Technical ReportPDF Available

Asian toad eradication feasibility report for Madagascar

January 2016

Authors:

James Thomas Reardon

New Zealand Department of Conservation

Fred Kraus

University of Michigan

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b. Asian toad emerging after rain in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Photo: J. Reardon.

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A tracking tunnel showing rat tracks in New Zealand.

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Asian toad egg strings in small pond, Hong Kong. Photo: Lung Fu Shan Environmental Education Centre.

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Drainage channel in central Tamatave. Photo: J. Reardon.

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Two toad trap designs, a drop-wall trap and a drift fence trap with easily searched refugia. Logistics and cost: The construction of toad traps need not be terribly expensive or complicated. The issues for both designs will be the regular checking of traps for collection and destruction of toads. The "drop-wall" design will need some maintenance to ensure that the traps remain effective and the drift fence trap will need both maintenance and regular toad checking as they are more able to escape from this design. It is estimated that a team of three workers could construct these traps quickly so that 3-4 might be constructed per day. Allowing for US$100 materials per trap and the labour of two workers plus a driver and vehicle we would expect the construction of these traps to

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Figures - uploaded by James Thomas Reardon

Content may be subject to copyright.

Content uploaded by James Thomas Reardon

Content may be subject to copyright.

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FOREWORD!

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CHRISTIAN!RANDRIANANTOANDRO!

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TABLE!OF!CONTENTS!

EXECUTIVE!SUMMARY!!!!!!!!!!b!

1!INTRODUCTION!!!!!!!!!!!!W!

2!GOALS,!OBJECTIVES!&!OUTCOMES!!!!!!!!!c!

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3!THE!SITE!!!!!!!!!!!MM!

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4!REQUIREMENTS!FOR!SUCCESSFUL!ERADICATION!!!!!!!Nc!

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5!CONCLUSIONS!!!!!!!!!!!UT!

6!ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS!!!!!!!!!!Ub!

7!REFERENCES!!!!!!!!!!!Ub!

APPENDIX!I:!Site!Visit!!!!!!!!!!Uf!

APPENDIX!II:!Terms!of!Reference!!!!!!!!!T!!

APPENDIX!III:!Preliminary!Technical!Strategy!!!!!!!TN!

1!URGENT!ISSUES""""""""""TN

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2!METHOD!TESTING!&!EVALUATION""""""""TT"

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9:7;5"79"?:K"8G>V=D5<"

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=C:?:B6C7?4" =C:8:>6C" 78;" 5:C67?" 6>I7C95"9H=" 9:7;5" >7L" H7@=" :8" 27;7B75C7D\" K69H" 8:"

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ID=5G>=;"7"ID=D=YG6569="Q:D"7??":I96:85<"

Pros!and!cons!of!options!

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I=D>78=89?L"D=>:@68B" 7??"9:7;5" 78;" 9HG5"9H=6D"6>I7C9"78;"755:C679=;"D65^"Q7D":G9K=6BH" 9H="

V=8=Q695":Q" 5G59768=;"C:89D:?<",:89D:?"ID:BD7>>=5"D=YG6D="C:>>69>=89" 68" I=DI=9G69L"568C="

78L" V=8=Q69O5R" K:G?;" V=" ?:59" 5H:D9?L" 7Q9=D" 9H=" ID:BD7>>=" K75" ;65C:8968G=;<" ,:89D:?" ID:A

BD7>>=5"YG6C^?L"V=C:>=">:D="=JI=856@="9H78" =D7;6C796:84" 9HG5" C:>I?=9="=?6>68796:8":G9A

D78^5":II:568B"C:89D:?">=9H:;5<"

*D7;6C796:84" 7?:8B" K69H" H6BH" 689=8569L" C:89D:?4" D=YG6D=5" 9H=" ;=@=?:I>=89gC:8Q6D>796:8" :Q"

9=CH86YG=5"9:";=9=C9"9:7;5"79"?:K";=8569L"78;"=QQ6C6=89?L"D=>:@="9:7;5"79"7??";=85696=5<"

Recommended!strategic!option!(eradication)!

[="D=C:>>=8;"78"799=>I9"V=">7;="9:"C:>I?=9=?L"=D7;6C79=" 9:7;5"QD:>" 27;7B75C7D<"'H65"

59D79=B6C":I96:8":QQ=D5"9H="V=59" 5:?G96:8" 68"9H="?:8BA9=D>" VG9"K6??"H7@="9H=";657;@7897B=":Q"

H6BH"5H:D9A9=D>"C:59<"#8"=D7;6C796:8"I?78"5H:G?;"V="6>I?=>=89=;"G8;=D"C:85659=89"D=@6=K"75"

8=K">=9H:;:?:B6=5"7D="9=59=;"78;"?:B6596C7?">=9H:;5":Q"=?6>68796:8"7D="QGD9H=D"=597V?65H=;<""

What!is!required!to!achieve!eradication?!

':"=D7;6C79="9H=5="9:7;5"QD:>"27;7B75C7D"K6??"D=YG6D=";=9=C96:8">=9H:;5"KH6CH"K6??"V="5=8A

5696@="9:" =@=DL" 68;6@6;G7?" 786>7?4" 7CD:55" 9H=" =896D=" 68CGD56:8" 7D=7<" ':7;" C7I9GD=gD=>:@7?"

>=9H:;5">G59"D=>:@="9:7;5"QD:>"9H="I:IG?796:8"Q759=D"9H78"9H=L"VD==;"78;"D=CDG69<"-687??L4"

7"CD696C7?"Q7C9:D"Q:D"5GCC=55"65"9:"=85GD="8:"QGD9H=D"#5678"9:7;5"7D="VD:GBH9"689:"9H="C:G89DL<"

'H=D="7D="7"8G>V=D":Q"I:9=8967?"D=>:@7?">=9H:;5"KH6CH"K6??"D=YG6D="QGD9H=D"9=5968B"78;"9D6A

7?5"9:";=9=D>68="KH79"C:>V68796:8":Q"=D7;6C796:8"9=CH86YG=5"K:D^"V=59"G8;=D"27;7B75C78"

C:8;696:85<"'D67?5"K6??"V="D=YG6D=;"9:";=9=D>68="KH79"?=@=?":Q"=QQ:D9"K6??"V="ID=5CD6V=;"9:";=A

I?:L"9H=";=9=D>68=;">=9H:;5"7CD:55"9H="?78;5C7I="ID=;6C9=;"9:"V="68Q=59=;"VL"9H="96>="9H="

ID:d=C9"V=C:>=5":I=D796:87?<""

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86YG=5"9:"V="5GCC=55QG??L"G5=;"68"=D7;6C796:84"69"65";6QQ6CG?9"9:"=596>79="9H="Q687?"C:59"78;"9H79"

=D7;6C796:8"65"I:556V?=<"(GD"V=59"C:59"=596>79="ID:;GC=5"7"C:59":Q"V=9K==8"h$jM">6??6:8"78;"

h$j!W">6??6:84"VG9"9H65"Q6BGD="C78"V="QGD9H=D"D=Q68=;"9HD:GBH"9H="ID:C=55"D=C:>>=8;=;"V=A

?:K<"

To!undertake!eradication!requires:!

