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The Curse Of Corruption In Zimbabwe

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Abstract

Corruption is very harmful and unacceptable. It is one of the major obstacles to sustainable economic growth and development. Corruption has a negative effect on every sphere of any economy. This is what many people think. We used to think so too! But, guess what? There is sufficient empirical evidence supporting the fact that corruption is not always harmful to the economy. In fact, there are some instances where corruption can be indeed fruitful, though; not, generally acceptable. Debatable, as it sounds; and yet this is the reality. Although the study neither recommend nor encourage corruption so far, the study still maintains its hyperopic view that corruption is not always harmful to the economy. In fact the research strongly argues that corruption, especially in Zimbabwe; has been and continues to be a blessing in disguise!
International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications
ISSN: 2456-9992
Volume 1 Issue 5, November 2017
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285
The Curse Of Corruption In Zimbabwe
Nyoni Thabani
57-20th Crescent Warren Park 2, Harare, Zimbabwe
nyonithabani35@gmail.com
Abstract: Corruption is very harmful and unacceptable. It is one of the major obstacles to sustainable economic growth and development.
Corruption has a negative effect on every sphere of any economy. This is what many people think. We used to think so too! But, guess
what? There is sufficient empirical evidence supporting the fact that corruption is not always harmful to the economy. In fact, there are
some instances where corruption can be indeed fruitful, though; not, generally acceptable. Debatable, as it sounds; and yet this is the reality.
Although the study neither recommend nor encourage corruption so far, the study still maintains its hyperopic view that corruption is not
always harmful to the economy. In fact the research strongly argues that corruption, especially in Zimbabwe; has been and continues to be a
blessing in disguise!
Keywords: Bribery, Corruption, Embezzlement, Transparency, Zimbabwe
1. Introduction
“With the Zimbabwean economy in the
doldrums corruption has become an
accepted and almost expected way of doing
business especially in the public sector. If a
civil servant still goes to work today it is not
because of salary but the opportunities to
enhance his or her paltry income with
corrupt acts using the organization’s
resources”-[1].
Corrupt practices are not an issue that just begins today; but
its history is as old as the world [2]. Corruption is
everywhere. In developed countries there is corruption, in
developing countries like Zimbabwe, corruption is there too.
The probability of finding a country where there is no
corruption is synonymous to the probability of experiencing a
“cold day in Hell”. In Zimbabwe, no doubt, corruption is one
of the many unresolved problems that have seriously hobbed
and skewed economic growth and development. In the same
line of argument, [3-6], assert that, in development discourse;
corruption is observed as a major obstruction to the
promotion of sustainable economic growth and sociopolitical
development of Zimbabwe. Corruption, as noted by [7], has
risen to unprecedented levels in Zimbabwe. In fact
Zimbabwe is amongst the world‟s top 25 most corrupt
counties in the world! This is confirmed by [43] whose
investigation indicates that Zimbabwe is ranked 154th nation
out of 175 countries, in terms of the Corruption Perception
Index. We, however, reject the idea that corruption is always
harmful to the economy on the basis that it is improvident.
There are some instances where corruption “greases the
wheels” and improves inefficient and bureaucratic systems.
Corruption, as already highlighted by various authors such as
[8-17]; may be considered a useful substitute for a weak rule
of law. In fact, proponents of “efficient corruption” or the so-
called “greasing hypothesis” such as [8], [10], [13] and [18-
20], strongly argue that bribery, for example, may allow firms
to get things done in an economy plagued by bureaucratic
holdups. Therefore, it is high-time policy makers ought to
divert their attention from the mere existence of corruption
but rather focus on the nature and level of corruption.
Corruption has always been and will continue to be in
existence in every country. The mere existence of corruption
in any society is something that is normal. However, the
nature and level of corruption is a matter of concern. Due to
its complexity, it is very unlikely that policy makers will ever
be able to fix corruption. The only option left is to regulate
its levels as well as its nature. In fact it is not possible to
completely remove corruption in any economic set up.
However, regulating corruption is much more sensible and
realistic.
2. DEFINING CORRUPTION
The difficulty in defining corruption is rooted in the reality
that it can be analysed on different levels and its variants
have been studied across a number of disciplines which
include psychology, economics, law as well as political
science with the use of various political perspectives [21].
