. Bahan utama dalam formulasi sediaan body wash adalah air dan surfaktan yang digunakan untuk mengikat kotoran yang bersifat lipofilik dan menghasilkan busa [4,5,6]. Body wash yang baik bukan hanya efektif sebagai pembersih, namun juga tidak menyebabkan kulit kering, iritasi dan sebagainya [7]. ...
Article
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Body wash merupakan salah satu sediaan kosmetik pembersih yang umum digunakan untuk membersihkan tubuh yang mengandung surfaktan sebagai salah satu bahan utamanya. Surfaktan sebagai bahan utama yang digunakan dalam sediaan body wash memiliki manfaat sebagai pembasah, pembersih, dan bahan pembusa. Mekanisme surfaktan dalam membersihkan kotoran di kulit yaitu berikatan dengan stratum korneum. Penggunaan surfaktan dalam jangka panjang dapat menyebabkan pembengkakan keratin dalam korneosit, kerusakan struktural pada stratum korneum, meningkatkan Transepidermal Water Loss (TEWL) dan denaturasi protein, sehingga diperlukan sediaan pembersih yang mengandung surfaktan yang aman dan tidak mengiritasi kulit. Penulisan kajian pustaka ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kemampuan surfaktan dalam mempertahankan stabilitas busa guna membersihkan kotoran di permukaan kulit dan juga mengetahui tingkat iritasi surfaktan berdasarkan nilai zein pada formulasi sediaan body wash. Kajian pustaka ini dilakukan menggunakan metode penelitian secara komparatif dengan mengumpulkan data dari berbagai sumber pustaka yang sesuai dengan kriteria inklusi dan kriteria eksklusi. Hasil dari kajian pustaka menunjukkan bahwa surfaktan mengalami peningkatan stabilitas busa ketika dikombinasikan dengan polimer ataupun saponin dari ekstrak tanaman. Pengujian potensi iritasi surfaktan dengan kombinasi dari berbagai jenis surfaktan anionik, amfoterik, dan non ionik dengan penambahan beberapa zat seperti polimer, ekstrak tanaman, ekstrak dari fermentasi Bacillus, talkum ataupun penambahan alkil poliglukosida menghasilkan potensi iritasi yang lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan surfaktan tunggal.
... To prevent stinging and dryness, these cleaning solutions contain a pH range (5.5-7) that is close to that of the skin. Due to the charge density of micellar-like surfactant aggregates bound to proteins, these properties are related to their decreased propensity to cause protein denaturation [53]. The skin can maintain more cleanliness when treated with silver nanoparticles, which also serve as disinfectants and decontaminants. ...
Article
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Objective: Identify the types of nanoparticles used in dermocosmetics and their main applications. Methods: A bibliographic review was carried out in the databases Google Scholar, and PubMed, as well as databases subscribed to the system of libraries, documents, and information of the Universidad de Costa Rica such as ScienceDirect, Elsevier, EBSCO, MEDLINE, Clinical-Key, among others. The search was conducted in both English and Spanish. Conclusion: Nanotechnology in the cosmetic industry has been an area that has grown exponentially in recent years. Various types of nanoparticles are used in different skincare applications in the cosmetics industry; however, much research remains to be done on the safety and toxicity of their use for humans and the environment.
... In recent years, numerous studies have been conducted on the chemistry of HASE (Hydrophobic Alkali Swellable Emulsions) polymers and their function in different fields. These polymers have been widely used as rheological modifiers in paint formulations [1] and personal care applications [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. Their use as rheological modifiers is due to their complex chemical structure and architecture. ...
Article
In the present study, the superplasticizing effect of HASE (Hydrophobic Alkali Swellable Emulsions) associative polymers on a cementitious formulation has been studied through a Design of Experiment (DoE) statistical approach. The main advantage of a study based on a DoE approach is that it gives the possibility of carrying out tests in which there is a combination of the parameters chosen on two extremes. Thus, the tests are driven by a combination of these parameters according to the design.The DoE approach was used to optimize the combination of HASE polymer synthesis reaction variables. As a final response from the design, or rather as an objective of our synthesis, the superplasticizing effect that each polymer has on the final diameter variation of the cementitious formulation after the Flow Table Test was chosen. The variation of the final diameter was considered as the difference with respect to the same formulation without the addition of the superplasticizer.The variables were chosen in such a way as to have the greatest impact on the reaction product, in particular the quantity of acidic methacrylic monomer (MMA), quantity of surfactant (SDS), quantity of free radical initiator (ASP) and reaction time (t). These variables were assumed to be independent variables. The design also included a central level, that is an experiment in which all the factors are set at an intermediate value between the minimum and the maximum. In this case, only one central level was added for a total of 17 experiments. By applying the DoE design it was possible to identify that the variable that has the greatest influence on the final response, that is the diameter of the cementitious formulation after the Flow Table Test, is the variable linked to the concentration of the initiator (ASP). The other variables showed a lesser influence on the final response.
... Os tensoativos são responsáveis por sua ação de limpeza, auxiliando na remoção de sujeira e solubilização de compostos gordurosos. A interação desses com as proteínas e lipídios do estrato córneo pode ter efeitos deletérios, causar ressecamento, danos à barreira, vermelhidão, irritação e coceira (Draelos, 2018). ...
Article
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O presente estudo objetivou desenvolver e avaliar a estabilidade de um sabonete líquido preparado com diferentes extratos da casca da romã (Punica granatum L.). Para isso, foram preparados extratos da casca da romã por duas formas de extração sólido-líquido, soxhlet e maceração. Então, desenvolveu-se formulações de sabonete líquido contendo 5% dos extratos obtidos que posteriormente foram submetidos a um estudo de estabilidade, por um período predefinido de 60 dias, armazenadas em temperatura ambiente (25,0 ± 3,0 ºC), sob refrigeração (5,0 ± 3,0 ºC) e em estufa (40,0 ± 3,0 ºC). Análises físico-químicas, como verificação das características organolépticas (odor, cor e aspecto geral), determinação do pH e teste de centrifugação, foram realizadas nos tempos t0, t7, t15, t30 e t60 dias após a formulação. Observou-se mudanças na coloração, pH e viscosidade das formulações submetidas ao calor, com ênfase na formulação preparada com o extrato obtido por soxhlet armazenada na estufa (SE), enquanto as formulações armazenadas a temperatura ambiente se mantiveram estáveis. Baseado nos resultados, conclui-se que as formulações em temperatura ambiente de ambos os extratos, mantiveram-se estáveis durante o período de 60 dias, quando armazenadas em média 25ºC ± 3ºC. Comparando as formulações com extratos diferentes, a formulação contendo extrato obtido por maceração apresentou maior estabilidade quanto às características de viscosidade e coloração. Diante disso, estudos posteriores precisam ser realizados para avaliar as diferenças entre a composição dos extratos e impactos na estabilidade, além investigar a eficácia da formulação.
... It was chosen as the hedonic test sample because the evaluation results met the specifications for the desired facial wash, which was in the form of a liquid soap that was homogeneous, white in color, and had a distinctive perfume smell. F1 has good viscosity, spreadability, and foam according to specifications, as well as the lowest pH compared to F2 and F3, where the pH is 10, and the closest approach to soap preparations is generally around pH 9-10 (Draelos, 2017). The selection of snow mushroom (Tremella fuciformis) extract facial wash in 96% ethanol was also based on the highest polysaccharide content compared to 75% and 50% ethanol extract. ...