• *597V?65H>=89":Q"7"B:@=D878C="78;"?=7;=D5H6I"V:;L<"

!"#$%&'($)&*+$)#,$-#(%&./$"#0#1#-2&3/4(+-& & &5,61/11$%)&/-&$17&89:;&

• %8597??796:8":Q"7"5G697V?=">787B=>=89"78;"7;>68659D796:8"59DGC9GD=<"

• ,:8Q6D>796:8":Q"Q6878C=5i686967??L"Q:D"9D67?5"Q:??:K=;"VL";=@=?:I=;"=D7;6C796:8":I=DA

796:85"5H:G?;"9D67?5":QQ=D"Q=756V?="=D7;6C796:8":I96:85<"

• *597V?65H>=89":Q" 7;=YG79=" V6:5=CGD69L">=75GD=5"9:"ID=@=89"HG>78" 755659=;" 5ID=7;"

:Q" 9:7;5" 689:4" :G9" :Q" 78;" K69H68" 27;7B75C7D\"9:" ID=@=89" 9H=" 689D:;GC96:8" :Q" 7;;6A

96:87?" 68@756@=" 5I=C6=54" 78;" 6Q" 9H=" =D7;6C796:8" 65" 5GCC=55QG?4" 9:" ID=@=89" 9H=" D=689D:A

;GC96:8":Q"9:7;5"V7C^"689:"27;7B75C7D<"

• *;GC796:87?" ID:BD7>>=5" =597V?65H=;" 9:" 68Q:D>" D=56;=895" :Q" 9H=" 6>I7C95" 78;" D65^5"

I:5=;" VL" 9:7;54" 9H=" 9=CH86YG=5" 9:" V=" G5=;"Q:D" =D7;6C796:84" H:K" 9:" 755659" K69H" 9H="

=D7;6C796:8"78;"H=?I68B"6;=896QL"9H="5C7?=":Q"9H="68CGD56:8"78;";=9=D>6868B"78L"I:5A

56V?="579=??69="I:IG?796:85"KH6CH"C:G?;"=J659":G956;="9H="68CGD56:8"7D=7<"

• 27I"H7V697954"9H="=J9=89":Q"9H="68CGD56:84"78;"78L"I:9=8967?"V7DD6=D5"9:"9:7;">:@=A

>=89<"

• )=@=?:I"7";=8569L"=596>796:8"Q:D"9:7;5"7CD:55"@7D6:G5"H7V69795"9:"68Q:D>" 9H="59D79=A

B6C";=I?:L>=89":Q"9:7;"=?6>68796:8">=9H:;5<"

• )=@=?:IgC:8Q6D>"HG>78="=G9H787567"9=CH86YG=5<"

• )=@=?:IgC:8Q6D>" 5=85696@69L" :Q" ;=9=C96:8" 9=CH86YG=5" 68C?G;68B" 7C:G596C" ;=9=C96:84"

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• ,:8Q6D>796:8":Q" ;=9=C96:8"78;" D=>:@7?"9=CH86YG=5" 68C?G;68B"H78;" D=>:@7?\"V7DD6=D"

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=D7;6C796:8"K6??"D=YG6D="686967?"9D67?5"9:"C:8Q6D>"9H=6D"=QQ6C7CL"Q:D"G5="68"78"#5678"9:7;"

=D7;6C796:8"ID:BD7>>=<"

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=597V?65H=;"9:"=;GC79=" 27;7B75C78"D=56;=895"7V:G9" 9H="9:7;54" 9H=6D" 8=B796@="=8@6D:8>=897?"

68Q?G=8C="78;"755:C679=;"H=7?9H"D65^5"9:"HG>785"O9:7;"I:65:868B"65"^8:K8"9:"V="Q797?"VG9"8=@A

=D9H=?=55"755:C679=;"56C^8=55=5"7D="=J9D=>=?L"G8I?=75789"78;"C:59?L"6Q"H:5I697?6]=;R<"

How!to!proceed:!

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!< %;=896QL"I7D96C6I7968B"7B=8C6=5"78;"685969G9="ID:d=C9<"

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N< %869679="D=YG6D=;"V6:5=CGD69L"78;"=;GC796:8"ID:BD7>5<"

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T< +=755=55"Q=756V6?69L"78;"C:595<"

b< $=CGD="IH75="9K:"QG8;68B"9:"=J=CG9="7IID:@=;"=D7;6C796:8"ID:BD7>>=<"

S< ,D=79="7"C:>ID=H=856@="I?78"C:@=D68B"7??"75I=C95":Q"ID:I:57?"78;"7IID:@=;"K:D^68B"I?78_"ID:A

d=C9"B:@=D878C="78;";=C656:8">7^68B\">=9H:;5"78;"ID6:D696=5"Q:D"D=>:@7?\"IGV?6C"=8B7B=>=89\"

D=5=7DCH" 78;" 7;7I96@=" >787B=>=89\" ID:CGD=>=89" 78;" D=CDG69>=89\"9D76868B" 78;" ;=@=?:IA

>=89<"

" "

!W"

!"#$%&'($)&*+$)#,$-#(%&./$"#0#1#-2&3/4(+-& & &5,61/11$%)&/-&$17&89:;&

!" %&'+()h,'%(&"

'H65";:CG>=89"C:856;=D5"9H="Q=756V6?69L":Q"=D7;6C7968B"7"D=C=89?L"=597V?65H=;"I:IG?796:8":Q"

#5678"9:7;5"O<=--(4>+2%="&?/1$%("-#,-="R"QD:>"27;7B75C7D<"

