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The importance of confidence in leadership role: A qualitative study of the process following two Swedish leadership programmes

Emerald Publishing
Leadership & Organization Development Journal
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Abstract and Figures

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to understand the influence of leadership programmes on leaders and co-workers, as well as which mechanisms are involved in the process. Design/methodology/approach An analysis was done into 431 free-text answers to questionnaires given to 120 participants in two different leadership programmes and their co-workers six months after their participation, using a grounded theory inspired approach. Findings The result is a model, linking internal psychological and external behavioural aspects, with the central outcome that leaders gained more confidence in their leadership role through theoretical models learned, and reflection. Research limitations/implications The course participants as well as the co-workers seemed to experience a positive leadership development indicating a value of participating in the courses. Practical implications Confidence in leadership role seems important for having positive outcomes of leadership. Although this needs further research, it is something organisations should consider when working with leadership questions. Social implications The co-workers perceived their leaders to be calmer, more open for discussions, and willing both to give and receive feedback post training. There appears to be an increase in trust both in the leader and reciprocally from the leader in the co-workers. Originality/value Until now there has not been any systematic research into the effects on participants and co-workers following the programmes, despite the fact that over 100,000 have participated in the courses.
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Leadership & Organization Development Journal
The importance of confidence in leadership role
a
qualitative study of the process following two Swedish
leadership programs
Journal:
Leadership & Organization Development Journal
Manuscript ID
LODJ-12-2016-0307.R1
Manuscript Type:
Research Paper
Keywords:
confidence, UGL, Understanding Group and Leader, Developmental
Leadership, UL, leadership development, reflection, leadership program
Leadership & Organization Development Journal
Leadership & Organization Development Journal
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The importance of confidence in leadership role
– a qualitative study of the
process following two Swedish leadership programs
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to understand the influence of leadership
programs on leaders and co-workers, as well as which mechanisms are involved in the
process.
Design/methodology/approach - An analysis was done into 431 free-text answers to
questionnaires given to 120 participants in two different leadership programs and their
co-workers six months after their participation, using a Grounded theory inspired
approach.
Findings - The result is a model, linking internal psychological - and external
behavioural aspects, with the central outcome that leaders gained more confidence in
their leadership role through theoretical models learned, and reflection.
Research limitations/implications - The course participants as well as the co-
workers seemed to experience a positive leadership development indicating a value of
participating in the courses.
Originality/value - Until now there has not been any systematic research into the
effects on participants and co-workers following the programs, despite the fact that
over 100.000 have participated in the courses.
Keywords confidence; co-workers; developmental leadership; DL; grounded
theory approach; leaders; leadership development; leadership program;
reflection; UGL; understanding group and leader
Paper type Research paper
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Introduction
As stated by the Swedish trade union for leaders (Ledarna, 2014) half a million people
in Sweden hold leadership positions, 50 % of whom find the work mentally
demanding and 40 % experience not having enough time to fulfil their leadership
responsibilities toward their employees (Ledarna, 2014). If given a choice the
Swedish leaders would like to spend less time on administration and more on
development of their leadership skills (Ledarna, 2014). These numbers indicate an
importance of offering leadership development programs which are effective both in
time and in improving leaders’ skills in relation to employees.
Two of the most established and dispersed leadership development programs in
Sweden spring from the Swedish Armed Forces and the Swedish Defence University.
These are called Understanding Group and Leader (UGL), and Developmental
Leadership (DL), and broach broad leadership issues. Since UGL started in 1981,
around 80.000 people have participated, and since DL started in 2002 around 23.000
have participated. In all, over 100.000 Swedish leaders and potential or aspirant
leaders have participated in the courses (Swedish Defence University, 2017). The
time invested equals 3.8 million work hours.
It is reasonable to assume that the large investments in leadership development, Grint
(2007) estimated the yearly sum worldwide to between $15 and $50 billion, are based
on the general belief that leadership has a decisive impact. Leadership development
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involves two indistinct constructs: leadership and development (Day & Sin, 2011).
Leadership is often seen as a process in which deliberate influence is exerted over
others with the intention to lead, structure and facilitate activities and relations in a
group or an organization (Yukl, 2012). Development is characterised by change over
time (Day & Sin, 2011), this could be viewed as a developmental trajectory (Nagin &
Odgers, 2010), portraying a continuous process (cf. Day, Harrison, & Halpin, 2009),
where development can occur if there is continuous learning (Day, 2011). . Day et al.
(2009) describe leadership development as a spiral of leader identity, where a person
in a leadership situation experienced as positive, strengthens his/her leader identity,
but if experienced as negative the opposite spiral can occur.
The importance of leadership is well established in research, e.g. the quality of
leadership correlates with employees’ self-perceived health (Tepper, 2007), well
being (Arnold et al. 2007), motivation, contentment/commitment and performance
(Söderfjell, 2007), as well as team cooperation (Gundersen et al., 2012). Vast amount
of resources are devoted to leadership training programs, but there is comparably little
research that evaluates these efforts (Avolio et al., 2010), including the eventual
effects (Ready and Conger, 2003; Salas et al., 2012; Day et al., 2014), and how these
effects evolve (Avolio et al., 2009). The relatively less research on leadership
development depends, according to Day and Sin (2011) on the complexity in studying
the two indistinct constructs of leadership and development. Development is
characterised by change over time, leading to a demand for longitudinal studies (Day,
2011).