Apparently, there is no consensus on the definition of
corruption. In fact, what is considered as corruption may vary
from society to society or from country to country. The
general understanding is that once an act or behavior is
considered as corrupt; that kind of conduct is no longer
desirable. The table below summarizes some of the most
important definitions of corruption:
Definition
Source
Corruption is generally understood as the abuse of
public power for private gain
[22]
Corruption is the violation of formed rules
governing the allocation of public resources by
officials in response to offers of financial gain or
political support
[23]
Corruption refers to the dishonest or preferential
use of power or position which results in one
individual or organisation being advantaged over
another
[24]
Corruption refers to efforts to secure wealth or
power through illegal means for private gain at
public expense; or a misuse of public power for
private benefit
[25]
Corruption is the abuse of public office for private
gain
[26-28]
Corruption is behavior by public officials that
deviates from public interest
[29]
Corruption is behavior that deviates from serving
the common good, suggesting that it is an
embodiment of a state‟s original norms and
[30]
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legitimizing ideology
Corruption is the abuse of public office or private
office for personal gain
[31]
Corruption is the behaviour which deviates from
the normal duties of a public role because of
private-regarding pecuniary or status gains: or
violates rules against the exercise of certain types
of private-regarding influence
[9]
Corruption is accepting money for doing
something that one is under duty to do or that one
is under the duty not to do
[32]
Corruption is an anti-social behaviour conferring
improper benefits contrary to legal and moral
norms and which undermines the authority‟s
ability to improve the living condition of the
people
[33]
Corruption is the misuse of public office, power
or authority for private benefits through various
means such as extortion, bribery, nepotism,
influence peddling, fraud, speed money or
embezzlement
[34]
Corruption is the misuse of public office for
private gain and the abuse of entrusted power
[35]
However, corruption can also be operationally defined as the
destruction of anything from original form of purity by means
of bribery or favor for one‟s private gain.
3. TYPES OF CORRUPTION
Bribery
Bribery is often described as the most common and
frequently occuring corrupt practice [36-37]. Bribery is a
payment, in money or in kind, that is given or taken in a
corrupt relationship. A bribe is (or could be) a fixed sum, any
favour in money or kind or certain percentage of a contact on
behalf of the state or otherwise distribute benefits to
individuals, businessmen or clients. These are payments,
demanded and or needed to speed up matters, make it
progress more swiftly and or favourable through the
government bureaucratic machinery [38]. Bribery refers to
consideration, giving an inducement to influence conduct in
one‟s favour, contrary to standing procedures and regulations
[39]. Bribery is an act of offering somebody money or other
goods for the purpose of persuading him or her to do
something in return [40]. Air Zimbabwe Company bought
unsuitable aircrafts which were meant to service domestic
routes without proper evaluation, allegedly after senior
officials had received bribes from a Dutch Aircraft Company
to influence the decision to purchase such aircrafts. The
engines of these aircrafts were not designed to operate on
high temperatures that are normally experienced in
Zimbabwe [41]. According to the Global Corruption
Barometer (2013), about 60% of Zimbabweans who accessed
public services paid bribes to access the services or speed up
transactions.
Fraud
Fraud involves manipulation, distortion of information, facts
and expertise by public officials who seek to draw private
profit [38]. According to The Black‟s Law Dictionary, there
are basically three types of fraud and these are: actual fraud,
criminal fraud and bank fraud. The Black‟s Law Dictionary
provides the following definitions for these types of fraud:
actual fraud is a concealment or false mispresentation
through a statement or conduct that injures another who relies
on it in acting. Criminal fraud is fraud that has been made
illegal by statue and that subject the offender to criminal
penalties such as fines and imprisonment. Bank fraud is the
criminal offence of knowingly executing or attempt to
execute, a scheme or artifice to defraud a financial institution
or to obtain property owned by or under control of a financial
institution by means of a false or fraudulent pretence,
representation or promise. A typical example of fraud, is
highlighted by [41], who states that in 2006, the Zimbabwe
United Passenger Company (ZUPCO) board of directors was
involved in fraudulent dealings with a foreign company that
supplied the enterprise with small passenger buses. These
small buses were earmarked for servicing urban routes. The
chairperson of the board, amongst others, received bribes in
order to favour the company that supplied buses although
they were not suitable for the required operations.
Embezzlement
Embezzlement refers to cases in which property is taken by
those to whom it was entrusted. Embezzlement involves the
taking or conversion of money and other valuable items such
as property by those who are not entitled to them but who
have access to it by virtue of their position [42]. The National
Oil Company of Zimbabwe (NOCZIM)‟s resources were
used to enrich ministers and public officials; one example, is
the diverting of fuel products that include diesel, petrol and
lubricants which were meant to benefit farmers and deserving
public to the black market [41].
Extortion
Extortion is an act of utilizing one‟s access to a position of
power and knowledge, either directly or indirectly, to demand
unmerited cooperation or compensation as a result of
coercive threats [43]. Extortion relies on coercion to induce
cooperation, such as threats of violence or the exposure to
sensitive information [44].