':"V="5GCC=55QG?"78"=D7;6C796:8"ID:BD7>">G59">==9"5=@=8"=55=8967?"CD69=D67_"

• Technical!feasibility:"'=CH86YG=O5R"9:"V="G5=;"79"9H="ID:d=C9"569="7D="7V?="9:"D=>:@="

7??"68;6@6;G7?5":Q"9H="97DB=9"I:IG?796:8O5R<"

• Sustainability:"1D=@=8968B"D=A68@756:8"VL"97DB=9"5I=C6=5"C78"V="7CH6=@=;<"

• Socially!acceptable:! 'H=" ID:d=C9" H75" QG??"5GII:D9"QD:>"9H="C:>>G869L"78;" :9H=D" ^=L"

597^=H:?;=D5<"

• Politically!and!legally!acceptable:"#??"D=YG6D=;"I=D>695"78;"C:85=895"5=CGD=;<"

• Environmentally!acceptable:"*8@6D:8>=897?"6>I7C95":Q"9H="=D7;6C796:8"7D=">787B=7A

V?="78;"7CC=I97V?=<"

• Capacity:"#??";=9=D>68=;"5^6??54"D=5:GDC=5"78;"=YG6I>=89"C78"V="7CYG6D=;<"

• Affordability:"'H="D=YG6D=;"QG8;68B"65"7@76?7V?="78;"5=CGD=;<"

':"7CH6=@="=D7;6C796:8"L:G"8==;"9:"V="7V?="^6??"9H="97DB=9"5I=C6=5"Q759=D"9H78"69"C78"VD==;"79"7??"

;=85696=5<"':"V="7V?="9:"7CH6=@="9H65"D=YG6D=5"9H="7V6?69L"9:";=9=C9"9H=>"79"?:K";=85696=5"68"7??"

H7V69795<"

'H65"D=I:D9"C:856;=D5"9H="CGDD=89"68@756@="#5678"9:7;"569G796:8"68"27;7B75C7D4"75":Q"EG8="

MW!T4"7B76859"9H=5="5979=;"CD69=D67"?659=;<"%95"76>"65"9:"5979="KH79"65"8==;=;"68":D;=D"9:"7CH6=@="

=D7;6C796:84"KH79"?6>69796:85"5978;"68"9H="K7L":Q"9H79":Vd=C96@=4"78;"KH79"8==;5"9:"V=";:8="9:"5GDA

>:G89"9H:5="?6>69796:85<"

'H="C:8C=I95"78;"ID7C96C=":Q"5I=C6=5"=D7;6C796:8"C78"V="C:>I?=J<"%9"65"CD696C7?"9H79"D=7;=D5"

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3.3 !Impacts!

3.3.1!THREATS!TO!HUMAN!HEALTH!AND!WELLBEING!

The!Asian!toad!poses!a!real!and!lethal!risk!to!human!health!in!Madagascar<"%9"65"K69H"5:>="5GDID65="

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3.3.2!THREATS!TO!MADAGASCARS!FAUNA!AND!FLORA!

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3.4 !Benefits!of!Eradication!

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4 Requirements!for!Successful!Eradication!

4.1!Technical!approach!

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4.2 !Sustainability!

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4.3 !Social!acceptability!

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?L";=56D7V?="O69"IG95">:8=L"689:"9H="C:>>G869LR"K7L":Q"D=;GC68B"9:7;"8G>V=D5"9H79"K6??" V="5==8"75"

U!"

!"#$%&'($)&*+$)#,$-#(%&./$"#0#1#-2&3/4(+-& & &5,61/11$%)&/-&$17&89:;&

;:68B"5:>=9H68B<".:G896=5"H7@="V==8"G5=;"Q:D"786>7?AC:89D:?"ID:d=C95"B?:V7??L"Q:D"C=89GD6=5"78;"7?9A

H:GBH"9H=L";:"D=;GC="786>7?"8G>V=D54"@=DL"Q=K"H7@="5GCC==;=;"68"=D7;6C7968B"68@756@="786>7?5<"%9"65"

>:D="C:>>:8" Q:D" 9H=>" 9:" ?=7;" 9:" lQ7D>68Bm":Q"9H="786>7?5"9:" ID:@6;="7"5G597687V?="68C:>=<"(8="

7;;696:87?"ID:V?=>"K69H"V:G896=5"65"9H=L"I?7C="9H="57>="@7?G=":8"7??"68;6@6;G7?54"KH=D=75"D=>:@68B"

786>7?5"79" 9H="I=D6IH=DL":Q"78"68CGD56:8"65">:D="@7?G7V?="9H78"D=>:@68B"9H:5="9:K7D;5"9H="C:D=":Q"

9H=" D78B=4" 75" ;:68B" 5:" D=;GC=5" 9H=" D79=" : Q" 5ID=7;4" KH=D=75" 9H:5=" 9:K7D;5" 9H=" C:D="7D=" B=8=D7??L"

>GCH"=756=D"9:"C79CH<"#?5:4"786>7?5"5GD@6@68B"9:K7D;5"9H="C:8C?G56:8":Q"9H="ID:d=C94"KH=8"9H=D="7D="

@=DL"Q=K"78;"H7D;"9:"C79CH4"7D=">:D="6>I:D9789"9H78"=?6>687968B"9H:5="79"9H="597D94"KH=8" 9H=L" 7D="

I?=896QG?<"%8"5H:D94"9H="8=B796@="75I=C95":Q"799=>I968B"7"V:G89L":G9K=6BH"78L"I:556V?="V=8=Q6954"78;"

9H="6;=7"5H:G?;"V="C?=7D?L"7@:6;=;"IGV?6C?L<"

Table!of!Key!Contributors!

F=L"597^=H:?;=D5"6;=896Q6=;"5:"Q7D_*"

Name!

Organization/function!

Contact!details!