Research shows that whether there is a positive effect of leadership development
depends on the trainee him/herself, their respective organization, and on the program
(Gurdjian et al., 2014). The trainees’ pre-training attitude concerning self-efficacy
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(i.e. self-confidence in one’s actions) and intrinsic, as well as extrinsic motivation to
lead (Chan and Drasgow, 2002), tend to impact the results of the training (Avolio et
al., 2010; Grossman & Salas, 2011). Furthermore the trainees’ attitude towards
feedback influences the learning process (Maurer, 2002). Salas et al., (2012) pointed
to the role of the organization and the importance of pre-training analysis of the needs
of the organization, and post-training support and opportunities to use the new skills
for the trainees.
Adult development is to a high degree a function of experience (Moshman, 2003).
Adults typically retain 10 per cent of what they hear in classroom lectures, but nearly
two-thirds when they learn by doing (Gurdjian et al., 2014), which implies that a
leadership program should involve “doing”. This is in line with the Kolb-learning
cycle (e.g. Kolb, 2015): Starting with a concrete experience, adult learners review and
reflect on the experience, followed by conceptualization of what was learned from the
experience, and lastly active experimentation, i.e. trying out what was learned from
the experience, then onwards to a new experience and so on. Kolb (2015) underlines
reflection as a way to analyse past and current experiences, creating a foundation for
more accurate actions in the future.
Peer learning can contribute to transferring knowledge from training to practice
(Avolio et al., 2010), since communication between peers can be less threatening than
feedback from a supervisor inasmuch as issues of evaluation and power are
minimized. Further, peers can be more open and inquisitive with one another and
explore more fully areas of critical cognitive conflict (Alon, 2010; Argyris, 1991;
Ladyshewsky, 2006).
The above-mentioned research has influenced the design of two leadership courses in
Sweden: UGL and DL. There has been a study conducted on the personal
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predispositions of the UGL-trainers (Rapp Ricciardi et al., 2014). But until now there
has not been any systematic research of the impact on leaders and co-workers after
the leaders have gone through UGL or DL, something this study tries to ameliorate.
The rationale behind the DL and UGL-programs is to target leadership factors that are
possible to change (Swedish Defence University, 2017). The aim of this study is to
increase the understanding how the programs’ influence leadership and work groups,
as well as which mechanisms are involved (for further description of the courses see
below). These programs are selected for their prevalence as well as their theoretical
foundation. In this study we have added a gender perspective, although not present in
the theoretical underpinnings of the courses. The perspective on gender here considers
whether co-workers perceive the actions of the leaders differently depending on the
leaders’ gender.
Methods
Study setting
Understanding Group and Leader (UGL)
UGL builds on group development (e.g. Bion, 1961; Schutz, 1958; Tuckman and
Jensen, 1977; Wheelan, 2005) as well as on the Developmental Leadership model
(Larsson et al., 2003). More and more organizations form their workforce around
teams (West, 2012), which implies adding factors such as group development and
effective teamwork into leadership training as important (Hackman, 1995; Salas et al.,
2012; West, 2012; Wheelan, 2005).
The foundation in UGL is from the evidence-based model “The integrative model of
group development”, IMGD, (Wheelan, 1994). Members of a group must first
establish, build, and challenge roles and relations, before being fully able to focus on
the tasks at hand (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman and Jensen, 1977). Based on these ideas
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Wheelan (1994) concluded that the development of groups over time comprises
discernible stages, and the order in which these stages occur can be modified in
reaction to changes.
Insert Fig. 1 here
Figure 1. The objective of UGL is for the participants to become more effective as group members
and leaders. Learning occurs through experience of situations reflecting group dynamics, group
development and understanding the participants’ own role in these situations or dynamics
through an experiential (experience-based) learning model (Kolb, 2015). The leadership model
Developmental Leadership (Larsson et al., 2003) is introduced during the course related to the
development of the group, and what style of leadership promotes both task solving and group
development. An important part of the course is both peer learning and learning to handle
differences. The group is therefore composed of people from different work places and
backgrounds, professions, age and gender. A course group generally consists of eight to twelve
(initial) strangers who interact during five days in an off-work location. Two specially trained
and qualified facilitators run the course.
Developmental Leadership (DL)
Developmental Leadership, DL, is compared to the UGL a less intense course in time
(two to three plus one days) and without the prerequisite that participants should be
from different workplaces.
Insert Fig 2. DL here
Figure 2. The Developmental leadership model (adapted from Larsson et al., 2003) can be
characterized as a refined and adapted version of Bass’s (1998; 1999) transformational leadership, into
a Scandinavian context. Transformational Leadership (Bass 1998) is one of few leadership styles
shown to deliver a positive impact in general on organizations (Avolio et al., 2009; Bass, 1999).
According to DL, leadership styles are built on the interaction between leader characteristics and
contextual characteristics. Leadership styles are viewed in a hierarchy going from the less desirable
laissez-faire leadership, through conventional leadership including control and the more positive
demand and reward styles, to the most desired style: developmental leadership. The leader acting as an
exemplary model characterizes the developmental leadership, showing individualized consideration
and demonstrating inspiration and motivation (Larsson et al., 2003). The rationale behind the DL-
program is that these leadership actions can be taught and developed through training (Swedish
Defence University, 2017).
As a preparation for the course the participants distribute a questionnaire,
Development Leadership Questionnaire, (DLQ), evaluating their leadership styles to
their co-workers and leader, getting a 360-degree evaluation of their leadership. DLQ,
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is a 66-item questionnaire developed and tested for solid psychometric properties
(Larsson et al., 2003; Larsson, 2006). A central part in the program is the participants
getting feedback on their own results, as well as plans and tools for improvement.