Abuse of power
Abuse of power is the improper use of authority by someone
who has that authority because he or she holds public office
[45]. A classic example of this kind of corruption has been
noted by [41]. In 2003, Zimbabwe School Examinations
Council (ZIMSEC), senior management crafted a policy
which saw seven senior managers acquiring a vehicle each
every four years of their employment at zero book value [41].
Nepotism / Favoritism
Nepotism and favoritism are actually two different concepts.
However, they are usually used interchangeably, because the
meaning or implication of the other may concur or
compliment the other in one way or the other. Nepotism, as
noted by [40], is a special form of favoritism, which is
defined by [40] as the granting of positions and or benefits to
relatives and friends regardless of their abilities. According to
the [44], nepotism takes place when officials favour relatives
or friends for positions in which they (the officials) hold
some (or sole) decision making authority. A good example of
such corruption in Zimbabwe has been noted by [41], in
which a Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council (ZIMSEC)
official awarded business contracts to unqualified bidders
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and in most cases these unqualified bidders were companies
or organisations of their friends and relatives. In the Zimbabwean scenario, the above types of corruption are
summarized by [46] using simple statistics:
Source of data: [46]
As shown in the pie chart above, bribing is the most
prevalent type of corruption in Zimbabwe, followed by
embezzlement, which is followed by fraud. Nepotism and
extortion have 14% and 10% respectively; while only 4% is
accounted for by other types of corruption besides these six
most common ones. It is imperative to note that bribing takes
the lion‟s share. This could be attributed to bureaucracy,
especially in the public sector.
4. CAUSES OF CORRUPTION
Regulations and authorisations
In most countries and especially in developing countries like
Zimbabwe, the role and functions of the state are executed
through the use of a myriad of rules and regulations. For
almost every action or transaction, licenses, permits and
authorisation of some sort are required and in some cases,
different government offices are involved to ensure that the
activity (ies) is lawful. Regulations and authorisations,
according to [27], provide a monopoly to officials who have
authorising and inspection power. Officials might be
reluctant to issue authorisations and might even delay the
decision process for months on end. Therefore, such officials
can use their public power to exert bribes from those
applying for permits or authorisation. Some individuals
become middlemen or facilitators in the permit chain. In
many cases some of the regulations are nontransparent, not
even publicly available and the granting of authorisation is
limited to one office or an individual. The absence of
competition in the granting of authorisation sets the stage and
provides both the power and opportunity to the bureaucrat to
get involved in corrupt activities [47]. The conduct of
economic and business affairs is like engaging in a sport
event where adherence to the rules of the game is essential
for activities to proceed in an orderly fashion. Rules,
regulations and authorisations are required to maintain fair
play, keep greed and conflict in check and to ensure that
participants abide by accepted standards of moral conduct
and good behaviour [48]. Regrettably, in several
circumstances regulations are non-transparent, not publically
available and authorisation is vested in a specific office or
individual. Such a state of affairs as noted by [27], presents a
situation that where there is no competition in the granting of
authorisations, bureaucrats are being given a great amount of
power and ample opportunity to exert bribes.
Institutional controls
The existence and application of institutional controls
normally reflects on the political attitude towards the
phenomenon. Countries with weak mechanisms of control
and accountability coupled with an underdeveloped civil
society, have found it very difficult to have a proper check on
corruption. The afore-mentioned aspect is particular relevant
in times of transformation when management is new
(relatively inexperienced), tensions are high and relationships
of trust still has to be established [24]. Corruption can
actually be regarded as an institutional phenomenon; it is
characterised by weak rules, too much discretionary powers
and lack of transparency.
Transparency of rules, laws and processes
Rules define the standards on how people interact with each
other and it places constraints on the behaviour of individuals
and that of the group and broader collective. Rules, however,
do not in themselves preclude the possibility of corrupt
activities and yet the absence of such rules creates the ideal
conditions for corruption and conflict of interest. The lack of
the rule of law and administrative predictability, as noted by
[50], contributes to corruption in Africa. In trying to explain
this phenomenon, [50] note that the predictability and the
rule of law are characterised by policies, procedures and
regulations which are developed and implemented according
to a set process and it (or should) presents ample
opportunities for review. Formal bureaucratic organisations
(parastatals), just like in Zimbabwe, are captured by the
ruling party which uses and/or interferes with the powers and
functions of government for gain. Circumstances like these
afford considerable discretion in decision-making and
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produces irrational decision-making, which might be both un-
procedural and illegal. Corruption thrives in an environment
where there is selective application of law and where
enforcement of the law is mainly used as a strategy for
furthering private interest instead of the broader public
interest. However, in Zimbabwe, causes of corruption also
include but are not limited to low civil service salaries, poor
working conditions and lack of transparency. [6], argues that
the approach taken by the Zimbabwe government with
regards to civil servants‟ salaries influences the prevalence of
corrupt activities. Civil servants, as noted by [51-52] and [6],
get meagre salaries which drive them to seek extra income
from services they provide. Similarly, [53], also notes that it
is commonplace in Zimbabwean politics for civil servants to
demand bribes in exchange for their services. In Zimbabwe,
corruption is now a normal thing, most people accept it. In
fact, most Zimbabwean leaders, especially political and
religious leaders, have a history of setting bad examples of
self-enrichment and extravagance at the expense of public
ethics. Several authors such as [54-55], [7] and [56] agree
that corruption is regarded as a normal thing in Zimbabwe.