27;7>="$7H:8;D7""

+7V=56H787^7"

27?7B75L" 3:@=D8>=89" k" 2**2-_" `=7;" :Q" $=D@6C=4"

.6:;6@=D569L",:85=D@796:8"

$BQQ<;@D8t>=Q<B:@<>B"

2D<"*D6C""

+:V5:>7869D78;D75787"

27?7B75L" 3:@=D8>=89" k" 2**2-_" +=5I:856V?=" Q:D"

8796@="Q7G87<""

*D6C<;@D8t>=Q<B:@<>B"

25<"27L7"2::D="

27;7B75C7D"-7G87"78;"-?:D7""3D:GI"

27L7t57@=9H=?=>GD<:DB"

2D<")=@68"*;>:8;5""

269568d:"#55:C6796:8""

;=@68t7>IH6V678C7D=<C:>"

)D<"E7>=5"+=7D;:8"

&=K"P=7?78;")=I7D9>=89":Q",:85=D@796:8"

dD=7D;:8t;:C<B:@9<8]"

)D<"-D=;"FD7G5"

%8@756@="D=I96?="78;"7>IH6V678"=JI=D9"

Q^D7G5tG>6CH<=;G"

)D<",HD659:IH=D"+7JK:D9HL"

#>=D6C78"2G5=G>":Q"&79GD7?"`659:DL"

D7Jt7>8H<:DB"

2D<"1=9="2C,?=??78;""

%8;=I=8;=89"=D7;6C796:8"C:85G?9789""

I>CC?=??78;tJ9D7<C:<8]"

)D<"E7>=5"/=K65"

#>IH6V678"$GD@6@7?"#??678C="

dI?=K65t7>IH6V6785<:DB"

*`/&$,V%(E1/)I/&->$-&->/+/&E#11&0/&%=?/+(="&#%&,(=%-+2&"-$V/>(1)/+"&41$2#%I&$&,+#-#,$1&+(1/&#%&$%2&4+(I+$??/&(Q&E(+V&-(&$))+/""&->/&

!"#$%&-($)&#%,=+"#(%&0=-&->/&Q/$"#0#1#-2&"-=)2&)#)&%(-&/%$01/&="&-(&)#",=""&->/&"#-=$-#(%&E#->&"=QQ#,#/%-&4(-/%-#$1&"-$V/>(1)/+"&-(&?$V/&1#"-#%I&

->/?&>/+/&$44+(4+#$-/7"

4.4 !Political!&!legal!acceptability!

-D:>" 9H=" ?6>69=;" ;65CG556:85" H7;" K69H" 2**-" +=ID=5=89=;" VL" 27;7>=" $7H:8;D74" 69" 7II=7D5" 9H79"

9H=D="65" 7" H6BH"?=@=?" :Q"B:@=D8>=897?" 5GII:D9"Q:D" 9H="=D7;6C796:8" :Q" 9H="9:7;5<"%9" 8==;5" 9:"V=" C:8A

Q6D>=;"9H79"9H65"65"D=Q?=C9=;"79"7"I:?696C7?"?=@=?"78;"K6??"D=5G?9"68":8B:68B"5GII:D9<"'H="QG9GD="I:?696C7?"

569G796:8"68"27;7B75C7D"65"G8^8:K84"VG9"6Q"9H=D="65"59D:8B"5GII:D9"686967??L4"9H="ID6>7DL"D65^"K:G?;"V="

K69H;D7K7?":Q"5GII:D9"VL"9H="3:@=D8>=89<"

&3(54"&796:87?4"+=B6:87?"78;"/:C7?"B:@=D8>=89"K:G?;"8==;"9:"K:D^"C?:5=?L"9:B=9H=D"K69H"C?=7D"?68=5"

:Q"C:>>78;"78;"C:89D:?"5:"9H79":8C="9H=":I=D796:8"597D9=;"9H=D="7D="8:"G8=JI=C9=;";=?7L5<"

[H=9H=D" =D7;6C796:8" 65" ?=B7??L" 7CC=I97V?=" K6??" ;=I=8;" 9:" 7" ?7DB=" I7D9" :8" 9H=" 9=CH86YG=5" G5=;4" 75"

5:>=" :Q" 9H=5=" >7L" D=YG6D=" B:@=D8>=897?"I=D>695" :D"C:85=8954" 7?9H:GBH" =8@6D:8>=897?" ?=B65?796:8"

5==>5" >686>7?" 68"27;7B75C7D<" #8" =J7>I?=" C:G?;" V=" D=B659D796:8":Q" 7"I:556V?=" D786C6;=4"KH6CH" K6??"

8:9"V="7V?="9:"V=" C:8Q6D>=;" G896?" 9H=" D=YG6D=;" 9D67?5" 7D=" C:>I?=9=;<" #?9=D8796@=?L4"6Q" 7" 9=CH86YG="65"

8:9"7V?="9:"V="?=B7??L"6>I?=>=89=;"9H=D="65"8:"G5="68"C7DDL68B":G9"9H="9D67?5<"%55G=5">7L"68C?G;="786A

>7?"K=?Q7D="78;"HG>78"H=7?9H"C:8C=D85<"

#">7d:D"C:8C=D8"65":V976868B"7CC=55"9:"#//"ID:I=D96=5"K69H68"9H="^8:K8"68CGD56:8"7D=7"75"K=??"75"78L"

I:9=8967?":G9?6=D54" V:9H" CGDD=89"78;"QG9GD=<" 'H=" D=@6=K"9=7>"K=D=" 68Q:D>=;" 9H79"7CC=55"K:G?;" 8:9"

UM"

!"#$%&'($)&*+$)#,$-#(%&./$"#0#1#-2&3/4(+-& & &5,61/11$%)&/-&$17&89:;&

V="7" ID:V?=>4" VG9" KH=8" ;=7?68B"K69H"9H:G578;5":Q"?78;":K8=D54"75"K:G?;"V=" 9H=" C75=" Q:D" 9H65"ID:A

d=C94" 8:9" H7@68B" 7CC=55" 9:" = @=8" :8=" ID:I=D9L" C:G?;" ?=7;" 9:" Q76?GD=" 6Q" 69" H7DV: GD=;" 9:7;5<"#?9H:GBH"

9H=D="65" ?699?=";:GV9"9H79">:59"?78;":K8=D5"7D="5GII:D96@=4"9H=D="7D="C:8C=D85"7V:G9" 5:>=" 68;G59D6A

7?gVG568=55"569=5" 9H79" H7@=" 7" H6BH"?=@=?":Q"5=CGD69L"78;"7?5:"5:>=":Q"9H="B79=;"H:G5=5"68"9H="C69L<"%9"

K:G?;"V="6>I:D9789"9:" H7@=" 7"?=B7?">=CH7865>" 9:" 7??:K" 7CC=55" 9:"5GCH" 7D=75"6Q" D=YG6D=;<" %9" 65" 8:9"

^8:K8"6Q"9H65"CGDD=89?L"=J6595<"%Q"8:94"69"8==;5"9:"V="ID:@6;=;"VL"=69H=D"?:C7?":D"8796:87?"B:@=D8>=89<"

'H="V6:5=CGD69L"D=YG6D=;"Q:D"9H="=D7;6C796:8"K6??"7?5:"8==;"I:?696C7?"78;"?=B7?"5GII:D9"9:"=8Q:DC="9H="

5978;7D;5" D=YG6D=;" 9:" ID=@=89" D=68@756:8i9H=D=" 7D=">78L" =J7>I?=5":Q" 65?78;" V6:5=CGD69L"5L59=>5"

7@76?7V?="K:D?;K6;="9:"V75="9H65":8<"

4.5 !Environmental!acceptability!