This is followed up on the second part of the program, three to four months after the
initial days.
The Swedish Defence University has copyright of the concept and certifies the
trainers of both UGL and DL.
Methodology of the study
This study analyses the answers to free-text questions given to participants and
their co-workers six months after course completion. The result from the quantitative
66-item questionnaire for DL-participants is reported in Larsson et al. (2017). Course
participants showed a significant decrease of laissez-faire leadership and negative
conventional leadership when measured by ratings by co-workers.
A grounded theory inspired approach (Charmaz, 2006; Kempster and Parry, 2011;
Starrin et al., 1997; Strauss and Corbin, 1998) was chosen to explore, identify and
describe a conceptual model of course-participants’ and co-workers’ views on
perceived effects of the leadership developments. The purpose was to formulate an
internally valid model based on the data, which makes sense in and can be useful for
the context from which it is drawn (Kempster and Parry, 2011).
Informants
The selection of informants was made as follows. First, course instructors, who were
authorized by the Swedish Defence University as facilitators of the courses, and
employed by Swedish leadership consultant companies, were told about the study.
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Their role would be to inform their coming course participants about the research
study. In the second step, the course participants were told about the study through
written information provided by the Swedish Defence University. This was given
about one month before the first course meeting. When signing up for the respective
courses participants were asked in a written request whether they were interested in
participating in the research study or not, and signed an informed consent via e-mail.
The inclusion criteria were that they were leading a group of at least six people
working together, and that both course participants and at least three of their co-
workers were willing to spend 20-30 minutes filling out a web-based questionnaire
three times, including the free-text questions as well as questions on group dynamics
and leadership in the group. The course participant told their co-workers about the
study, and these were also given information about their right to withdraw at any
time, via a link to the questionnaire. As a bonus for participating in the research, the
course participants were offered an extra day of feedback on their results led by the
Swedish Defence University’s experts in the field.
In total, 753 leaders were asked to participate, 268 accepted (UGL 161, DL 108). In
the present study the focus is on those 120 leaders (60 UGL of which 38 women, and
60 DL of which 33 women) who had at least three responding subordinates on each of
the measurement occasions. These leaders came from both private and public
organizations, employed in administration, service professions, industrial production,
schools or health care. Regarding hierarchical position, 12% were frontline leaders,
75% were middle managers and 13% were higher level managers.
Data collection
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Data was collected from October 2013 until May 2016. The participants and their co-
workers were measured thrice: before the course, one month after, and six months
after. The free-text answers used in this study were given six months after the course
ended.
The course participants in both UGL and DL answered the free-text questions: What
from the course has thus far been of most value for you? Their co-workers were asked
to reflect on the following statements: I have noticed the following change in my
leader since the course… and this change has influenced me in the following way…
The questions were formulated from the research teams idea that both the course
participants and their co-workers should have an opportunity beside the
questionnaires to more freely express their thoughts on the (possible) impact of the
courses.
Data analysis
The analysis started when the research group had received data from the first 77
participants in UGL and DL. The data from the final 43 participants was used to
validate the findings. These latter additions to the analysis did not change the
categories, indicating that data had reached a level of saturation with the first batch.
During the coding process, theoretical memos were kept continuously. The rationale
behind the memos was to develop a theoretical sensitivity, and capture ideas and
thoughts during the process (cf. Kempster and Parry, 2011). The first step in the
coding process was to analyse the answers with open coding, in which the statements
were labelled close to the data. In total, 384 statements were identified as meaning
units (codes) and labelled with words being close to those used by the informants (see
examples in Tables 1 and 2). The open coding ceased when patterns started to evolve,
indicating processes, leading the coding to become more selective, finding concepts,
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which allowed the data to be grouped. At this stage the open codes were set against
raw data and theoretical memos, creating more abstract categories. These categories
were thereafter used to generate an empirically grounded model, generated from
discerned patterns in the data. The first and last author did the coding, the latter with
no experience of either UGL or DL, and first author with experience from
participating in both courses. The two coders worked individually in the coding
process, where each of the 384 statements was categorized. During this process the
identity of the informants (whether course participants or co-workers, men or women,
or if commenting on the same participant) was unknown to the researchers. The data
from UGL and DL were separated during coding. The results were then compared and
with the backdrop of the theoretical memos, categories were chiselled out. The
computer program NVivo was used in this process.
In the finding section the whole model will be presented first, followed by a
presentation of its categories and codes. The reason for this order of presentation is
that the parts receive their meaning when understood in relation to the whole model.
All the written answers were given in Swedish; excerpts presented in the text have
been translated into English by the authors.
Ethics
The study was approved by a Swedish Research Ethical Committee (EPN Dnr
2012/1905-31/5).
Findings
The emerging model
The effects of UGL and DL can be understood as a process beginning with leaders
returning to the work place with new knowledge and skills in relation to leadership
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and teamwork. The knowledge and skills can be seen as overt behavioural aspects.
The influence process can then be described as following one of two routes, where the
watershed seems to be inner aspects of the leaders, i.e. enhanced or diminishing
confidence/ambiguity towards own leadership role. In order for the gains from the
course of increase in leadership knowledge and skills, to make a positive impact on
co-workers’ satisfaction, the leaders’ confidence in their own roles play a vital part.
When confidence in leadership role weakens, the impact can be employee
dissatisfaction. Thus, the programs may influence intra psychological as well as overt
behavioural aspects, where an increase in leadership skills seems to be perceived as
genuine if it is supported by confidence.