Hence corruption in Zimbabwe is now taken as a norm
despite various anti-corruption initiatives that have always
been put in place by the government. [3] and [57], points out
that the problem of corruption in Zimbabwe is related to the
climate of unethical leadership and bad governance which in
turn has generated a situation in which corruption has
flourished. [58], states that there are some MPs, Councillors
and government bureaucrats who think that they should make
the most out of the present political arrangement because
there is no guarantee they will retain their positions when a
new government is elected into office in the next elections.
National leaders, as noted by [3] and [57], are unethical due
to their roles and conduct in plundering resources meant to
benefit the country as a whole. A classic example of this
scenario, according to [59], [41] and [60], is the land
repossession of the years 2000-2005.
5. EFFECTS OF CORRUPTION
Negative Effects of Corruption
High transaction cost
The most terrible effect of corruption in Zimbabwe, which
has always been lamented by the business community; is the
increased cost of transaction; which is mainly attributed to
the fact that in a highly corrupt society, resources are
required not only to measure the features of a good or service
in economic exchange but also to define and measure the
rights that are transferred and to protect these rights by
policies and enforcing agreements. Developing countries
such as Zimbabwe have low levels of information
transparency; there are rather high levels of information
asymmetry. Property right are weakly defined and protected
in Zimbabwe. These are some of the reasons why it is
difficult to set up a business and or invest in Zimbabwe;
transaction cost is meaninglessly high. It is imperative to note
that this situation gives much leeway to bureaucrats, to
frequently use their arbitrary power to create delays and
barriers in granting licenses and permits in order to collect
more bribes.
Positive Effects Of Corruption
Bureaucracies in developing countries such as Zimbabwe are
sometimes indifferent to the desires of economic agents
(investors and or entrepreneurs) wanting to carry on
economic activities. This usually happens when the
government has other priorities. Such a situation, as strongly
argued by [8], is quite likely in the absence of effective
popular pressure for economic development, or in absence of
effective participation of business interests in the
policymaking process. In fact, when a government turns a
blind eye on the economic growth and development agenda,
it may be reluctant to move actively in the support of
economic activity. Bureaucracies in developing countries
such as Zimbabwe are usually oriented towards maintaining
their political legitimacy. All economic activities are served
for this purpose. The bureaucracy, as noted by [61], plays an
extensive interventionist role in the economy, and its consent
or support is a sine qua non for the conduct of most
economic enterprise. [61], goes on to argue that when
bureaucrats are indifferent to business and/or have other
priorities, corruption works like piece-rate pay for
bureaucrats, which induces a more efficient provision of
government services, and it provides a leeway for
entrepreneurs to bypass inefficient regulations. In this case,
there is no doubt, corruption indeed has positive effects on
productivity. Corruption, according to [61], also maintains
efficiency by offering contracts to the lowest-cost firm, hence
promotes economic growth. It is imperative to note that
licenses and favors are actually scarce. Therefore, they are
allocated by competitive bidding among entrepreneurs.
Because payment of the highest bribes is one of the major
criteria for allocation, the ability to collect revenue is prior.
Corruption can be seen as part of a Coasean bargaining
process on which a bureaucrat and the private agent may
negotiate to an efficient outcome. The corrupt official awards
the contract to the highest bidder in bribes, and then
allocation efficiency is maintained, because only the lowest-
cost firm can afford the largest bribe [61]. The situation
would be more complex when incomplete information exists,
in other words, the briber does not have full information
about the costs and the bribing capacity of competitors.
However, the situation can be considered as an n-person
symmetric game with incomplete information [62-63].