'H=" =8@6D:8>=897?" 6>I7C9" :Q" 9H=" =D7;6C796:8" :8" 8:8A97DB=9" 5I=C6=5" :D" H7V69795" K6??" ?7DB=?L" V=" ;=A

I=8;=89"GI:8"9H="9=CH86YG=5"G5=;<"-:D"=J7>I?=4"9H="6>I7C95":Q"7"5978;A7?:8="IHL56C7?"D=>:@7?"ID:A

BD7>>="C:G?;"V="YG69=";6QQ=D=89"9:"7"ID:BD7>>="KH6CH"68@:?@=5"9H="G5=":Q"CH=>6C7?5<"

#"IHL56C7?"D=>:@7?"ID:BD7>>="K:G?;"H7@="7"H6BH"?=@=?":Q";659GDV78C=4"6<=<4"78"689=856@="BD6;"5=7DCH4"

VG9"ID:V7V?L":8?L"5H:D9A9=D>"6>I7C9<"'H65"C:>I7D=5"9:"9H="G5=":Q"5:>="CH=>6C7?54"KH6CH">7L"=69H=D"

;=59D:L"@=B=9796:8" :D" H7D>" :9H=D" K6?;?6Q="=<B<4"78L" CH=>6C7?" KH6CH" ^6??5" 9:7;5" :D" 68"78L" K7L" 7QQ=C95"

9H=6D"V6:?:BL" >7L" H7@=" 78"=YG7?":D"BD=79=D"=QQ=C9":8"8796@=" 7>IH6V6785";=I=8;68B" GI:8" H:K"9H=L"

7D="7II?6=;<"%9"65"V=?6=@=;"9H79"9H="7D=7"5:"Q7D"68H7V69=;"VL"9H="9:7;5"H75":8?L"7"Q=K4"C:>>:84"K6;=?L"

;659D6VG9=;"8796@=5<"'H=6D"C:??79=D7?"?:55"65"G8?6^=?L"9:"V="56B86Q6C789<"#8L"6>I7C9"H75"9:"V="C:856;=D=;"

7B76859"9H="?6^=?L"?:8BA9=D>"6>I7C9"7CD:55"9H="KH:?="C:G89DL":Q"8:9"=D7;6C7968B"9:7;5<"

(8C="9D67?5"H7@="V==8"G8;=D97^=8"9:"C:8Q6D>"ID=Q=DD=;"C:89D:?"9=CH86YG=54"9H="7CC=I97V6?69L":Q"?6^=?L"

:D"I:9=8967?"6>I7C95":Q"9H:5=">=9H:;5"K:G?;"8==;"9:"V="C:856;=D=;<"

4.6 !Capacity!

'H65"D=?79=5"9:" 9H=" 5L59=>5"9H79" K:G?;"8==;"9:" V=" IG9"68"I?7C="9:" B6@=" 9H="D=YG6D=;"7;>68659D796@="

5GII:D9"Q:D"9H="ID:d=C9"78;"9H="C7I7C69L":Q"9H="D=?=@789":DB7865796:85"9:"ID:@6;="9H79"5GII:D9<"

1D:d=C9"#;>68659D796:8"

*D7;6C796:8":Q"9:7;5"QD:>"27;7B75C7D" K:G?;" V="7" >G?96L=7D"O=596>79=;" 9:" V=" 79"?=759" 5=@=8"L=7D54"

68C?G;68B"I?78868B"78;"D=5G?9">:869:D68BR4"?:B6596C7??L"CH7??=8B68B"78;"@=DL"=JI=856@="O>6??6:85":Q";:?A

?7D5R"ID:d=C9<"'H="5C7?=":Q"9H="ID:d=C9"K:G?;"D=YG6D="=J9=856@="B:@=D878C="78;"Q6878C67?A>787B=>=89"

5L59=>5"9:"V="68"I?7C=<"

1D:d=C9"3:@=D878C="

#8L"=D7;6C796:8"799=>I9" K:G?;"D=YG6D=" C?=7D"B:@=D878C=" 78;">787B=>=89" 59DGC9GD=5"K69H"7BD==;"

D:?=54"D=5I:856V6?696=5"78;" 7CC:G897V6?696=5<"'H65"8:9":8?L"D=;GC=5"9H="D65^":Q"I:9=8967?";657BD==>=89"

7>:8B"68@:?@=;"I7D96=54"KH6CH"C78"V="H6BH?L";65DGI96@="9:"78"=D7;6C796:8"ID:BD7>>=4"VG9"7??:K5"Q:D"

Q759";=C656:85"9:"V=">7;=":8":I=D796:87?"78;"QG8;68B"7C96@696=5<"

UN"

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2::D="H7@="7BD==;"9:"QG8C96:8"75"9H="?=7;":DB7865796:8<",D696C7?"5^6??5"ID:@6;=;"VL"2-3"68C?G;="9H79"

69"65"7?D=7;L"K:D^68B":8"9H="65?78;4"68"9H="7D=7":Q"9H="68CGD56:8"78;"K69H"7"597QQ"78;"C:897C9"8=9K:D^"

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KEY!SKILL!

PURPOSE!

METHOD!TO!OBTAIN!SKILLS!

1+(E*,'"2#&#3*2*&'"

(@=D56BH9"78;"7;>68659D796:8_"

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4.7 !Affordability!

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>=89<"

6!CONCLUSION!

[="V=?6=@="9H79"9H="=D7;6C796:8":Q"#5678"9:7;5"QD:>"27;7B75C7D"65"8:9"CGDD=89?L"Q=756V?="V=C7G5=_"

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D=ID:;GC="78;"D=CDG69<"

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9H79"=D7;6C796:8"65"I:556V?=<"

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@=?:I=;"78;"C:59";=9=D>68=;"9:"C:8Q6D>"9H="Q6878C67?"Q=756V6?69L":Q"9H="ID:d=C9<"

KEY!ISSUES.!+=YG6D=;"9:"=87V?="=D7;6C796:8"ID:BD7>>=_!