The increased confidence route can lead to the leader intentionally implementing
leadership models successfully. The employees recognize new leadership behaviours
and experience them as clearer, thus leading to higher levels of participation and
commitment. In addition, the employees experience empowerment and sometimes
even joy. In the weakened confidence/ambiguity route, the leader tries to use their
new knowledge and skills with the intention to make improvements, but fails. The
employees experience dissatisfaction and disappointment with their leaders, partly
because they harboured expectations of a positive change.
Insert Fig. 3 here:
Fig. 3 Model of effects of UGL and DL on leaders and co-workers.
The data can be interpreted in a model where the starting point is leaders returning to work with a boost
of understanding of leadership. This was interpreted as an overt behavioural aspect. Whether this also
implies a positive or more ambiguous inner aspect seems to depend on the leaders’ relationship
towards confidence in own role. The course-participants stressed the importance of having time to
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reflect during the course, and learning the importance of reflection both on their own role and that of
their co-workers, and the opportunity to discuss with other leaders (peers). This appears to have
contributed to an increase in trust in self and own leadership skills. Back at the workplace confidence
can increase or it can wane, giving rise to different chains or spirals of reactions in leaders and in
employees. Here interpreted as overt behavioural and inner aspects. What leads to which spiral seems
to be with which stamina the leaders implement new models of leadership. When attempts are met with
positive reactions from the employees the behaviour seems to strengthen and the spiral moves towards
increase in work satisfaction. When attempts are met with disinterest or negative reactions this
eventuates a withdrawal of both the leader and the co-workers.
The in the higher confidence and employee satisfaction spiral seems to be an increase in the use of
feedback related to the work, task performance and role. The feedback appears to induce team-building
properties, in that communication increases between leader and co-workers as well as between co-
workers. This also breeds an increased sense of commitment to the work, the group and the people
involved. Trust appears to be at the core of this loop; increased trust enhanced the openness to give and
receive feedback. It could also be the other way around: that an increase in feedback well-given and
well-received builds trust. The course participants stressed the importance of having time to reflect
during the course, and learning the importance of reflection both on their own role and that of their co-
workers, and the opportunity to discuss with other leaders (peers). This appears to have contributed to
an increase in trust in self and own leadership skills. Feedback also plays a vital part in the second
spiral. It seems that weak confidence in the leadership role becomes even weaker when new behaviours
are met without appreciative feedback or with silence. The impact becomes that both the leader and the
co-workers withdraw.
Underpinning codes and categories of the emerging model
From the free-text answers, the course participants in both UGL and DL answered:
What from the course has thus far been of most value for you? Their co-workers were
asked to reflect on the following statements: I have noticed the following change in
my leader since the course… and this change has influenced me in the following
way… codes and categories were created. An interesting finding was that the same
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categories emerged from both UGL and DL, albeit the road leading to them diverged
slightly. As well, there were few discernible differences in the wording or opinions
based on the gender of the course participant. There were some indications of male
leaders deemed as softer by their co-workers after the course than before, and female
participants as less hostile after the course than before. Since systematic gender
differences were not obvious no specific marks whether the codes are built on
quotations from men or women are made.
Three categories were created out of nine codes: Overt behavioural aspects, Inner
aspects and Inner aspects not aligned with overt behavioural aspects (See tables 1
and 2).
Overt behavioural aspects
The code Intentionally implementing leadership models was created from the study
informants describing the course participants’ conscious efforts to insert new ways of
leading in their daily work (57 answers). This new modus operandi could be traced to
learning absorbed in the course, if the leader had confidence that the learning would
be implemented; thus leading further to the code Increased clarity in leadership role
sparks employees’ participation (25 answers). For UGL-participants the emphasis
was on the role of the group, and for DL-participants’ on the interplay of leadership,
group and individual. Employees of both UGL and DL participants describe how their
leader’s increased confidence makes the leader calmer, less prone to fault finding,
more open to discussions, feedback and problem-solving. The leaders’ more positive
attitude influences their co-workers and the work group in a positive way, leading to a
greater desire to participate. This increased influx of energy into the work leads to the
codes Empowering by participation raises employees’ satisfaction with group and
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work in UGL, and a slightly different take in DL: Empowering by participation and
clarity raises employees’ joy and commitment. These codes pointed towards the
visible behavioural changes in the leader creating invisible changes in the co-workers.
The category was thus named Overt behavioural aspects.
Inner aspects
The category Inner aspects emerged from the code Leaders’ confidence in own role
increases. Both participants and co-workers from UGL and DL wrote about the
increased confidence the leaders felt themselves (68 answers) and as experienced by
the co-workers (73 answers). The category was thus named since it demonstrated
internal changes within the leaders, experienced by the co-workers as behavioural
changes interpreted as stemming from an increase in leaders’ confidence.
There were no comments from the course participants indicating a weakening or
ambiguity in leadership role as a result of the training, but there were some from co-
workers. The comments are interpreted as a negative process where the programmes
did not have a positive influence on the participants’ confidence in self and/or in their
leadership, forming the code Ambiguity/weak confidence in leadership role.