Article
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The aims of this study were to determine and evaluate the results of the physicochemical characteristic of snow mushroom (Tremella fuciformis) facial wash, and to determine the acceptability of the snow mushroom (Tremella fuciformis) extract facial wash which has the best physicochemical characteristics. In this study, the extraction of snow mushroom (Tremella fuciformis) used UAE (Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction) and ethanol as solvent with various concentrations, 96% (F1), 75% (F2), and 50% (F3). Furthermore, the extract will be formulated into facial wash and evaluated for physicochemical characteristics. The parameters of physicochemical characteristics include organoleptic, pH, density, viscosity, spreadability, and foamability. The difference in the concentration of ethanol as menstruum of snow fungus (Tremella fuciformis) extraction did not significantly affect the organoleptic composition of facial wash, but it did affect the physicochemical characteristics of facial wash, where higher ethanol concentrations resulted in lower pH, higher density and viscosity, smaller spreadability, and foamability that meets specifications. The results of the evaluation of physicochemical characteristics showed that F1 had the best specifications and continued hedonic testing to determine the acceptability of snow mushroom (Tremella fuciformis) extract facial wash. The results of the hedonic test on F1 showed good acceptance regarding the parameters of appearance, foam, and effects after using facial wash; as well as sufficient acceptability related to aroma and viscosity parameters.
... Unfortunately, at sufficiently high concentrations they remove not only the lipids associated with the unwanted dirt, but also those constituting the protective sebum. In fact, selective dirt removal (without affecting the sebum) is practically impossible and the use of efficient detergents also removes part of the skin's natural protective barriers, exposing its deeper layers to potential toxins and allergens from the environment [5][6][7]. To minimize the damage while maintaining a maximum dirt removal efficacy, formulators often replace part of the ionic surfactants with less aggressive ones (e.g., by admixing the amphoteric cocamidopropyl betaine with the anionic SLS/SLES). ...
Article
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Surfactants present in cleansing formulations interact not only with the unwanted lipids accumulating on the human skin (dirt) but also with its protective lipidic layer (sebum). Development of simple models of human sebum would help to compare different surfactants and biosurfactants under the same conditions. In this contribution we propose a first monolayer model of synthetic sebum composed of lard, stearic acid, lanolin, squalane and cholesterol. The monolayer compression isotherm features a gas-liquid (G-LE1), two liquid-liquid transitions (LE1-LE2 and LE2-LC), and a collapse at πcoll = 45 mN/m. The monolayer spread on pure water and pre-compressed to π0 = 30 mN/m was exposed to four synthetic surfactants (sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), sodium laureth sulfate (SLES), ammonium lauryl sulfate (ALS) and cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB)) and four plant extracts (oat (Avena sativa L.), horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.), cowherb (Vaccaria hispanica [P. Mill.] Rauschert), soybean (Glycine max L.) and soapwort (Saponaria officinalis L.)) introduced to the subphase at a dry mass content of 1% (w/w). Three modes of the monolayer-(bio)surfactant interactions were observed: (1) complete solubilization (SLS, SLES, ALS, CAPB); (2) penetration accompanied by an increase of surface pressure and elasticity but without solubilization (horse chestnut, cowherb, soapwort); (3) no interaction (oat, soybean).
... The synthetic detergents which are a mixture of petrolatum and surfactants have a similar pH to the skin (5.5-7) and contain less than 10 percent of soap (13). Synthetic detergents such as glucosides, cocamide diethanolamine, and sodium cocoyl glutamate can disrupt the viral membrane of lipid enveloped viruses (22,23). The concentration of surfactants is an important factor for irritation, inflammation, and skin xerosis (13,14). ...
Article
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At the beginning of 2020, a new coronavirus, namely SARS-CoV-2, has started to spread worldwide leading to the so-called COVID-19 pandemic. The present study aims to review the effectiveness of disinfectants in the prevention and control of the COVID-19 pandemic. In this article, after an introduction to the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of disinfectants in the prevention and control of the COVID-19 pandemic is discussed. To identify the articles, English databases including Google Scholar, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, and PubMed from December 2020 to November 2020 were examined using keywords. There is also a manual search in journals, a collection of abstracts in conferences, and conferences and dissertations. Hand hygiene is a well-accepted principle in preventing the transmission of most infectious diseases. Given that many formulations of sanitizers can be effective against COVID-19, it may alter the integrity and function of the skin barrier and increase the risk of dermatitis on the hands.
... In contrast, rinse-off cleansing products for infants may contain up to 5% surfactant, considering that dilution occurs upon use [126]. For instance, bathing of infants using rinse-off skin cleansers includes washing and rinsing steps [129]. During the washing step, the cleanser is lathered and deposited on the wet skin surface. ...
Article
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A good understanding of infant skin should provide a rationale for optimum management of the health of this integument. In this review, we discuss the skin barrier function of infants, particularly with reference to the use of diapers and baby wipes. The skin barrier of newborns continues to develop with age. Two years after birth, the barrier properties of infant skin closely resemble those of adult skin. However, several risk factors may contribute to impaired skin barrier and altered skin permeability in infants. Problems may arise from the use of diapers and baby wipes. The skin covered by a diaper is effectively an occluded environment, and thus is vulnerable to over-hydration. To date there has been no published information regarding dermal absorption of ingredients contained in baby wipes. Similarly, dermal absorption of topical ingredients in infants with underlying skin conditions has not been widely explored. Clearly, there are serious ethical concerns related to conducting skin permeation studies on infant skin. However, the increasing availability of non-invasive methods for in vivo studies is encouraging and offers new directions for studying this important patient group.
... 24 Importantly, the soap used must meet the strict definition: a fatty acid salt with detergent properties created when a fat interacts with an alkali. 24,26 It is not yet clear whether synthetic detergents (syndets)-which are generally well tolerated and have a more neutral pH closer to that of skin 26 -are sufficient to provide effective cleaning. However, syndets are typically efficacious against other lipid-enveloped viruses, and hence they are likely to have some activity against SARS-CoV-2. ...
Article
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The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 pandemic has necessitated enhanced protection against viral transmission among healthcare professionals, particularly relating to handwashing and personal protective equipment. Some of these requirements may persist for years to come. They bring associated concerns around skin hygiene and general care, with damage to the face and hands now a well-documented consequence among healthcare professionals. This review assesses optimal skin care during the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 pandemic and in the “new normal” that will follow, identifies current knowledge gaps, and provides practical advice for the clinical setting. Regular, systematic hand cleaning with soap and water or an alcohol-based hand rub (containing 60%–90% ethanol or isopropyl alcohol) remains essential, although the optimal quantity and duration is unclear. Gloves are a useful additional barrier; further studies are needed on preferred materials. Moisturization is typically helpful and has proven benefits in mitigating damage from frequent handwashing. It may be best practiced using an alcohol-based hand rub with added moisturizer and could be particularly important among individuals with pre-existing hand dermatoses, such as psoriasis and eczema. Face moisturization immediately prior to donning a mask, and the use of dressings under the mask to reduce friction, can be helpful dermatologically, but more work is required to prove that these actions do not affect seal integrity. Nonetheless, such measures could play a role in institutional plans for mitigating the dermatologic impact of transmission control measures as we exit the pandemic.
Article
The rise in the use of cosmeceuticals among children and adolescents has created a new challenge for dermatologists, who are confronted with the task of advising young patients on the risks that these products can carry and the often questionable efficacy of these products. While some cosmeceuticals can be beneficial for this population when used correctly, such as broad‐spectrum sunscreen or specific anti‐acne agents, other products may not carry benefits for young skin and could even cause complications, particularly in young consumers who have skin conditions such as acne or atopic dermatitis. Many of the common ingredients in cosmeceutical products have had very limited (if any) studies conducted in pediatric populations, and much of the data regarding the efficacy claims and risks of these products must be inferred from studies in adult patients.
Chapter
Skin care for men has become more important and more popular for our patients in recent years. This chapter will review the features of male skin that one needs to consider in recommending skin care to this patient population and to review the various skin care concerns that are most important to the male population. Photoprotection is also a key concern for males and is also covered in this chapter.