Issue!

Action!

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" "

US"

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6!Acknowledgements:!

'H="7G9H:D5"9H78^"9H="#>IH6V678"$GD@6@7?"#??678C=" 78;" 17D65" P::" Q:D" QG8;68B" 9H65" Q=756V?L"

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5GII:D9"Q:D"569="685I=C96:85\" 27L7"2::D="O2-3R"78;")=@68"*;>:8;5"O#55:C6796:8"269568d:R"

Q:D"5GII:D968B" 7 " 569="@65694 " 75"K=??"75"C::D;687968B"9H=";659D6VG96:8"5GD@=L5" O7" CDGC67?" C:>A

I:8=89":Q"9H65"59G;LR" 78;"Q:D"?759?L"G8;=D97^68B"7"9D785?796:8"D:?=<"%9"65"D=C:B865=;"9H79"9H65"

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VG96:8"5GD@=L5"78;"Q:D"C::D;687968B"9H="569="@65695"68C?G;68B"?6765:8"K69H"?:C7?"D=56;=895<"[="

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7!REFERENCES!

#D87G;4"+<"MW!U<"v%8@756:8";="CD7I7G;5"@=86>=GJ"w"':7>75687_"G8=">=87C="I:GD"?pxC:5L59y>="

>7?B7CH=<v"5#)#&5$)$I$"#V$+$"OWUg!SgMW!UR<"#@76?7V?=_"H99I_ggKKK<>6;6A

>7;7B756^7D7<>Bg5:C6=9=gMW!UgWUg!Sg68@756:8ACD7I7G;5A@=86>=GJA9:7>75687A>=87C=A

?=C:5L59=>=A>7?B7CH=g"z#CC=55=;_"Wc"(C9:V=D"MW!T{<"

.?=9]4"2<,<4"3<2<"+:574"-<" #8;D=:8=4"*<#<",:GD9:654")<$<"$CH>=??=D4"&<`<,<"+7V6V65:74"-<,<*<"+7V=>7A

878d7D74"/<"+7H7D6@:?:?:8676874"2<"a=8C=54",<"[=?;:84")<"*;>:8;54",<E<"+7JK:D9HL4"+<&<"`7DD654"2<,<"

-65H=D478;"#<",D:99686<"MW!T<" [6;=5ID=7;"ID=5=8C=":Q"9H="I79H:B=86C"QG8BG5"W$-+$,>(,>2-+#=?&)/%F

)+(0$-#)#""68"K6?;"7>IH6V678"C:>>G8696=5"68"27;7B75C7D<"S,#/%-#Q#,&3/4(+-""5:"c4bNN<"

.:>Q:D;4"2<"78;"1<(Z".D678<"!ffT<"*D7;6C796:8":D"C:89D:?"Q:D"@=D9=VD79="I=595|"`#1)1#Q/&S(,#/-2&W=11/F

-#%"23(MR_"MUfkMTT<"

.GD8=994"$<"!ffS<",:?:86]68B",78="':7;5",7G5="1:IG?796:8")=C?68=5"68"&796@="1D=;79:D5_"+=?67V?="#8A

=C;:97?"%8Q:D>796:8"78;"2787B=>=89"%>I?6C796:85<"@$,#Q#,&6(%"/+J$-#(%&W#(1(I2<"3O!R_"bTkSM<"

,H=8B4",<E<4",<$<"/684"/<[<" ,H78B4"78;"$<`<"/68"MWWb<"1=DI?=J68B"HLI=D^7?7=>67<"N/4>+(17&<#$17&'+$%"F

41$%-"21_"N4NMWkN4NMN<"

,H64" `A'<" 2<4" )AP<" `G8B4" [A`" `G4" )A0<" 078B<" !ffc<" 1D:B8:596C" 6>I?6C796:85" :Q" HLI=D^7?=>67" 689:7; "

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1!URGENT!ISSUES!

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C?=7D?L"6;=896Q6=;"78;"9H="D=>69"9:"?=7;"9H="ID:BD7>>=":Q"K:D^"65";=Q68=;<"

Recommendation_" )65CG55" K69H" CGDD=89" ?=7;" :DB7865796:85" 78;" ^=L" 68AC:G89DL" I7D98=D5" 9:"

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V=";=56B879=;"75"5::8"75"I:556V?="75"69"65"8=C=557DL"Q:D"=@7?G7968B"78;"7C968B":8"9H="D=C:>A

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Recommendation:"/=7;":DB7865796:8" 5H:G?;" ;=@=?:I"7" C:>>G86C796:8"78;" =;GC796:8"ID:A

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Recommendation:"/::^"Q:D" 3%$">7II68B" =JI=D95"K69H68"B:@=D8>=89"78;"9H="ID6@79="5=C9:D"

KH:"C78"V="C:89D7C9=;"9:"K:D^":8"9H="ID:d=C9<"%9"65"6>I:D9789"9H=L"H7@="7"C?=7D"G8;=D5978;A

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7"K6;=D"7D=7"68";=85696=5"?:K"=8:GBH"9:"7@:6;"C75G7?":V5=D@796:8<"

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2!METHOD!TESTING!AND!EVALUATION!

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M<!<!")=8569L"=596>796:8"

Purpose:"-D:>"9H=" ;797" B79H=D=;" 9:"=596>79="7@=D7B="9:7;";=8569L"K69H68"9H="68CGD56:8"7D=7"69" K6??"