The category Overt behavioural aspects emerged from codes interpreted as giving
rise to a positive spiral starting with the code Intentionally implementing leadership
models. This was created from the study informants describing the leaders’ conscious
efforts to insert new ways of leading in their daily work (57 answers). This new
modus operandi could be traced to learning absorbed in the course, if the leader had
confidence that the learning would be implemented; thus leading further to the code
Increased clarity in leadership role sparks employees’ participation (25 answers). For
UGL-participants the emphasis was on the role of the group, and for DL-participants’
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on the interplay of leadership, group and individual. Employees of both UGL and DL
participants describe how their leader’s increased confidence makes the leader calmer,
less prone to fault finding, more open to discussions, feedback and problem-solving.
The leaders’ more positive attitude influences their co-workers and the work group in
a positive way, leading to a greater desire to participate. This increased influx of
energy into the work leads to the codes Empowering by participation raises
employees’ satisfaction with group and work in UGL, and a slightly different take in
DL: Empowering by participation and clarity raises employees’ joy and commitment.
A different route was also indicated, either when the before mentioned interpretive
code Ambiguity/weak confidence in leadership role confronted the work-life situation,
or when efforts of using new leadership models failed. This gave rise to the category
Inner aspects not aligned with overt behavioural aspects. The category was thus
named, since it was thought of as a conflict between the leaders’ overt behaviour and
the results for the co-workers. The category was formed from two codes: Leadership
tries but fails and Employees´ work motivation diminish. The programs led to a few
employees describing increased dissatisfaction with leadership and work: in the UGL-
case just one negative and in the DL-case five. From these negative comments the
codes Leadership tries but fails and Employees´ work motivation diminish were
created. The leaders were not able to influence the co-workers in the outwardly
intended way, since the new ideas were not fully internalised in the leadership role.
The co-workers described this as the leaders trying to use what they had learnt, but in
a superficial way. Also added was expectance from the co-workers of a positive
change in leadership, where this change was not sustained.
Insert Tables 1 and 2 around here:
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Table 1: Codes and categories describing UGL. From the participants in UGL the increased confidence
seems to stem from a growth in self-confidence as a member of a group, and with new knowledge of
how they are both affected by and have the possibility to influence a group. The co-workers of UGL
participants describe a leader who is more present and willing to listen and thereby invite participation.
This change induced greater satisfaction with work for the co-workers (20 answers). Mutual trust and
ability to cooperate increased their sense of self-efficacy, productivity and work-satisfaction as team-
members, as well as a decrease in perceived stress levels. In the UGL case one leader was perceived as
weaker after the program, while the leader thought the course had made him a much better listener. The
perceived weakness made the employee irritated and less positive to conducting his/her work.
Table 2: Codes and categories describing DL. For participants in DL the increase in confidence seems
to come from the 360-feedback on their role as leaders they all received at the beginning of the course;
from the reflection on these results with other course participants as well as from new knowledge
acquired in the course. The co-workers of DL participants have described their leaders as more
structured, setting goals and pointing out the way forward. This change induces a feeling of joy and
increased commitment to their work (7 answers). Amongst the co-workers of the DL participants it was
noted that some leaders were more withdrawn after the course, invoking speculations whether the
leader had perceived the 360-feedback as critique. There was also disappointment; some leaders
returned as bringers of change but did not keep it up, and a leader who was perceived by the co-
workers as putting on a fake role of developmental leadership.
Discussion
The aim of this study is to understand UGL’s and DL’s influence on leadership and
co-workers, as well as which mechanisms are involved.
In general, the leaders gained more confidence in their leadership role. Two important
contributors to building this increased confidence appears to be the theoretical models
learned during the program, thereby supporting existing findings (e.g. Avolio et al.,
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2010; Bass, 1999; Hackman, 2002; Wheelan, 2010), as well as the opportunity for
reflection during the course. Reflection both in solitude (through the writings of a
journal), and together with peers, seems to have increased learning and broadened the
scope of possible action. This is in line with Argyris (1991) and Kolb (2015). Most of
the co-workers also experienced positive changes. They perceived their leaders to be
calmer, more open for discussions, and willing both to give and receive feedback,
thus shouldering their responsibilities as leaders. There appears to be an increase in
trust both in the leader and reciprocally from the leader in the co-workers. Trust in the
leader is fundamental in Transformational leadership (Dirks and Ferrin, 2002), which
is the base for Developmental Leadership (Larsson et al., 2003), as was taught in the
programs. Mutual trust and ability to cooperate boosts productivity in interdependent
work-groups as shown in research by Wheelan (e.g. 2003), as well as an increased
sense of self-efficacy and work-satisfaction in team-members and decrease in
perceived stress levels (Jacobsson et al., 2015). The emphasis put on the leader’s
confidence in his or her leadership role may constitute an important finding. It can
easily be developed into a “necessary but not sufficient” proposition in future research
(cf. Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994). However, it goes beyond the scope of this
qualitative study to make such general claims (cf. Eisenhardt, 1989; Glaser & Strauss,
1967).