Chapter
Topical skin preparations include cleansers, toners, moisturizers, serums, and medications. Other topical applications include eyedrops to stimulate Meuller’s muscle in the eyelids and solutions to promote eyelash growth. There are an astonishing number of brands and formulations of topical preparations, and some are an essential component to skin care. The aesthetics and antiaging market have grown steadily over the last decade, and the consumer has become more savvy and selective. The aesthetic practitioner should be generally familiar with the available topical products and be able to offer appropriate recommendations to their patients. A variety of preparations, absorption properties and effect on the skin, certain ingredients, and intended result will be discussed in this chapter. This section is not intended to prescribe certain treatments or products but instead to provide a foundation of understanding regarding topical treatments and formulations.
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As the cosmetic market continues to transform, innovative ingredients such as biosurfactants (BS) emerge as a fundamental step towards a generation of cosmetic products characterized by efficacy, safety, and environmental responsibility. In alignment with the global push towards natural, renewable, and non‐toxic materials, BS stands out as an interesting alternative to conventional synthetic surfactants. BS are a type of green surfactants and compared to synthetic surfactants derived from petroleum they are more biodegradable and have low or no toxicity. This work aimed to investigate the suitability of a biosurfactant extracted from the yeast Scheffersomyces shehatae (BS‐SS) to be used in cosmetic applications. The cytotoxicity of the BS‐SS was tested in fibroblast (L929) and keratinocyte (HaCaT) cell lines and the potential for ocular irritation was assessed by the hen's egg chorioallantoic membrane test (HET‐CAM). The cleaning efficiency of the BS‐SS was measured as the ability of make‐up removal in pig skin. Our results showed that the IC 50 values were 10.49 mg/mL for fibroblasts and 11.77 mg/mL for keratinocytes, and the biosurfactant did not result in hemorrhage, lysis, and coagulation damages in the chorioallantoic membrane, which classifies the biosurfactant solution as non‐irritant. Therefore, ocular toxicity and in vitro skin cell toxicity results showed that BS‐SS can be tolerable and safe for cosmetic purposes. BS‐SS featured promising cleaning properties, similar to the cleansing activity of the 1% SDS solution and of micellar water for lipstick and foundation products. In conclusion, the results indicate its potential use in cosmetic applications.
Article
Introduction: Compared to adults, newborns' skin has thinner epidermis and stratum corneum with decreased hydration level, higher transepidermal water loss, and pH variation between 5.5 and 7.5. These characteristics can predispose the occurrence of dryness, infections, and dermatological conditions. Water and liquid soap with adequate formulation have shown to be beneficial and safe for newborns' skin. However, studies evaluating the effect of bar soap, products widely used in Brazil and Latin America, are unknown. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare the effects of liquid and bar soaps on the term newborns' skin. Methods: This randomized controlled, parallel, single-blind clinical trial was conducted at a public university hospital in São Paulo, Brazil. 100 healthy term newborns with no congenital anomalies, acute diseases, or dermatological conditions were randomized to use a liquid soap (experimental group) or bar soap (control group). Skin pH, transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration, sebum content, and skin condition were assessed before and after the first bath, at 48 hours, 14 days, and 28 days after birth. These evaluations were performed on the forearm, abdomen, buttocks, and thigh. In addition, the mother's perception of soap use was also evaluated. Results: Data of 100 newborns were analyzed by intention to treat. The rate of retention was 53%. Newborns exposed to the liquid soap presented significantly better skin acidification (p<0.001) and significantly better stratum corneum hydration (p<0.001) than the skin of newborns exposed to the bar soap, regardless of the area evaluated. There were no significant differences in transepidermal water loss, sebum content, dryness, erythema, or skin breakdown and the mother's perceptions of use of the soaps. Conclusion: newborns in the experimental group presented better skin acidification and stratum corneum hydration when compared to newborns in the control group.
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Cosmetics have always been in demand across the globe among people of all age groups. In the modern cosmetic world, nanostructured materials have proven hugely advantageous in producing cosmeceuticals or ‘nano-cosmeceuticals’ and various beauty products. The application of nanostructured materials in cosmetic products possesses some challenges in terms of short- and long-term safety and environmental issues, despite their growing popularity. The nanostructured particles in cosmeceuticals provide a targeted route of administration due to their high penetrability, site selectivity, high effectiveness, prolonged activity, and drug encapsulation potential. However, standard methods for toxicity evaluation may not be relevant for cosmeceuticals, leading to the need for an alternative methodology. This review article compiles detailed descriptions of all significant aspects of nanostructured materials in the cosmetics industry, which include the synthesis and characterization of relevant nanostructured materials for cosmeceuticals, state-of-the-art practices, mechanisms for the synthesis of advanced materials, toxicological concerns in terms of health risks in humans, and environmental concerns. Also, a proposal for new approaches in terms of regulatory measures to mitigate these problems has been suggested. The primary focus of this article is to provide a comprehensive outlook on this subject area and contribute to the exploration of new prospects and emerging roles of nanostructured materials in the cosmetics industry.
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A pandemia de COVID-19 trouxe inúmeras alterações de rotina, em especial o uso de equipamentos de proteção como máscaras que, apesar de indispensáveis, podem trazer alterações na pele decorrente do seu uso prolongado. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a percepção da comunidade em geral sobre o impacto do uso de máscara no desenvolvimento de lesões de acne e oleosidade da pele. Utilizou-se um delineamento transversal e uma amostragem por conveniência. Todos os participantes entre 18 e 50 anos residentes do Rio Grande do Sul/Brasil eram elegíveis a participar do estudo. Um questionário autorrespondente foi aplicado a partir da plataforma de Formulários do Google para a coleta de dados. As variáveis foram expressas em frequências e porcentagens e as associações foram analisadas pelo teste Qui Quadrado e Exato de Fisher (p<0,05). O uso de máscara por 4-8h ou mais se mostrou significativo para o aparecimento de lesões de acne e o uso de máscara cirúrgica foi associada ao aumento de oleosidade cutânea. Alteração associada à oleosidade foi maior em trabalhadores da saúde. Histórico de acne prévia foi significativo para o aparecimento de lesões de acne e alterações de oleosidade cutânea. Mais da metade (59,6%) dos respondentes sente não saber manejar a pele frente ao aparecimento de lesões de acne. Por fim, apesar de indispensável, o uso de máscara por período prolongado, bem como o tipo de máscara utilizada, favorecem ao aparecimento de lesões de acne e alterações cosmiátricas na pele na comunidade em geral.
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Objetivo: Analizar la información del rótulo, y las características físicas y fisicoquímicas de los jabones usados en recién nacidos (RN). Método: Estudio cuantitativo y descriptivo de 17 jabones comercializados en San Pablo, Brasil. Se analizó la información del rótulo (tensioactivos, pruebas de seguridad y descripción del valor de pH), y las características físicas (color y fragancia) y fisicoquímicas (valor de pH) del producto; las dos últimas, en laboratorio. Resultados: Se identificaron 27 tipos de tensioactivos: 70,3% (n=19) aniónicos, 18,5% (n=5) anfóteros y 11,1% (n=3) no iónicos. El 37% (n=10) tuvo un potencial moderado de irritación. En cuanto a las pruebas de seguridad, la mayoría de las formulaciones (94,1%) citó “dermatológicamente probado”. Sólo 42% citó “oftalmológicamente probado”. La translucidez estuvo presente en 23,5% (n=4) de los jabones. Todas las formulaciones presentaron fragancia. El promedio más alto de valor de pH fue de jabones en barra tradicionales (9,94 DE 0,81). Conclusión: Las formulaciones analizadas indicaron un potencial de irritación bajo o moderado. Cuatro jabones líquidos y uno en barra combinados tuvieron valores cercanos a los del pH de la piel del RN, y mostraron ser adecuados para la homeostasis de la barrera cutánea. Aunque las formulaciones citaron “dermatológicamente probado”, no todas citaron “oftalmológicamente probado”. Este estudio proporciona elementos para seleccionar un jabón adecuado para el RN.