Assuming suppliers know the bureaucrats‟ policy of
awarding the contract to the firm offering the largest bribe
and suppliers are also assumed to know their own costs, but
have incomplete information about competitors [62]. The
lowest-cost firm is always the winner of the contract, and
thus bribery regenerates the efficiency consequences of
competitive bidding procedures under imperfect information
[8]. Some degree of corruption may be part of the optimal
allocation of resources in the presence of incomplete
contracts or on account of market failure [18]. This point of
view is partly acceptable on the grounds that illegal payments
are required to expedite matters and favorably through the
state bureaucracy [64]. By implication, corruption has the
potential of producing efficient economic agents and in the
long run it virtually enhances economic growth and
development. Therefore, corruption, in such circumstances,
improves efficiency of economic activities. A classic
example of how corruption commences in Zimbabwe is given
by [54] when she writes “In Zimbabwe people are often
simply told „sit there while we try to sort out your problem‟
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and they are made to wait until business closes down, and
then they are told to come back on the next day and the day
after that”. This clearly tells you that there is something
grossly missing in our country. Food for thought! And our
argument is that in face of such adversity, economic agents
will resort to corruption in order to speed up their business
activities. According to [65], despite being restrictive,
corruption can also be economically expansionary. For
example, economic agents can bribe (public) officials to
evade bad laws. Bad laws hamper investment and growth. In
most instances, informal economies, such as is in Zimbabwe,
are a result of effective evasions of bad laws. In Zimbabwe,
as already highlighted by [66], the informal economy is fast
growing as compared to the formal economy. This is
precisely attributed to corruption. According to [67], business
licensing procedures and restrictions on labour have led to
the rise of an informal economic sector outside of the range
of government vision. Economic agents favour the
underground economy (informal economy) due to its
efficiency in both resource allocation and production.
Corruption acts like a tax or rate that different people pay to
bureaucrats; it also makes government services more efficient
and provides a leeway for entrepreneurs to avoid established
(weak) rules. From the perspective, corruption acts as a
lubricant that smoothens operations and so increases the
efficiency of an economy [68]. Corruption is rampant in
Zimbabwe, especially in the public sector. However, it is
important to note that, as it has been shown, not all
corruption is corrupt. Corruption in additional productive
transactions is actually fruitful corruption; the so-called
efficient corruption. Instead of harming growth, it virtually
improves it. This usually happens when legal options for
doing business are significantly limited. The formal sector in
Zimbabwe is too bureaucratic and economically inefficient.
Therefore, economic agents resort to corruption, especially in
form of bribery, in order to “grease the sticky wheels”. This
is one of the reasons why bribery is the most common form
of corruption in Zimbabwe. There are lots of bureaucratic
hold-ups, especially in the public sector. In a developing
country like Zimbabwe, where there is excessive bureaucracy
and a serious lack of property rights, corruption becomes the
only way of doing business.
6. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
Given that tyranny and corruption are the primary causes of
Zimbabwe‟s poverty, and also that the government has firm
control of the country, little can be done to immediately ease
its situation [53]. It is imperative to highlight the fact that the
president of the Republic of Zimbabwe, His Excellency,
President Robert Gabriel Mugabe, has a zero-tolerance
approach towards corruption and organisations such as the
Zimbabwe Anti-Corruption Commission (ZACC) should
continue investigating known and alleged corruption scandals
amongst other national assignments. While these solutions,
according to [53], may seem common sense, though, actually
implementing them is easier said than done. It is also
important to remember that corruption is not always bad.
Corruption that seeks to “grease the sticky wheels” is
“efficient corruption”. Corruption in Zimbabwe, especially
bribery, can be thought of as a blessing in disguise because it
is indeed a replacement of weak rules and unnecessary
bureaucracy! And as such relevant authorities may never
come to a point where they meaningfully eliminate
corruption unless they first address issues to do with
governance. Our line of thinking is hinged on the fact that
countries (e.g Canada, Netherlands, Switzerland, Norway and
Sweden amongst others) that have a low Corruption
Perception Index score exhibit better governance or at least
there is meaningful existence of rule of law.
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Author Profile
Author, born on the 20th of December
1990 in Gweru, Zimbabwe; received the
Bsc (Hons) Economics degree from
Bindura University of Science Education
(BUSE, Bindura, Zimbabwe) in 2015. He previously worked
at the Employers‟ Confederation of Zimbabwe (EMCOZ).
He has authored and co-authored more than 10 research
papers in internationally recognized scholarly journals. Mr.
Nyoni is currently an independent Researcher & Economist
based in Harare, Zimbabwe.
... It can be defined as "theft of public resources by public officials" and as such, it is understood as another form of misappropriation of public funds (Nyoni, 2017, p. 286). Public officials within the local authorities steal from the same public institution in which they are employed and from resources they are supposed to administer on behalf of the state and the public (Nyoni, 2017). A study by Kurfi and Danrimi (2020) highlighted embezzlement and reckless spending by local authorities as one of the reasons for underdevelopment in Nigeria. ...