A few of the co-workers were dissatisfied with the outcomes of the leadership
training. In line with Day et al. (2009) it seems like the leadership development can
take a negative spiral. The co-workers had hoped for a positive change in leadership
that did not occur or was not sustained. Sjövold (2008) points out the danger of trying
and failing to bring about positive changes in the work group; the disappointment
might induce a backlash leading to a negative loop. This was something that was
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noted in a few cases. The negative loop could undermine leadership confidence and
give rise to laissez-faire leadership with adverse consequences, such as deteriorating
teamwork or work motivation (e.g. Wheelan, 2003, Larsson et al., 2003, Söderfjell,
2007)
According to the suggested theoretical model (Figure 3), which theoretically fits into
the process model family (Glaser, 1978), the effects of the leadership development
evolved from an individual process in the leader. In this process the inner aspect of an
increase in self-confidence in the leader role led to overt behaviours demonstrating
increased clarity in leadership role, which in their turn led to an intertwined process
between the leader and the co-workers co-creating a new leadership style. This co-
creation of leadership is supported in many of the modern leadership theories, such as
Crevani et al. (2010) discussing leadership as a process of interaction in daily
mundane activities, and Parry and Bryman (2006) launching the idea to view
leadership “as a widely dispersed activity which is not necessarily lodged in formally
designated leaders…” (p. 455). Maybe this study on UGL and DL to some degree
captures this everyday creation of leadership, where gender and gender stereotypes
play at most a minor role, which could explain why no differences in wording due to
gender were identified. This would be in line with Jackson and Parry (2008) pointing
out that in the literature there is no consensus on gender differences in leadership
styles (Jackson and Parry, 2008, p. 25), and sex is no predictor of behaviour (Yukl,
2006). Yukl (2006) stresses that statistically the intra-sex differences between people
of the same gender are much larger than the inter-sex differences.
A mediator in co-creation of leadership in the findings appears to be the increased use
of feedback both given from leaders, and an openness and encouragement to receive.
This is also supporting the findings of Maurer (2002) of the trainees’ attitude towards
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feedback influencing the learning process. Notably the increase in confidence
precedes the change of overt behaviours; this can be in line with findings by Chan and
Drasgow (2002), where an increase in confidence gives rise to further willingness and
openness to training, as well as openness to continual development of leadership. The
result is also in line with the research of Palm et al. (2015) showing the positive
outcomes for the employees when the self-confidence of the leader increased.
The long-term effects of UGL and DL do not differ, but the process did. The
participants in UGL focused on a new understanding of the group and their own place
in it, whereas the participants in DL started their development from an understanding
of themselves and their role as a leader. In this study it is not known why leaders
choose a certain program. The choice could be based on whether they had more
interest in the individual as a leader, or team leadership. It could also be based on
their respective organizations’ wishes. From earlier research it is known that this
choice is important since the match between organizational need and course content
impacts the outcome (Salas et al., 2012). Because the programs have either a focus on
the group or the individual, the individual leader’s choice may affect the outcome. It
is therefore likely that it is important for participants to make a conscious choice
about which program to participate in.
Methodological considerations
There were more answers from the participants in DL and their employees than those
in UGL: 254 compared to 177. The answers from the DL group were longer, in total 5
417 words compared to 2 975 from UGL, and more focused on detailed descriptions
of behaviours influencing the work atmosphere. This difference might be explained
by the DL-participants and their co-workers being more used to giving evaluations,
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since they were asked to do a 360-degree evaluation pre-course.
A drawback was that this study was conducted on information only from free-text
questions with no possibility for follow-up questions.
The selection of the study participants might have been biased towards the
participants and their co-workers getting the most out of the programs - or the least. In
this perspective the conclusions should be interpreted with caution. However, the
process of leadership development should not be biased by whether the participants
were overly positive or negative. The respondents came from a wide variety of work
places, and were both men and women, which strengthens the general conclusion on
the process of leadership development. The findings during the whole process were
presented to the group of authors and other researchers studying the effects of UGL
and DL with quantitative methods. Preliminary results were also presented to the
leaders participating in an extra feedback day, and they confirmed the findings.
Conclusion
This study contributes to an understanding of the effects of UGL and DL, which have
not been studied before. The model presented identifies a number of potentially
important psychological and behavioural aspects where increased confidence in
leadership role is crucial for employee satisfaction, independent of gender. On the
other hand, when confidence in own leadership role weakens the impact is likely to
result in employee dissatisfaction. Thus the programs influence intra psychological as
well as overt behavioural aspects. Where an increase in overt leadership skills seems
to be regarded as genuine by the employees if it is backed up by confidence in
leadership role. Further research is needed to evaluate the accuracy of this model and
to inform existing leadership theories.
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Practical implications
Confidence in leadership role seems important for having positive outcomes of
leadership. Although this needs further research, it is something organisations should
consider when working with leadership questions.
This study, with 120 participants from both UGL and DL affecting at least 360 co-
workers, points to the fact that the programs do have impact on leadership.
Neither UGL nor DL is tailor-made for a specific organization, but it seems like these
more general issues that are raised during the programs still can develop leadership.
It is, however, important for the organisation and the participant to consider that by
being away from the workplace expectations are raised by co-workers of a positive
change when returning to work again.
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Swedish Defence University. (2017). https://www.fhs.se/en/education/contract-
educations/ledarskap/ugl/about-ugl/
West, M. (2012), Effective Teamwork Practical Lessons from Organizational
Research. 3
rd
ed. BPS Blackwell, Chichester, West Sussex.
Wheelan, S. A. (1994), Group processes: A developmental perspective, Allyn &
Bacon, Boston.
Wheelan, S. A., Davidson, B., and Tillin, F. (2003), “Group development across time:
reality or illusion?” Small Group Research, Vol. 34, pp. 223-245.
Wheelan, S. A. (2005), Group Processes: A Developmental Perspective, 2
nd
ed.,
Pearson, Boston, MA.
Wheelan, S. (2010), Att Skapa Effektiva Team, Studentlitteratur AB, Lund.
Tepper, B.J. (2007), “Abusive Supervision in Work Organizations: Review synthesis,
and research agenda”, Journal of Management, Vol. 33 No. 3, pp. 261-289.