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Background: An important trend in the personal care industry involves the development of advanced personal cleaning products that not only provide skin mildness but support skin's acid mantle properties and skin's natural antimicrobial defense function. Objective: The objective of this study was to develop a controlled forearm washing ex vivo method for assessing the impact of personal cleansing products on skin's acid mantle properties and antimicrobial defense against transient bacteria. Methods: We developed a controlled forearm washing ex vivo method (ex vivo NET method) to compare the impact of two representative personal cleansing products on skin's acid mantle properties and antimicrobial defense against transient bacteria: one was a low pH skin cleanser, and the other was a high pH soap cleanser. Skin pH was measured at baseline and four hours after the product application. Concurrently, D-squame tape stripping procedure was followed to sample the stratum corneum surface layers. Then, two selected transient bacteria: S.aureus and E.coli, were inoculated onto the D-Squame tapes and incubated under controlled conditions, respectively. The residual bacteria counts can provide an objective measure of skin's acid mantle properties against transient bacteria. Results from the ex vivo NET method were compared with the traditional in vivo cup-scrub RET method. Results: The skin pH was significantly lower four hours after washing the forearm with the low pH cleanser vs. the high pH soap, consistent with literatures. Interestingly, the skin surface washed by the low pH cleanser showed significantly higher hostility against representative transient bacteria as demonstrated by the lower counts of S. aureus by 1.09log and E. coli by 0.6log vs. the high pH soap based on the ex vivo NET method. Results from the ex vivo NET method was further supported by the traditional in vivo RET method which also showed the skin washed by the low pH cleanser had significantly lower counts of S. aureus and E. coli vs. the high pH soap. Conclusions: The skin's acid mantle properties and antimicrobial defense can be directly impacted by the personal cleansing products. The low pH skin cleanser works better than the high pH soap for supporting skin's acid mantle properties and antimicrobial defense against transient bacteria. Results from the ex vivo NET method are consistent with the in vivo RET method. It is important that the ex vivo NET method offers many advantages since it is quicker to run with higher throughput and has better safety without the constraint of inoculating harmful microorganisms onto the human subjects.
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3D skin equivalents were one of the first TE organs used for clinical trials. In early skin models, fibroblastsFibroblastsand keratinocytesKeratinocytes were incorporated into a nylon meshMesh to mimic the dermal matrix. Since then, the evolution of scaffolds for skin cell culture has spurred the development of more sustainable and biologically accurate biomaterials that allow for the mimicking of properties and prediction of skin behaviour.
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The skin discoloration of squid subjected to frozen storage negatively affects market price. In this study, various alkali treatments were investigated for effects on red granules and yellow pigments of squid skin and corresponding mechanisms were investigated at the tissue, cellular and molecular level. A significant colour improvement was observed when subjected to a pH 12 treatment, supported by decreased Δb* and increased Δa* values. Neither lower nor harsher alkali treatments than pH 12 can not obtain such results. HE staining and the UV-Vis spectrum suggest that the improved red colour in skin was ascribed to the release of red pigment granules from damaged chromatophores by alkaline treatment and the release of red pigments in alkaline aqueous solutions from granules. However, based on TEM and particle size analysis, an excessive alkali treatment of pH 13 would degrade granules into smaller particles. The degradation of yellowness pigments indicated high sensitivity to alkali environments according to HPLC results. This study provides a valuable reference for improving the colour appearance of squid skin subjected to frozen storage.
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The prevalence of metabolic syndrome is increasing day by day, owing to the sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy food habits, genetic factors, environmental influences and many other conspicuous variables. Skin, aptly considered to be a mirror of internal organs, often manifests with certain signs and symptoms, suggestive of a diagnosis of metabolic syndrome. In this chapter, we have attempted to touch upon the dermatological manifestations (both common and uncommon) of metabolic syndrome.KeywordsMetabolic syndromeDiagnosisSkin manifestations
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Sensitive skin is characterized by abnormal and unpleasant sensations of burning, tingling, smarting or pricking, sometimes accompanied with redness, tightness or dryness of skin, after coming in contact with routinely used skin products or cosmetics. Syndet bar use leads to minimal or no skin irritation along with preservation of cutaneous protein, natural moisturizing factor and lipid content. Combination skin care regime, i.e., use of micellar water cleanser in morning, non-tinted cream with sunscreen in afternoon and serum in night, can help in reduction of sensitivity. Non-foaming cleansers are preferred choice in sensitive skin. Specially formulated anti-ageing creams containing sodium salicylates (1%), polyhydroxy and bionic acids are preferred in sensitive skin. Even the botanical or “natural” products can cause or precipitate sensitive skin symptoms. Powder-based cosmetics are safer in sensitive skin. Water soluble cosmetics with inert, hypoallergic, fragrance free, pure ingredients, specially formulated for sensitive skin should be used. Sunscreen with microfine zinc oxide or titanium oxide is preferred due to their inert and non-irritant nature. Nail polish with toluenesulfonamide-formaldehyde resin should be avoided. Individuals with sensitive or very sensitive skin may have impaired self-perception of social, physical and mental health. So, persistent symptoms may warrant psychological evaluation and counselling.
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Nanoemulsions are increasingly gaining importance in the development of topically applied medicine and cosmetic products because their small droplets favor the penetration rates of active compounds into the body. In this scenario, the measurements of their diffusion rates as well as eventual physicochemical changes in the target tissues are of utmost importance. It is also recognized that the use of natural surfactants can avoid allergic reactions as frequently observed for synthetic products. The natural saponins extracted from Sapindus Saponaria have the property of forming foam and are exploited as biocompatible and biodegradable, while cellulose nanocrystals are known to increase the stability of a formulation avoiding the coalescence of drops at the interface. Therefore, nanoemulsions combining natural saponins and cellulose nanocrystals are promising systems that may facilitate greater diffusion rates of molecules into the skin, being candidates to substitute synthetic formulations. This study applied the Photoacoustic Spectroscopy technique to measure the diffusion rates and the physicochemical properties of nanoemulsified formulations containing saponins and cellulose nanocrystals topically applied to the skin. The ex vivo study combined the first-time photoacoustic measurements performed in both ultraviolet-visible and mid-infrared spectral regions. The toxicity of these formulations in L929 cells was also evaluated. The results showed that the formulations were able to propagate throughout the skin to a depth of approximately 756 μm, reaching the dermal side. The non-observation of absorbing band shifting or new bands in the FTIR spectra suggests that there were no structural changes in the skin as well as in the formulations after the nanoemulsions administration. The cytotoxicity results showed that the increase of cellulose nanocrystals concentration decreased cellular toxicity. In conclusion, the results demonstrated the advantage of combining photoacoustic methods in the ultraviolet-visible and mid-infrared spectral regions to analyze drug diffusion and interaction with the skin tissues. Both methods complement each other, allowing the confirmation of the nanoemulsion diffusion through the skin and also suggesting there were no detectable physicochemical changes in the tissues. Formulations stabilized with saponins and cellulose nanocrystals showed great potential for the development of topically administered cosmetics and drugs.
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Eczematous diseases (contact dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, hand eczema) are among the most frequent findings in dermatological clinical practice. A large body of evidence exists on structural and functional skin barrier damage in eczematous diseases, and on the importance of interventions aimed to repair such damage. While there is substantial agreement on pharmacological treatment, more sparse data are available on role, indications and usefulness of topical non-pharmacological treatments, despite significant research and progress in the composition and technology of emollients, cleansers and barrier creams significantly changed and expanded the functional activities of these products. This often leads to inadequate prescription and/or use, which increase individual and social costs of the disease and make the products useless or, in some cases, even counterproductive. This consensus document, discussed and compiled in a series of meetings by a group of Italian dermatologists experienced in the field of eczematous diseases, summarizes epidemiology and clinical features of the nosological entities of the "eczema family", illustrates the chemical/biochemical structure of emollients, cleansers and barrier creams, and aims to help physicians to exploit the full potential of available products, by providing a detailed but practical guide on characteristics, indications and correct use of non-pharmacological treatments currently available for eczematous diseases.