... The findings also identified embezzlement as another prevalent white-collar crime within local authorities in Zimbabwe. Previous studies in Nigeria (Kurfi & Danrimi, 2020) and Zimbabwe (Nyoni, 2017) also identified embezzlement as one of the prevalent white-collar crimes within local authorities. Given, the role of local authorities in collecting revenue from rate payers and channeling it towards service delivery, opportunities and temptations to engage in embezzlement abound, as argued by Donald Cressey's fraud triangle theory. ...
Article
Full-text available
Despite their instrumental role in the provision of a conducive environment for socio-economic development, local authorities across the globe have been riddled with a myriad of criminal activities, negatively impacting on service to their communities. On numerous occasions, local authorities in Zimbabwe have had to contend with widespread allegations of corruption and a host of other white-collar crimes. This study sought to explore citizens’ perspectives on the scourge of white-collar crime in Zimbabwe’s local authorities, with a particular focus on the trends, causes and impacts. Data were collected from purposely sampled 315 rate payers. Findings revealed that corruption, embezzlement and fraud are the major types of white-collar crime prevalent in local authorities. Poverty, poor internal controls and greediness were found to be the major drivers of white-collar crime. Poor service delivery, reduced revenues and increased expenditure were found to be the major impacts of white collar-crime. The study recommends whistleblowing, sound internal control mechanisms and regular audits as the major strategies to deal with white-collar crime in local authorities.
... Additionally disadvantaged communities suffer the most from the consequences of corruption facing limited access to basic services and opportunities that deepen the cycle of poverty and marginalization. Using Zimbabwe as a case study, corrupt behaviours have hindered the provision of services, leaving many citizens marginalized-particularly those in rural or disadvantaged regions-thus perpetuating their social marginalization [13]. Overall, corruption fundamentally weakens the effectiveness of safety nets in protection of marginalized individuals and communities. ...
Article
Full-text available
Corruption is a widespread issue that impacts individuals, businesses, and societies on various levels. This research paper seeks to delve into the nature of corruption and how it influences economic progress, political stability, and societal welfare. Through the methodology of case study and literature review of academic resources from journals, books, and online reports, this paper utilizes a search strategy including keywords like "corruption " "implications " "economic impact," "societal effects " and "South Africa." Additionally, it investigates the effects of corruption on development, social trust, inequality, and institutional integrity. By analyzing existing research materials this paper aims to enhance our understanding of the multifaceted aspects of corruption and its broad implications, in hopes of identifying potential solutions. As a result, it is concluded that corruption in the status quo perpetuates due to both historical trends and modern socio-economic conditions, resulting in intertwined negative impacts that affect individuals and societies simultaneously. It is also found that multifaceted solutions that combine groundwork policies with innovative strategies including ecommerce support for impoverished citizens, in order to become self-sufficient and more resilient to diminishing welfare resources caused by corruption.
... In developing countries, when there are low quality basic services and gender inequalities are already high, the effects can be stark (Chirisa, Mukarwi & Matamanda, 2018). Poverty and unemployment levels in the African Continent have escalated to unimaginable levels over the years while the majority of the people continue to suffer (Nyoni, 2017). Zimbabwe is a typical case of an African country that is rooted in corruption, undermining human rights and the rule of law, and where the selected few political elites benefit from the public proceeds (Chirisa, Mukarwi & Matamanda, 2018). ...
... Additionally disadvantaged communities suffer the most from the consequences of corruption facing limited access to basic services and opportunities that deepen the cycle of poverty and marginalization. Using Zimbabwe as a case study, corrupt behaviours have hindered the provision of services, leaving many citizens marginalized-particularly those in rural or disadvantaged regions-thus perpetuating their social marginalization [13]. Overall, corruption fundamentally weakens the effectiveness of safety nets in protection of marginalized individuals and communities. ...
Article
Full-text available
Corruption is a widespread issue that impacts individuals, businesses, and societies on various levels. This research paper seeks to delve into the nature of corruption and how it influences economic progress, political stability, and societal welfare. Through the methodology of case study and literature review of academic resources from journals, books, and online reports, this paper utilizes a search strategy including keywords like "corruption " "implications " "economic impact," "societal effects " and "South Africa." Additionally, it investigates the effects of corruption on development, social trust, inequality, and institutional integrity. By analyzing existing research materials this paper aims to enhance our understanding of the multifaceted aspects of corruption and its broad implications, in hopes of identifying potential solutions. As a result, it is concluded that corruption in the status quo perpetuates due to both historical trends and modern socio-economic conditions, resulting in intertwined negative impacts that affect individuals and societies simultaneously. It is also found that multifaceted solutions that combine groundwork policies with innovative strategies including ecommerce support for impoverished citizens, in order to become self-sufficient and more resilient to diminishing welfare resources caused by corruption.