Yukl, G. A. (2006), Leadership in organizations, Pearson Education Ltd, Essex.
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Fig. 1 UGL
Increase self
-
confidence and self-
insight
Understand the
need for
different
leadership styles
Perceive
different
phases of a
group’s
development
Be able to
receive and
give feedback
Be able to
communicate
directly and clearly
Experience an
experiental
learning model
Be able to
indentify and
handle conflict
Increase
insight into
your own
personality
Increased effectiveness as a
trainer, group member and
leader
Experience group dynamics
within concrete situations and
understand your own role in
these dynamics
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Inner aspects
not aligned
with overt
behavioural
aspects
Intentionally
implementing
leadership models
Back to work with
increased leadership
knowledge and skills
Leaders’ confidence
in own role
increases
Ambiguity
/weak
confidence in
leadership role
Increased clarity in
leadership role
sparks employees’
participation in the
group (UGL)
Empowering by
participation raises
employees’
satisfaction with
group and work
(UGL)
Empowering by
participation and
clarity raises
employees’ joy and
commitment (DL)
Increased clarity in
leadership role
sparks employees’
participation as
individuals (DL)
Leadership tries but
fails
Overt
behavioral
aspects
Inner aspects
Employees’ work
motivation diminish
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Table 1 Codes and categories describing UGL:
Example of free-text answers Codes Categories
To believe in myself and dare to implement my decisions
without worrying about being disliked. To not wait too long
with implementations in difficult situations. That I have the
decisive power to influence the outcome of my work and
work surroundings this encourages me to take matters in my
own hands instead of letting go. (Participant/Leader)
The insight of how I am actually influenced by others. That
I’m seen as confident in my role as project-leader.
(Participant/Leader)
Demonstrates more presence in questions regarding the
group’s work and situation and voices the opinions of the
group in a decisive manner. Always refers to the group as
“we”. These changes have affected me in a positive direction
in that I feel great support from our leader vis-à-vis the
organisation and that he stands behind the group. (Co-worker)
Leaders'
confidence in own
role increases
Inner aspects
I think my leader has become, how shall I put it, weaker. If
that’s because of the program or not I couldn’t say. (Co-
worker)
Ambiguity/weak
confidence in
leadership role
That I shall drive my points all the way; I don’t need to check
around if others agree. How and that I give constructive
feedback. That I shall listen to others, not only to myself.
(Participant/Leader)
I think she´s better at saying no, being straightforward without
being too woolly. (Co-worker)
Intentionally
implementing
leadership models
Overt
behavioural
aspects
My leader has changed her attitude, she´s better at listening
and trying to understand, nicer and you can clearly see that
she wants (to improve), then it’s up to each and every one if
you’re receptive (…) I don’t withdraw anymore, instead I feel
like I belong to the group and I’m relatively secure when it
comes to my relationships with my co-workers and my boss.
(Co-worker)
Increased clarity in
leadership role
sparks employees’
participation
I´ve been supp
orted in a good way on some occasions lately.
This has made me a bit more optimistic concerning the future.
(Co-worker)
My leader is more open and responsive to other solutions.
This renders more joy and less stress in one’s work. (Co-
worker)
Empowering by
participation raises
employees’
satisfaction with
group and work
He communicates what he wants and what he expects from
his co-workers more clearly. This was very evident straight
after the course, but has diminished a bit over time. (Co-
worker)
Leadership tries
but fails
Inner aspects
not aligned with
overt
behavioural
aspects
I think my leader has become, how shall I put it, weaker. If
that’s because of the program or not I couldn’t say. It is
tougher and you become more irritated when mistakes are
noted, but nothing happens. (Co-worker)
Employees’ work
motivation
diminish
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Table 2 Codes and categories describing DL:
Example of free-text answers Codes Categories
To get acknowledgement on how my unit perceives me was
very valuable. It helped me focus on things others graded
lower, such as inspire more and be more empathetic. That
some of my other traits and skills are received positively by
my co-workers makes me more secure in my leadership-role.
(Participant/Leader)
I became a bit more confident and I dare challenge more in
my leadership role, since I have more trust (confidence) in my
capacity. (Participant/Leader)
Our leader is seen as more comfortable and secure in his/her
leadership role. Gives directives more clearly, which creates a
better working climate. A more transparent task distribution
induces a greater sense of security amongst co-workers. (Co-
worker)
Leaders’
confidence in own
role increases
Inner aspects
My feeling is that he’s had a hard time finding himself in this.
(Co-worker)
I think he was a better leader before when he was acting like
himself. Now there’s a lot of “as part of my developmental
leadership” in emails etc. (Co-worker)
I’ve noted that critique in any form is not received well. Have
later associated that with her feeling her leadership being
questioned. (Co-worker)
Ambiguity/weak
confidence in
leadership role
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I think more on how and that I give constructive feedback,
and that I shall listen to others not just occasionally.
(Participant/Leader)
To be a better listener. Have patience and wait for the co-
workers opinions and reactions. I try hard not to get angry in
discussions, but I´ve still got some work to do there. Trust and
understanding of what I’m doing also needs to get better.
(Participant/Leader)
Clearer in how she wants things. Better listener,
acknowledging what’s being said, doesn’t just rush by in the
same way any longer. Shares her thoughts, opinions and
perspectives more – functions better as a link to the
organisation. Dares to be more personal. Shows ambition in
wanting to gather the team. (Co-worker)
Intentionally
implementing
leadership models
Overt
behavioural
aspects
He shows an awareness of strengths, limits and areas for
improvement. It’s easier to mention problems or areas of
improvement related to co-operation and the work situation.