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The outermost structure of the epidermis is the stratum corneum, and it forms the epidermal permeability barrier which prevents the loss of water and electrolytes. Corneocytes are formed by the terminal differentiation of the keratinocytes from the granular layer of the epidermis. Lamellar granules or bodies (LG or LB) are specialized lipid carrying vesicles formed in suprabasal keratinocytes, destined for delivery of the lipids in the interface between the corneocytes. Keratohyalin granules are irregularly shaped granules present in the granular cells of the epidermis, thus providing these cells the granular appearance. Epidermis also generates a spectrum of antimicrobial lipids, peptides, nucleic acids, proteases, and chemical signals that together forms the antimicrobial barrier. Epidermal lipids, the integral components of the permeability barrier, are synthesized and secreted by the keratinocytes in the stratum granulosum after processing and packaging into the LB. The human skin is constantly exposed to hostile environment.
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A plethora of over‐the‐counter (OTC) modalities exists for treating acne. These modalities include topical cleansers, creams, lotions, gels, and masks as well as mechanical treatments, essential oils, and oral vitamins. The Food and Drug Administration is the regulatory agency that presides over the marketing of non‐prescription acne products. Benzoyl peroxide is commonly found in OTC antiacne washes, creams, and lotions. Benzoyl peroxide acts as an anti‐inflammatory agent by reducing oxygen free radicals and also by lessening C. acnes density. The hydroxy acids are another common OTC antiacne ingredient found in washes and leave‐on products. Lipohydroxy acids, a derivative of salicylic acid, have a similar mechanism of action. Azelaic acid is an aliphatic, dicarboxylic acid used as a topical application in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Retinols are a group of vitamin A derivatives that are available topically OTC in various forms such as retinol, retinyl propionate, and retinyl palmitate.
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A comparative analysis of surface and ultrastructural changes in stratum corneum (SC) with transepidermal water loss (TEWL) was conducted to develop a better understanding of the surfactant-induced damage to human skin. Treatments comprised a synthetic anionic surfactant (A), a composition of soap, glycerin, and petrolatum (B), a pure soap (C), and water (control). An increase in water loss is shown to correlate with increased perturbation of lipid barrier and damage to multiple layers of corneocytes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that, in general, one to two layers of lipid lamellae enveloped the outer layers of SC throughout the tissue. A significantly larger number of lamellae (approximately six to eight) appeared only in the lower layers. Surface topology, obtained using environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), displayed a normal unperturbed structure. Treatment with A did not result in significant changes in SC. B caused regional variations in corneocytes and an increase in TEWL. Treatment with C exhibited significant variation in TEWL numbers: lipid lamellae were disordered and corneocytes appeared damaged and swollen. Intercorneocyte damage ranged from one to two (for TEWL ∼ 11 g/m2 hr) to up to six cell layers (for TEWL ∼ 34 g/m2 hr) of the SC. The presence or absence of the outermost layers of disjunctum did not appear to be critical for water loss, presumably due to a decrease in lipid lamellae.
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Addition of hydrophobically modified polymers (HMPs) to cleansers can reduce the negative impact of surfactant-based cleansers. In this study, the effects of a cleanser containing HMPs, a gentle lotion cleanser (GLC), water, and 1% sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) on barrier permeability, were evaluated in vitro in pig skin and in vivo in humans. Skin stratum corneum (SC) barrier function was quantitated by imaging fluorescence intensity of the sulforhodamine B (SRB) in a pig skin model system using 2-photon and conventional fluorescence confocal microscopy. Solutions containing SRB were applied to pig skin in Franz diffusion cells over a period of 2 h. Penetration of SRB into the skin was monitored from 2 μm to 38 μm. In vivo surfactant/cleanser penetration in human skin was determined using tape stripping. After 2 h, water, 1% SLS, and GLC, significantly increased SRB intensity at all depths measured. SRB intensity was reduced in the HMP-cleanser group compared with other groups at each depth. In vivo, the presence of HMP reduced SLS penetration as measured by tape stripping. The cleanser containing HMP prevented changes in SC permeability and surfactant penetration, indicating a protective effect on skin barrier properties. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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The addition of hydrophobically modified polymers (HMPs) to cleansers that contain surfactants can create polymer-surfactant complexes that are less irritating to the skin than commercially available mild cleansers. Our objective was to compare the tolerability and efficacy of a test foaming liquid facial cleanser containing HMPs with a commercial liquid nonfoaming facial cleanser in women with sensitive skin. In this randomized, prospective, double-blind, comparative study, women (n = 20 per group) with mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis (AD), eczema, acne, or rosacea used a test gentle foaming liquid facial cleanser containing HMPs or a commercial gentle liquid nonfoaming facial cleanser daily for 3 weeks. Investigators assessed irritation and skin condition. Study subjects also assessed their skin properties and the performance of each cleanser. Clinicians as well as study subjects consistently rated the test cleanser as effective or slightly more effective at improving symptoms than the commercial cleanser, although no significant differences between groups were observed. At weeks 1 and 3, respectively, more users of the commercial cleanser reported irritation (20% and 10%) than users of the test cleanser (5% and 5%). In addition, subject self-assessments of skin condition and cleansing properties were slightly more improved with the test cleanser than with the commercial cleanser. Both the test foaming cleanser containing HMPs and the commercial nonfoaming cleanser were effective and well accepted by most women in the study. Improvements were observed by both clinicians and subjects in the group using the test cleanser containing HMPs in all evaluated skin categories.
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In many outbreaks of foodborne illness, the food worker has been implicated as the source of the infection. To decrease the likelihood of cross-contamination, food workers must clean and disinfect their hands frequently. To ensure their effectiveness, hand disinfectants should be tested using rigorous conditions that mimic normal use. Currently, several different methods are used to assess the efficacy of hand disinfectants. However, most of these methods were designed with the health care worker in mind and do not model the specific contamination situations encountered by the food worker. To fill this void, we developed a model that uses soil from fresh meat and a means of quantifying bacteria that is encountered and transferred during food preparation activities. Results of studies using various doses of para-chloro-meta-xylenol and triclosan confirm that the method is reproducible and predictable in measuring the efficacy of sanitizers. Consistent, dose-dependent results were obtained with relatively few subjects. Other studies showed that washing hands with a mild soap and water for 20 s was more effective than applying a 70% alcohol hand sanitizer.
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Cleansing is a challenge to skin for everyone, but for patients with skin problems the choice of cleansing product is the difference between exacerbation and minimization of symptoms. There is ample evidence in the literature that syndet bars are milder than soap-based bars and better for patients with common dermatologic conditions such as atopic dermatitis, eczema, acne, and rosacea. Not everyone needs to use a syndet bar, but it is fairly safe to say that all consumers and patients currently using harsh soap bars could experience a practical benefit by switching to a mild syndet bar. There are two basic types of cleansing bar – soap bars and synthetic detergent (syndet) bars. Like all surfactant-based products, cleansing bars can be harsh or mild to skin. Mild cleansing bars have a key role in fundamental skin care. Mild cleansing bars have positive benefits for patients with skin diseases. Cleansing is a basic human need and cleansing bars are the universal way to satisfy this need. Liquid products may be gaining in popularity but it will be decades before bars become redundant, if ever.