... There are studies that confirm the prevalence of corruption in Zimbabwe (Bonga et al., 2015;Muzurura, 2019;Nyoni, 2017). However, the literature on the impact of corruption and other governance indicators on the Zimbabwean banking industry is still scarce. ...
Article
The paper examines the effects of governance quality and fiscal space on non-performing loans (NPLs) in Zimbabwe. We estimated pooled ordinary least squares (OLS) and quadratic regressions with panel-corrected standard errors (PCSE) and Driscoll-Kraay standard errors using the full dollarisation era dataset for 13 banks from 2009 to 2017. We noted that all the governance indicators are on average negative (bad) and that improvement in the rule of law, political stability and control of corruption stimulates reduction in NPLs if the indicators improve beyond-1.654,-0.876 and-1.361, respectively. More interestingly, the results revealed that an improvement in the interaction terms of political stability and control of corruption with rule of law, governance index and voice and accountability significantly reduces NPLs, which is new empirical evidence in the literature. Regarding fiscal space, we find evidence that fiscal balance positively and significantly affects NPLs. We contribute to the literature by providing new evidence on the role of governance quality in NPLs formation in Zimbabwe, especially when corruption and political stability interact with all governance indicators. We recommend that the Zimbabwean government improve political stability, control of corruption, voice and accountability and the rule of law to reduce NPLs.
... Chilunjika (2021) describes corruption as a multi-dimensional scourge, perpetuated by different elements in society to enhance only those involved and subverting public trust, transparency, accountability, and inclusiveness. So endemic is the nature of corruption in Zimbabwe that the country ranks among the most corrupt countries in the world (Dudzai, 2021;Nyoni, 2017). For Goel et al. (2021), corrupt behavior pervades almost every aspect of economic interactions where there are favors to be obtained. ...
Article
Full-text available
Abstract Zimbabwe has not been spared by the coronavirus disease COVID-19 which has wreaked havoc throughout the world. The country is currently grappling with the pandemic against a background of multiple complex socio-economic conditions. Unfortunately, COVID-19 has escalated prevalent human rights concerns and challenges, including health disparities, poverty, child sexual abuse, access to education, and freedom of speech. Although vaccines are an important tool for reducing the incidence of life-threatening diseases, social determinants of health contribute to vaccine hesitancy. This paper is based on scoping literature review of various relevant materials on the social determinants of health that are inhibiting Zimbabwe’s COVID-19 vaccination programme. This paper aims to contribute to the ongoing discourses on COVID-19. Four main themes are highlighted as social determinants of COVID-19 vaccination: (i) vaccination priority groups; (ii) vaccination hesitancy due to myths; (iii) social exclusion; and (iv) corruption. Findings are discussed in light of the implications to the right to health and other related rights. We recommend that governments of developing countries and stakeholders intensify myth-busting campaigns if vaccination programmes are to gain currency. We further call for the inclusion of priority groups such as persons with disabilities and the elderly on the vaccination priority list.
... The study has revealed that the self-confidence and risk-taking attitude of the entrepreneur contribute positively for their business performance. Nyoni (2017) has recommended that the government should provide enough financial support, education, and training for the development of women entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe. ...
Article
Full-text available
Zimbabwe's political landscape has undergone significant changes since the 2017 coup, with the post-coup period being christened the ‘New Dispensation’. The advent of the ‘New Dispensation’, characterised with promises of a new and revolving democracy, coincided with the coming of voting age of ‘Ama 2000’. The paper investigated the electoral participation of ‘Ama 2000’ in Zimbabwe’s 2023 elections. A theoretical framework that looked at factors that influence youth political participation was developed and used in explaining the electoral participation or their lack thereof. 115 focus group respondents between the ages of 18 to 23 were selected in Zimbabwe’s cities of Harare and Bulawayo, wherein conversations on the motivations and barriers on youth political engagement were facilitated. Whilst ‘Ama 2000’ demonstrated political knowledge and interest, they are generally apathetic, with a few participating in voting whilst most did not associate with the other forms of electoral participation. Disillusionment with both politicians and political parties, politically motivated violence, and life cycle factors were the major reasons for their lack of interest in the country’s 2023 elections. Arguably, there is no democratic and plural ‘New Dispensation’ after all, as these same factors have deterred older youth from participating in elections under the authoritarian Mugabe regime. However, the limited participation of ‘Ama 2000’ in voting demonstrates commitment to democratic principles and a desire to shape the country's future. To address the youth apathy gap, political parties must actively engage with them, reform and promote inclusivity. At state level, structural reforms of an electoral nature are necessary to protect the security of the voter. Civil society has a role to play in strengthening civic education programs that instill a sense of civic duty and active participation in democracy. By involving youth in the democratic process, Zimbabwe can build a foundation for inclusive political participation.