Since our boss has shared his resources and improvement
areas it’s become easier (for me) to show my weak points.
This facilitates a straight and open communication about the
work situation. (Co-worker)
It feels like I’m functioning in a context again, my
understandings of which discussions that are held in the
organisation and how they permeate down to our level have
improved. It feels positive that we will gather and work as a
team. (Co-worker)
Increased clarity in
leadership role
sparks employees’
participation
He’s more aware in his role as leader. Sees us individuals in a
clearer way. When my boss sees me more I become positively
influenced which of course influences my work in a positive
way. (Co-worker)
Our leader seems to try harder to inform us as soon as she
can, and takes more initiatives for common activities. An
active and present boss makes me happy. (Co-worker)
Empowering by
participation and
clarity raises
employees’ joy and
commitment
It got better for a while, our leader was more often present at
work, but now it’s the same again. (Co-worker)
In my earlier assessment I thought I saw changes that
increased my confidence in my leader. These have now fallen
back to how it was earlier [before the course]. (Co-worker)
Leadership tries
but fails
Inner aspects
not aligned with
overt
behavioural
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I think he was a better leader before when he was acting like
himself. Now there’s a lot of “as part of my developmental
leadership” in emails etc. This has a negative ring to me,
instead he could send out something in line with “thought this
could be interesting for you to see”. It’s not as much fun at
work anymore. I don’t feel the same support as before which
makes it a bit harder to work. (Co-worker)
I’ve noted that critique in any form is not received well. Have
later associated that with her feeling her leadership being
questioned. This has affected me so that I avoid criticism or
questioning in any form, since I don’t know what reactions to
expect. If it hits you back as a reprimand, which has happened
to both me and colleagues. I haven’t experienced this in other
workplaces, and it is unpleasant (Co-worker)
In my earlier assessment I thought I saw changes that
increased my confidence in my leader. These have now fallen
back to how it was earlier [before the course]. Her interest in
my work has decreased and our booked meetings where we
should talk about different matters are often down prioritized
and cancelled. My trust in my leader has shrunk. The
consequence is that you become less motivated and engaged.
(Co-worker)
Employees’ work
motivation
diminish
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... Leader development, which is framed in terms of the individual leader, concerns the leader's intrapersonal work that focuses on the development of responses to certain events, on self-regulation and on individual skills and abilities. For such development, conceptual knowledge, conscious cognitive understanding and self-reflection are essential (Dinh et al., 2014;Söderhjelm et al., 2018). By contrast, leadership development, which is a broader concept, is framed in terms of the leader's interpersonal work in the development of network and group relationships. ...
... Except for a recent qualitative study (Söderhjelm et al., 2018) and a few Master's theses at Swedish universities, no other evaluations have been published on the UGL program despite its reputation as one of the most well-known leadership training programs in Sweden. As far as we know, there are only a few published longitudinal studies on experiential intensive courses such as, for example, the study by Romanowska et al. (2014). ...
... This proximity in the evaluations, which reflects the managers' lack of self-overconfidence in their leadership ability, can be regarded as a positive result of the course because it is claimed that self-overconfidence is associated with poor leadership performance (Atwater and Yammarino, 1992;Church, 1997). The present study, consistent with results by Romanowska et al. (2014), reveals that the UGL course did not seem to significantly increase the managers' self-confidence in their leadership as might have been expected given their subordinates' positive evaluations of their managers' (Söderhjelm et al., 2018). The raters' evaluations of the female managers accounted for the largest proportion of the variance in the observed positive changes. ...
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to report on the results of an experiential leader development course titled understanding group-and-leader (UGL). Design/methodology/approach The study sample consisted of 61 course participants (the managers) and 318 subordinate raters. The development leadership questionnaire (DLQ) was used to measure the results of the course. The measurements were made on three occasions: shortly before the course, one month after the course and six months after the course. Findings The managers’ self-evaluations did not change significantly after the course. However, the subordinate raters’ evaluations of their managers indicated a positive trend in the scales of developmental leadership and conventional-positive leadership one month and six months after the course. Research limitations/implications The study was based on a comparatively small sample with a number of drop-outs. The study lacked a control condition. Practical implications From an organizational point of view, it could be argued that it is justifiable to send managers to such a course, as there is a good chance for an improvement in their leadership style as rated by subordinates. Social implications The integration of group processes and leadership behavior in the context of experiential learning seems to be a fruitful path to leader development. Originality/value Longitudinal studies on the results of experiential learning for managers are sparse. This is the first quantitative evaluation of a course that more than 80,000 individuals have taken.
... Confidence has been found to be associated with leadership emergence and perceptions of effectiveness by followers [22][23][24]. Parr, et al. [25] discriminated six different personality profiles within executive leaders in a study which further explored the Big Five personality dimensions in the context of the assessment center, and concluded that the profile they called Power-Players, who were high on all big five dimensions of extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new ideas, were the most prevalent managers who attended at an assessment center for testing. This finding backs up earlier beliefs that extroversion, in particular, is a strong correlate of perceived leadership effectiveness. ...
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Part I: Teams Chapter 1: The Challenge Part II: Enabling Conditions Chapter 2: A Real Team Chapter 3: Compelling Direction Chapter 4: Enabling Structure Chapter 5: Supportive Context Chapter 6: Expert Coaching Part III: Opportunities Chapter 7: Imperatives for Leaders Chapter 8: Thinking Differently About Teams