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Many different facial cleansing forms exist today. All can be categorized on the basis of three factors: (1) the type of chemistry used, either surfactant or solvent-based; (2) whether or not the cleansing form creates lather; and (3) whether or not the cleansing form incorporates physical cleansing as well as chemical cleansing. All of these facial cleansing forms provide the basic level of cleansing required to maintain healthy skin; however, different skin types benefit from different cleansing forms, and patient preference drives usage and compliance. Significant innovation is expected to continue for the foreseeable future, particularly in substrate cleanser applications and formulations for removing the new and more durable makeups and mascaras that are entering the market. Technical development will continue to focus on low damage to skin and improved delivery of specially directed skin ingredients during the cleansing process.
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The chemistry of the organic reactions commonly involved in the introduction of characteristic groups in aromatic compounds are described. In this first part, sulphonation of the aromatic system is examined.
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Frequent skin cleaning fulfils the definition of occupational 'wet work'. Standardized methods are required to assess the irritation potential of workplace cleansers. To develop a standardized procedure for testing the irritation potential of occupational skin cleansers. In this single-blind, single-centre trial in 25 healthy volunteers, the irritation potential of five generic reference cleansers was tested by three-times-daily washing with an automated skin cleaning device for 4 days, and quantification of cumulative skin barrier damage was performed by visual scoring, chromametry, transepidermal water loss TEWL, and corneometry. For two cleansers, reproducibility of the irritancy assessment was assessed. Furthermore, the irritation induced by four commercial workplace skin cleansers was studied. Whereas no significant changes were observed for any of the tested cleansers by either visual scoring or chromametry, significant increases in TEWL and significant decreases in stratum corneum hydration were found for all cleansers. Cleansers differed significantly in their irritation potential. On retesting of two cleansers, the first results were confirmed. Among the four commercial cleansers, one that was claimed to be mild was found to be disproportionally irritant. The presented model for testing cleansing preparations allows a highly controlled, practically relevant and reproducible irritancy assessment of occupational skin cleansers.
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Cleansers and other skin care products can be agents either of stratum corneum damage and skin barrier dysfunction or of maintaining or restoring healthy stratum corneum barrier structure and function. To guide patients toward beneficial choices most suitable for their individual skin conditions and needs, clinicians must be aware of and understand the ingredients in such skin care products and their potential effects on the stratum corneum barrier. In cleansers specifically, clinicians should be aware particularly of the benefits and potential problems associated with chemical components of surfactants, preservatives, and fragrances.
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a series of pure SURFACTANTS. Effects of these compounds upon the STRATUM CORNEUM have been studied by means of KERATIN denaturation and the extraction of PROTEINS and AMINO ACIDS. It was found that strongly ANIONIC SURFACTANTS, such as sodium LAURYL SULPHATE, sodium LAURYL ETHER SULPHATE and sodium LAUROYL ISETHIONATE (Igepon A) had considerable activity, by virtue of their polar head groups, whereas sodium laurate and non-ionic ethoxylates had minimal effect upon the stratum corneum. The effect of lipophilic chain length of the surfactants was important in their overall activity, in particular, the lauryl moiety. PERCUTANEOUS ABSORPTION of RADIOACTIVELY-LABELLED surfactants by guinea-pigs in vivo has been studied; sodium laurate and lauryl triethoxylate penetrated to a far greater extent than other compounds: lauryl hexaethoxylate, sodium lauroyl isethionate and sodium lauryl triethoxy sulphate, had lower penetrabilities and sodium lauryl sulphate and sodium LAURYL SULPHONATE were lower still. The effect of pure surfactants upon living cells was studied by means of measuring HISTAMINE release from rat peritoneal MAST CELLS in vitro. ALKYL SULPHATES, ALKYL ETHER SULPHATES and alkyl tri- and hexaethoxylates were potent mast cell lysins, whereas monoethoxylate and sodium laurate and sodium lauroyl isethionate were less effective. Chain-length studies showed that the capryl, lauryl- and myristyl moieties were the most potent lipophilic groups for releasing histamine. Some of these surfactants were applied directly to the skin of RATS and the overall skin response determined by visual examination. Sodium laurate caused erythema after 24 h applica-
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in the lower stratum comeurn but underwent degradation towards the upper surface of the stratum corneum. These observations contrasted with xerotic skin, which had disorganized lipid bilayers in the upper stratum corneum, although apparently normal lipid bilayers in the deeper tissue regions. Also, desmosomes remained undegraded in the upper layers of the xerotic stratum corneum, a finding corrobo- rated by western blotting showing increased levels of desmoglein 1. Chromatographic analysis of stratum comeurn lipids showed decreased ceramide and increased fatty acid levels in subjects with xerosis compared with normal individuals, particularly in the outer stratum corneum layers. Although ceramides were lost from the stratum comeurn, the increased levels of fatty acids may be due in part to the deposition of soap fatty acids. Our results support previous studies demonstrating the importance of desmosomal degradation in desquamation. Furthermore, we have been able to show changes in the normal membrane structure of intracellular lipids in the desquamating layers of the stratum comeurn. These studies also provide new insights into soap-induced winter xerosis, revealing abnormalities in stratum comeurn lipid composition and organization together with reduced desmosomal degradation.
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Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are widely distributed in hospitals, industry and cosmetics. Little attention has been focused on the potential impact of QACs on the emergence of antibiotic resistance in patients and the environment. To assess this issue, we conducted a literature review on QAC chemical structure, fields of application, mechanism of action, susceptibility testing, prevalence, and co- or cross-resistance to antibiotics. Special attention was paid to the effects of QACs on microflora; in particular, the issue of the potential of QACs for applying selective pressure on multiple-antibiotic-resistant organisms was raised. It was found that there is a lack of standardised procedures for interpreting susceptibility test results. QACs have different impacts on the minimum inhibitory concentrations of antibacterials depending on the antibacterial compound investigated, the resistance genes involved, the measuring methodology and the interpretative criteria. The unmet needs for adequate detection of reduced susceptibility to QACs and antibiotics include (i) a consensus definition for resistance, (ii) epidemiological cut-off values and (iii) clinical resistance breakpoints. This review advocates the design of international guidelines for QAC use.
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Atopic dermatitis is a common condition characterized by pruritus, inflammation, and dryness of the skin. Inflammation disrupts the barrier function of the stratum corneum, predisposing the skin to be dry, and increases susceptibility to irritants and secondary bacterial infection. Sensitive skin is common, reported by 40-50% of women and 30% of men in the US, Europe, and Japan. Basic requirements in managing eczema and sensitive skin include effective cleansers that do not compromise skin barrier integrity, alleviation of skin dryness, and restoration of skin barrier function through the use of therapeutic moisturizers. The selection of a skin cleanser is therefore an important part of managing these conditions. Studies have reported clinical improvement with the use of soap-free cleansers in combination with topical treatments. While topical corticosteroids and immunosuppressive agents are mainstays of treatment for atopic dermatitis, therapeutic moisturizers are important adjuncts. Moisturizers improve skin hydration, reduce susceptibility to irritation, restore the integrity of the stratum corneum, and enhance the efficacy of topical corticosteroids.
Article
The skin surface is the interface between us, the organism, and the outside world. When we clean the skin we remove not only the bacteria, dirt and grease which have accumulated, but also part of our natural barrier - the stratum corneum. Corneocytes, both singly and in clumps, are released from the skin surface by the action of detergents and mechanical stimulation. So too are the lipids and proteins which make up the intercorneocyte region of the stratum corneum. The analysis of the types and amounts of materials released by a standard scrub procedure may prove useful in the selection of surfactants with particular properties. Changes in the physical properties of the skin occur after washing. For example, changes in skin surface pH and transepidermal water loss (a sensitive index of barrier function) are easily demonstrable. Excessive exposure to surfactants results in repeated damage to the stratum corneum which can in turn lead to an irritant dermatitis. Individual susceptibility to irritant dermatitis varies and this may be demonstrated using a simple patch test technique. This test is a way of potentially increasing the sensitivity of human based assays such as the soap chamber test by preselection of subjects. Alternatively it may be possible to use measurements of function such as transepidermal water loss or laser Doppler blood flow as an index of damage rather than conventional cutaneous irritancy. These approaches may help in the search for the ideal of a non-irritant cleanser.