Article
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The problem of the increase of corruption is alarming in Liberia. Corruption has no small way contributed to increasingly levels of poverty and socio-economic inactivity in the country. This study aims to explore the causes of corruption and its effects on economic development in the country. The research contends that the causes of corruption are multi-dimensional fluctuating from poor leadership ability, lack of ethical standards, weak institutions, greed for wealth and position, greed for power, among others. The study pursues to discuss the efficiency of combating corruption by utilizing the ethical values of the societies such as; integrity, fairness, patriotism, and justice for all. Participants of this study were 250 from local organizations/intellectual forums with massive experience and understanding on the topic who purposely volunteered to get involved in questionnaires data collection, and out of them 15 were selected for interviews. The finding shows an inextricable issue of corruption with all relevant stakeholders playing their roles in order to achieve new Liberia. Stakeholders including government, family, religious bodies, international communities such as; African Union and Ecowas, and banks among others. The study recommend that corruption should be made a high risk and low benefit in order to discourage the act and free the collective resources for national transformation and development.
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The worst of the ailments distressing the economy of Zimbabwe continue to be sycophantically dubious and characteristically dystopian policies that are still causing malicious effects on private investment and yet private investment is an indisputably powerful means for sustainable economic growth and development. Private investment in Zimbabwe has been significantly low for the past three decades and yet the private investment that private investment is the backbone of every economy, of which Zimbabwe is not an exception. Motivated by the concern on the persistent retrogressive contribution of private investment to GDP as well as the incessant underwhelming economic growth in Zimbabwe, this study systematically reviews the determinants of private investment in Zimbabwe. Results show that GDP and public investment are the most powerful factors that affect private investment in Zimbabwe. The study recommends attention to be made to all identified factors (that is, GDP, public investment, interest rate, private sector credit and political uncertainty), paying particular attention to the main determinants of private investment, that is GDP and public investment.
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The construction industry plays a strategic role in developing countries like Zimbabwe. This research seeks to empirically determine the main factors affecting construction labour productivity in Zimbabwe. Questionnaires comprising of structured and unstructured questions were used to for data collection. The research employed heterogeneous sampling to select the target population, and fifty (50) questionnaires were completed and analyzed. Using a simple ordinal scale, based on a 5-point Likert Scale; contractors, consultants and professionals expressed their views on the relative importance of twenty-two (22) pre-selected factors on construction labour productivity. Data was analyzed using the Relative Importance Index (RII). The results show that late and or non-payment of wages and salaries, suitability and/or adequacy of capital, non-payment to suppliers, availability of experienced labour as well as education and training are amongst the top thirteen (13) most important factors impinging construction labour productivity in Zimbabwe. Timeous payment of salaries and wages as well as investment in staff training and development are amongst the recommended intervention strategies to improve construction labour productivity in Zimbabwe.
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This now-classic examination of the development of viable political institutions in emerging nations is a major and enduring contribution to modern political analysis. In a new Foreword, Francis Fukuyama assesses Huntington's achievement, examining the context of the book's original publication as well as its lasting importance. "This pioneering volume, examining as it does the relation between development and stability, is an interesting and exciting addition to the literature."-American Political Science Review. "'Must' reading for all those interested in comparative politics or in the study of development."-Dankwart A. Rustow, Journal of International Affairs.
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This paper tests whether corruption may act as an efficient grease for the wheels of an otherwise deficient institutional framework. We analyze the interaction between aggregate efficiency, corruption, and other dimensions of governance for a panel of 54 developed and developing countries. Using three measures of corruption and five measures of other aspects of governance, we observe that corruption is consistently detrimental in countries where institutions are effective, but that it may be positively associated with efficiency in countries where institutions are ineffective. We thus find evidence of the grease the wheels hypothesis.
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Corruption has become an issue of major political and economic significance in recent years. This has led to a resurgence of interest in analysing the phenomenon and the diverse forms that it assumes in developing countries with an expectation that democratisation and economic liberalisation offer potential routes to dealing withthe problem. Anti-corruption strategies range from institutional reforms through to concerted efforts at the international level, but the efficacy of these approaches has not been subject to careful empirical research.