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ID:ID679="=596>796:85":Q"9H="=QQ:D9"D=YG6D=;"Q:D"=D7;6C796:8"I?78868B4" 78;" 9H=" D=?796@=" D65^":Q">=9HA

:;:?:B6=5"V=68B"687;=YG79="9:"7CH6=@="=D7;6C796:8<"

Method:"#8"686967?"78;">:;=D79=?L"?:KAC:59"7C96:8"5H:G?;"V="9:"=@7?G79="9H="7II7D=89";=8569L"68"7"

D78B=":Q" =C:9LI=5"^8:K8"9:"C:89768">:;=D79="9:"H6BH"9:7;";=85696=5_"GDV78"O5GVGDV78"5=99?=>=89R4"

689=856@="7BD6CG?9GD7?4"78;"G8>787B=;"@=B=979=;"H7V6979<"[="D=C:>>=8;"9H79"9:7;";=85696=5"V="=5A

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=QQ=C96@=?L"VL"5>7??A5C7?=";=59DGC96@="H7V6979"C?=7D78C=<"'H="5C7?=":8"KH6CH"5GCH">=9H:;5"5H:G?;"V="

=>I?:L=;"5H:G?;"V="?6>69=;"9:":8?L"MkN"569=5"I=D">7d:D"=C:9LI="75"9H="68Q:D>796:8"B79H=D=;"65"68;6CA

796@=":8?L"Q:D"9H="5C7?68B":Q"5GV5=YG=89">=9H:;5"9=5968B4"Q:D"=J9D7I:?7968B"7IID:J6>79="9:7;"I:IG?7A

96:8"56]=4"78;"9H=D=Q:D="Q:D"=87V?68B" 78" 6>ID:@=;"=@7?G796:8":Q"D65^":Q"ID:I:5=;"=D7;6C796:8"59D79=A

B6=5.!'H=" ID:I:5=;">=9H:;:?:BL"65"9:";=>7D^" 78"7D=7"V=68B"8:"?=55"9H78"!W"J"!W">"78;"8:"BD=79=D"

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MkN">":Q"=7CH":9H=D"C?=7D68B"@=B=9796:8"78;"78L">79=D67?5"68":D"G8;=D"KH6CH"9:7;5">7L"V="H6;68B<"%9"

K6??"V="8=C=557DL"9:"H7@=">7CH=9="78;"5I7;=5"7@76?7V?="Q:D"9H="C?=7D78C=":Q"@=B=9796:8"9H79"C788:9"

V="=QQ=C96@=?L"5=7DCH=;"K69H:G9"D=>:@7?<"#5"5GCH"69"65"6>I:D9789"9H="7D=75"5=?=C9=;"Q:D"9H="5=7DCH=5"

>==9"C=D9768"CD69=D67_"

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V?="9:"V=">:@=;":D";7>7B=;";GD68B"7"5=7DCH<"

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;6D=C9"5G8?6BH9<"(8C="9H="9=7>"H7@=">7;=":8="9H:D:GBH"5K==I":Q"9H="7D=7"9H=L"5H:G?;"D=I=79" 9H="

ID:C=55"=85GD68B"9H79"8:":II:D9G869L"D=>7685"Q:D"9:7;5"9:":CCGIL"9H="7D=7"V=68B"5=7DCH=;<"

(8C="9H=" 5=7DCH" 65"C:>I?=9=;"9H=" C:??=C9=;" 9:7;5" 5H:G?;"V=" 5K6Q9?L"=J7>68=;"78;" =7CH" 68;6@6;G7?"

>=75GD=;"O$a/R4"5=J=;"78;"HG>78=?L"=G9H7865=;"VL"I69H68B4":D"VL":9H=D">=785";==>=;"HG>78="VL"

@=9=D687DL"=JI=D95<"%Q"5^=?=97?"CHD:8:?:BL"OQGD9H=D";65CG556:8":Q"9H65">=9H:;"V=?:KR"65"9:"V="IGD5G=;4"

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Logistics!and!costs:"'H65"ID:I:5=;"K:D^"K6??"D=YG6D="7"9=7>":Q"79"?=759"56J"68;6@6;G7?5"?=;"VL"5:>=:8="

K69H"C:>I?=9=" :@=D56BH9"78;"G8;=D5978;68B":Q" 9H=" 9=CH86YG="V=68B"IGD5G=;"78;"9H="5^6??5"9:"7CCGA

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M<!<M"`G>78="=G9H787567"

Purpose:"2=9H:;5":Q" HG>78=" =G9H787567"7D=" =55=8967?"9:" 9H=" 9=5968B" :D" =>I?:L>= 89" :Q" 78L" 9:7;"

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Method:"'H="?=7;" V:;L" 7CC:G897V?="Q:D"9H="=D7;6C796:8"5H:G?;"C:85G?9" K69H"@=9=D687DL"=JI=D95"78;"

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HG>78="=G9H787567":Q"9:7;5<"'H65"K6??"8==;"9:"V=";:8="68"78"68Q:D>=;">788=D"K69H"C:856;=D796:8":Q"

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US$10,000<" 'H=" ID:;GC96:8" :Q" 78L" 9::?5" 9: " 5GII:D9" =D7;6C796:8" K:G?;" D=YG6D=" 9H=" > 78GQ7C9GD=" :Q"

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M<!<N"'D7C^68B"9G88=?5"

Purpose:"'D7C^68B" 9G88=?5" 7D=" 7" ?:KA9=CH" >=9H:;" :Q" I7556@=?L" ;=9=C968B" 9H=" ID=5=8C=" :Q" 786>7?5"

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9:Q7G87"68"&=K"P=7?78;"O&PR<"

Method:"'D7C^68B"9G88=?5"7D=">755AID:;GC=;"C7D;5"K69H"7"C=89D7?"I:D96:8"C:@=D=;"68"I=D5659=89"68^<"

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Logistics!and!cost:".:9H"C:>I:G8;5"7D=" 57Q=" Q:D" HG>78" G5="78;4" 68;==;4" 7D=" ID=5=89" 68" 8G>=D:G5"

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Purpose:"a6D9G7??L"7??"QD:B5"D=ID:;GC="VL">7?=5"799D7C968B"Q=>7?=5"9:"VD==;"@67"7C:G596C"C7??68B<",7??A

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9:"9D678BG?79="9H="?:C796:8":Q"7"C7??68B"9:7;"78;"D=>:@="69<"

Logistics!and!cost:"+=C:D;68B5":Q"9H65"5I=C6=5"7D="7?D=7;L"7@76?7V?=":8"9H="689=D8=9<"'H=L">=D=?L"8==;"

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Purpose:"+=5=7DCH":8"9H="D=?79=;",78="9:7;"68"#G59D7?67"H75"5H:K8"9H79"97;I:?=5":Q"9H79"5I=C6=5"7D="

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Purpose:"%9">7L"V="7IID:ID679="9:"C:856;=D"9H="G5=":Q"C=D9768"H=DV6C6;=5"9:"C?=7D"D6I7D678"@=B=9796:8"

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Method:"$978;7D;" 7II?6C796:8" :Q" B?LIH:579=" H=DV6C6;=5" 5GCH" 75" +:G8;GI"C78" V=" G5=;<" 'H=" G5=" :Q"