Article
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A mild moisturizing body wash with stearic acid, a key component of corneum lipids, and emollient soybean oil has been introduced in the market place. The objectives of this study are to determine the amount and the location of the stearic acid in the corneum after in vivo cleansing by the formulation. Clinical cleansing studies for one and five consecutive days were carried out with the formulation containing soybean oil or petroleum jelly (PJ). The free stearic acid in it was replaced by the fully deuterated variant. The amounts of stearic acid in 10 consecutive corneum tape strips were measured by liquid chromatograph-mass spectroscopy. Separately, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurements were taken with a porcine skin after a wash by the soybean oil formulation with its free fatty acid replaced by its spin probe analogue, 5-doxyl stearic acid. Deuterated stearic acid was detected in all 10 consecutive layers of stratum corneum and the total amount after five washes with the soybean oil formulation was 0.33 μg/cm². The spin probe in cleanser-treated skin was incorporated in a partially ordered hydrophobic region similar to corneum lipids. The probe mobility increased in the temperature region where lipid disorder was expected. The estimated total fatty acid delivered to skin from cleansing is comparable to the amount of fatty acid in a corneum layer. The delivered fatty acid is most likely incorporated in the corneum lipid phase.
Article
The World Health Organization's Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care have been issued by WHO Patient Safety on 5 May 2009 on the occasion of the launch of the Save Lives: Clean Your Hands initiative. The Guidelines represent the contribution of more than 100 international experts and provide a comprehensive overview of essential aspects of hand hygiene in health care, evidence- and consensus-based recommendations, and lessons learned from testing their Advanced Draft and related implementation tools.
Article
Each person makes the decision of how best to care for his or her own skin. Among the prime concerns, especially for facial skin, is the type of dirt, debris, or make-up to be removed. In most cases, all products do an adequate job in the removal of dirt; if not, the washing techniques can be modified to accomplish the task at hand. What cannot be controlled are the adverse side effects inherent in the use of that product. These adverse properties include damages to the barrier function of the skin; increased susceptibility to environmental sources of irritation and sensitization; frank irritation responses, such as erythema and edema; and reduction of the cosmetic qualities of the skin, such as degree of moisture and smoothness. Part of the problem is that most of these changes are subtle, occurring slowly over time. Often, the association of these problems with the use of a particular facial cleansing regimen is overlooked. The typical woman uses as many as 10 to 15 facial cosmetic and cleansing products each day, making the identification of a problem even more difficult. It is important to identify the risks associated with individual products and with product categories in general. Although the identification of a safe group of products to use for facial cleansing is desirable, the results of this investigation indicate that there are no simple answers. It has been assumed that because moisturizing cream formulations are routinely safe and mild in general use, a cleansing product in the same general form would share these attributes. We can see from the results in Table 2 and Figures 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9 that cleansing creams are not uniformly superior to cleansing bars in the key attributes that are used to evaluate mildness. In each evaluation there were individual cleansing creams that demonstrated statistically weaker performance than did cleansing bars in general. As a group, cleansing creams did well in the cosmetic categories of dryness and texture but surprisingly poorly in such indicators of clinical safety as erythema and TEWL. Further evaluation of the components of the facial-washing regimens proposed by the manufacturers of many of the cleansing-cream products involved the direct comparison of a cleansing cream against that same product used with an alcohol-based toning product. In all cases, the addition of alcohol-based products to the cleaning protocol reduced the cosmetic and clinical safety of the regimen (see Table 2 and Figures 3, 5, 7, and 9).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Article
Objective: To compare the frequency of skin irritation and dryness associated with using an alcoholic-hand-gel regimen for hand antisepsis versus using soap and water for hand washing. Design: Prospective randomized trial with crossover design. Irritation and dryness of nurses' hands were evaluated by self-assessment and by visual assessment by a study nurse. Epidermal water content of the dorsal surface of nurses' hands was estimated by measuring electrical capacitance of the skin. Setting: Miriam Hospital, a 200-bed university-affiliated teaching hospital. Participants: Thirty-two nurses working on three hospital wards participated in the trial, which lasted 6 weeks. Results: Self-assessment scores of skin irritation and dryness decreased slightly during the 2 weeks when nurses used the alcoholic-hand-gel regimen (mean baseline score, 2.72; mean final score, 2.0; P=.08) but increased substantially during the 2 weeks when nurses used soap and water (mean baseline score, 2.0; mean final score, 4.8; P<.0001). Visual assessment scores by the study nurse of skin irritation and dryness did not change significantly when the alcoholic-hand-gel regimen was used (mean baseline and final scores were both 0.55), but scores increased substantially when nurses used soap and water (baseline score, 0.59; mean final score, 1.21; P=.05). Epidermal water content of the dorsal surface of nurses' hands changed little when the alcoholic-hand-gel regimen was used (mean+/-standard deviation baseline electrical capacitance reading, 24.8+/-6.8; mean final reading, 25.7+/-7.3), but decreased significantly (skin became dryer) with soap-and-water hand washing (mean baseline, 25.9+/-7.5; mean final reading, 20.5+/-5.4; P=.0003). Conclusions: Hand antisepsis with an alcoholic-hand-gel regimen was well tolerated and did not result in skin irritation and dryness of nurses' hands. In contrast, skin irritation and dryness increased significantly when nurses washed their hands with the unmedicated soap product available in the hospital. Newer alcoholic hand gels that are tolerated better than soap may be more acceptable to staff and may lead to improved hand-hygiene practices.
Article
To evaluate the effects of the introduction of an alcohol-based hand gel and multifaceted quality improvement (QI) interventions on hand hygiene (HH) compliance. Interventional, randomized cohort study with four study phases (baseline; limited intervention in two units; full intervention in three units; washout phase), performed in three intensive care units at a pediatric referral hospital. During 724 thirty-minute daytime monitoring sessions, a nonidentified observer witnessed 12,216 opportunities for HH and recorded compliance. Introduction of an alcohol-based hand gel; multifaceted QI interventions (educational program, opinion leaders, performance feedback). Baseline compliance decreased after the first 2 weeks of observation from 42.5% to 28.2% (presumably because of waning of a Hawthorne effect), further decreased to 23.3% in the limited intervention phase and increased to 35.1% after the introduction of a hand gel with QI support in all three units (P < 0.001). The rise in compliance persisted in the last phase (compliance, 37.2%); however, a gradual decline was observed during the final weeks. Except for the limited intervention phase, compliance achieved through standard handwashing and glove use remained stable around 20 and 10%, respectively, whereas compliance achieved through gel use increased to 8% (P < 0.001). After adjusting for confounding, implementation of the hand gel with QI support remained significantly associated with compliance (odds ratio, 1.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.4 to 1.8). In a final survey completed by 62 staff members, satisfaction with the hand gel was modest (45%). We noted a statistically significant, modest improvement in compliance after introduction of an alcohol-based hand gel with multifaceted QI support. When appropriately implemented, alcohol-based HH may be effective in improving compliance.
Article
The cutaneous reaction to detergents follows distinct kinetic rules: the duration of application and the irritant concentration are of major importance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the differences in kinetics of skin reaction between the standard irritant sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and 2 modern detergents: sodium laureth sulfate (SLES) and alkyl polyglucoside (APG). We performed patch testing with SLS and SLES (or APG) at different concentrations (0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0%) and with different exposure times (6, 12 and 24 h). Evaluation was conducted by measurement of transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and laser Doppler flowmetry (LD) 24 h, 7 and 10 days after patch removal. We found a pronounced reaction to SLS, and a far milder one to SLES. Even at the highest concentration the skin reaction to APG was hard to detect. During the regeneration period (day 3-10) SLS showed even at day 10 an increased TEWL at all concentrations tested. The irritation due to SLES was convincingly detectable only up to day 7, whereas the APG-tested skin areas showed no significant reaction even at day 3. These results demonstrate the improvement in reduction of skin irritation achieved by development of novel detergents.
Article
Cleanser technology has come a long way from merely cleansing to providing mildness and moisturizing benefits as well. It is known that harsh surfactants in cleansers can cause damage to skin proteins and lipids, leading to after-wash tightness, dryness, barrier damage, irritation, and even itch. In order for cleansers to provide skin-care benefits, they first must minimize surfactant damage to skin proteins and lipids. Secondly, they must deposit and deliver beneficial agents such as occlusives, skin lipids, and humectants under wash conditions to improve skin hydration, as well as mechanical and visual properties. While all surfactants tend to interact to some degree with lipids, their interaction with proteins can vary significantly, depending upon the nature of their functional head group. In vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies have shown that surfactants that cause significant skin irritation interact strongly with skin proteins. Based on this understanding, several surfactants and surfactant mixtures have been identified as "less irritating" mild surfactants because of their diminished interactions with skin proteins. Surfactants that interact minimally with both skin lipids and proteins are especially mild. Another factor that can aggravate surfactant-induced dryness and irritation is the pH of the cleanser. The present authors' recent studies demonstrate that high pH (pH 10) solutions, even in the absence of surfactants, can increase stratum corneum (SC) swelling and alter lipid rigidity, thereby suggesting that cleansers with neutral or acidic pH, close to SC-normal pH 5.5, may be potentially less damaging to the skin. Mildness enhancers and moisturizing agents such as lipids, occlusives, and humectants minimize damaging interactions between surfactants, and skin proteins and lipids, and thereby, reduce skin damage. In addition, these agents play an ameliorative role, replenishing the skin lipids lost during the wash period. The present review discusses the benefits of such agents and their respective roles in improving the overall health of the skin barrier.
Article
Moderate xerotic eczema, characterized by stratum corneum desquamation, erythema, and pruritus is a common condition that can be induced or worsened by skin cleansing. Traditional dermatologic therapy includes the use of emollients, medium or high potency topical corticosteroids, and a change in bathing habits. To investigate the effect of two cleansing systems: a synthetic detergent bar soap applied with a cotton washcloth and a petrolatum-delivering body wash applied with a polyethylene puff as part of a topical treatment approach to moderate xerotic eczema. Sixty patients with moderate xerotic eczema were enrolled in a 4-week investigator-blinded study. Half were randomly treated with a strong topical corticosteroid cream (0.05% fluocinonide) and a traditional cleansing system consisting of a synthetic detergent bar soap applied with a washcloth. The remaining patients were treated with a weaker, medium strength topical corticosteroid cream (0.1% triamcinolone acetonide) and a novel cleansing system consisting of a petrolatum-delivering body wash applied with a polyethylene puff. Dermatologist investigator evaluations and patient self-assessments were conducted at baseline, 2 weeks, and 4 weeks. Patients using the novel petrolatum-delivering body wash and polyethylene puff cleansing system and the lower potency corticosteroid cream demonstrated significantly greater clinical improvement than those patients using the traditional cleansing system of a synthetic detergent beauty bar and washcloth system and the higher potency corticosteroid cream after both 2 and 4 weeks of treatment. The cleansing system of a petrolatum-delivering body wash delivered by a polyethylene puff may be useful as a cleanser for patients with moderate xerotic eczema.
Article
In October 2004, The World Health Organization (WHO) launched the World Alliance for Patient Safety. Within the alliance, the first priority of the Global Patient Safety Challenge is to reduce health care-associated infection. A key action within the challenge is to promote hand hygiene in health care globally as well as at the country level through the campaign "Clean Care is Safer Care." As a result, the WHO is developing Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care, designed to be applicable throughout the world. This paper summarizes one component of the global WHO guidelines related to the impact of hand hygiene on the skin of health care personnel, including a discussion of types of skin reactions associated with hand hygiene, methods to reduce adverse reactions, and factors to consider when selecting hand hygiene products. Health care professionals have a higher prevalence of skin irritation than seen in the general population because of the necessity for frequent hand hygiene during patient care. Ways to minimize adverse effects of hand hygiene include selecting less irritating products, using skin moisturizers, and modifying certain hand hygiene practices such as unnecessary washing. Institutions need to consider several factors when selecting hand hygiene products: dermal tolerance and aesthetic preferences of users as well as practical considerations such as convenience, storage, and costs.
Article
We investigated the biological response of regular human skin to alcohol-based disinfectants and detergents in a repetitive test design. Using non-invasive diagnostic tools such as transepidermal water loss, laser-Doppler flowmetry and corneometry, we quantified the irritative effects of a propanol-based hand disinfectant (Sterillium), its propanol mixture (2-propanol 45% w/w and 1-propanol 30% w/w), sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) 0.5% and distilled water. The substances were applied in a 2-D patch test in a repetitive occlusive test design to the back. Additionally, we performed a wash test on the forearms that was supposed to mimic the skin affection in the normal daily routine of health care workers. In this controlled half-side test design, we included the single application of the hand rub, SLS 0.5% and water as well as a tandem application of the same substances. Patch test and wash test showed similar results. The alcohol-based test preparations showed minimal irritation rather comparable to the application of water. However, the detergent SLS produced stronger barrier disruption, erythema and dryness than the alcohol-based preparations. There was no additional irritation at the combined use of SLS and disinfectants. By contrary, there was even a decrease in barrier disruption and erythema induced by the tandem application of SLS followed by alcohol-based disinfection compared with the use of SLS alone. These findings show a less irritant effect of alcohol-based disinfectants on the skin than detergents. Our study shows that there is no summation of irritating effects of a common detergent and propanol and that the combination of washing and disinfection has a rather protective aspect compared with washing alone.
Article
The use of liquid skin cleanser or body wash has become common in the United States. We report 2 cases of contact dermatitis secondary to the application of Dove Body Wash (Unilever US, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ) with the consumer misconception that the product was a skin moisturizing cream.
Article
Many personal cleansers claim to provide a skin moisturization benefit, but there has been relatively little discussion in the scientific literature of the clinical methods that provide the basis for such claims. We have developed a leg wash method to assess the dry skin improvement potential of personal cleansing products. The protocol is performed on 'natural' dry leg skin to avoid potential confounds that may result from applying cleansers to soap-damaged skin. Washes are conducted over a period of days or weeks, with visual and instrumental assessments performed at various times throughout the period to characterize products' short-term and cumulative skin effects. Studies conducted with a variety of personal cleansing technologies demonstrate the method's ability to discriminate products on the basis of their dry skin improvement potential. Further, results from a series of eleven leg wash studies conducted with the same treatment pair under different test conditions (time of year, test facility, expert grader) demonstrate the protocol's robustness. The data generated under this protocol show that personal cleansing products differ widely in their ability to improve dry skin. Our results indicate that there is a wide range of efficacy among moisturizing personal cleansing products, with some products delivering a significant dry skin improvement benefit even for periods as long as 24 hours.
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How to cite this article: Draelos ZD. The science behind skin care: Cleansers
How to cite this article: Draelos ZD. The science behind skin care: Cleansers. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2018;17:8-14.
Effect of soaps and detergents on the pH and casual lipid levels of the skin surface
  • Bechor R
Skin irritation and dryness associated with two hand hygiene regimens
  • Boyce
A controlled comparison of skin cleansers in photoaged skin
  • Mills OH