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M<M<S"*BB"C:??=C96:8"

Purpose:"1D6:D" 9:" H79CH68B" 689:" 97;I:?=54" #5678" 9:7;"=BB5" >7L" V=" 7V?=" 9:" V=" =QQ6C6=89?L" C:??=C9=;4"

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5>7??=D4"5H7??:K"K79=DV:;6=5<"

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Logistics!and!cost:"/7V:GD"78;"9D785I:D9"9:"569=5<"%9">G59"V="8:9=;"9H79"9H65">=9H:;"K6??"V="YG=596:8A

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M<M<c"+=QG5=">787B=>=89"

Purpose:"'H=" 68CGD56:8" 7D=7" 68" 78;" 7D:G8;" 9H=" I:D9" C69L" :Q" '7>797@="H75" 7" 5=D6:G5" GDV78" D=QG5="

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;:8="5K6Q9?L"=8:GBH"9:"ID=@=89"9:7;5"=5C7I68B<")797"ID:@6;=;"VL"9H="#>V79:@L"268="5GBB=595"9H79"

9H="9D785I:D9":Q"D=QG5="9:"9H="569="H75"7?D=7;L"5ID=7;"#5678"9:7;5"9:"9H="7D=7<"

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;=56B8"78;"C:>>=89":8"9H65"5GBB=596:8<"

M<M<f"':7;";:B5"

Purpose:"':"9H:5=" K69H"?6>69=;"=JI=D6=8C=" 68"@=D9=VD79="=D7;6C796:854" 9H=" 5GBB=596:8" :Q" 9D768 68B" 7"

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865=;"Q:D"9H=6D":?Q7C9:DL"5^6??5"78;"7V6?69L"9:"V="9D768=;"9:"7"5I=C6Q6C"97DB=9<"#?9H:GBH"9H=D="65"8:" D=7A

5:8"9:"V=?6=@="9:7;5"I:5="7"ID:V?=>"9:" 9H65" 9=CH86YG=4"69">G59"V=" 5979=;"9H79"69"K6??"V=" =55=8967?"9:"

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;:B5"68"&P"Q:D"?:C7968B"9H="68@756@="7?I68="8=K9<"%9"K6??"97^="79"?=759"7"L=7D"9:"5GCC=55QG??L"9D768"7";:B"

9:"V="7"D=?67V?="9:7;";:B4"78;" ID:@656:8" >G59"V=">7;="9:">7689768" 9H=" 5^6??5" :Q" 78L";:B"9D768=;"Q:D"

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;=9=D>68=;"9HD:GBH"C:89D:??=;"9D67?5<"

Logistics!and!cost:"%89=D8796:87?"=JI=D965="K6??"V="9H="?7DB=59"C:59"68@:?@=;"68"9H65">=9H:;<"[="K:G?;"

=596>79=" 9H79" 9D76868B" K:G?;" D=YG6D=" 79" ?=759" 9HD==" =J9=8;=;" @65695"VL" 7" 9D768=D4" KH6CH"6Q" :V9 768=;"

QD:>"7"C:G89DL"5GCH"75"&P4"K:G?;"ID:V7V?L"C:59"68"9H="D=B6:8":Q" US$90,000"Q:D"9HD=="@656954"=7CH":Q"

78"=6BH9"K==^";GD796:8"O68C?G;68B"Q?6BH95R<"

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M<M<!W",7II68B"K79=DV:;6=5"

Purpose:"'H="68CGD56:8"7D=7"65"G8Q:D9G879=?L"68"78"7D=7"K69H" 7" BD=79" ;=7?":Q"5978;68B"879GD7?"K79=D"

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9H79"7D=":Q" 8:" >G86C6I7?":D"56B86Q6C789" =C:?:B6C7?"@7?G=<" 'H65">7L"H7@=" 9H=";G7?" V=8=Q69":Q"D=;GC68B"

I:9=8967?"VD==;68B"569=5"Q:D";65=75="@=C9:D68B">:5YG69:=5<"

Method:! ,6@6?" =8B68==D" =8B7B=>=89" K6??" V=" =55=8967?" Q:D" ?7DB=D" ID:d=C954" VG9" 5>7??=D" K79=DV:;6=5"

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M<M<!!",H=>6C7?"9D=79>=89":Q"K79=DV:;6=5"

Purpose:"#5"97;I:?="9D7I5"7D="75"L=9"G89=59=;"Q:D"#5678"9:7;54"69"65"6>I:D9789"9:"C:856;=D"7;;696:87?"

>=785" :Q" 97DB=968B" 97;I:?=5<" (8=" >=9H:;" K:D9H" C:856;=D796:8" 65" 9H=" G5=" :Q" D:9=8:8=" :D" 56>6?7D"

C:>I:G8;5" 9:" ^6??" 97;I:?=5<" +:9=8:8=" 65" :8?L" =QQ=C96@=" :8" 68;6@6;G7?5" K69H" B6??5" 78;" 5:" K6??" 8:9" V="

=YG7??L"=QQ=C96@="Q:D"7??";=@=?:I>=897?"597B=5<"`:K=@=D4"9H="G5=":Q"5GCH"7">=9H:;"H75"BD=79"7II?6C7A

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=J65968B"?:C7?">=9H:;5"G568B"I?789"V75="C:>I:G8;5"Q:D"Q65H68B"IGDI:5=5<"

Method:"'H=D="65"?69=D79GD="7@76?7V?="9:"6859DGC9":8"9H="G5=" :Q" D:9=8:8=" Q:D" 9H=" C:89D:?":Q" Q65H"9H79"

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9=D>68="=QQ6C7CL<"[="7?5:"D=C:>>=8;"68@=596B7968B"?:C7?">=9H:;5":Q"CH=>6C7?"Q65H"C7I9GD=<"%9">7L"V="

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M<M<!M"':7;"9D7I5"

SM"

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Purpose:"[H6?="5:>=" :Q"9H=" >=9H:;5"ID:I:5=;"Q:D"9=5968B"H=D=" 7D=" ;=56B8=;"9:"D=;GC=":D" D=>:@="

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V==8";D768=;"78;"C7II=;"9:"5:>="5GCC=55<"

Method_"%9" >7L"V="I:556V?=" 9:";=56B8" 78;";=@=?:I" 9D7I5"Q:D" VD==;68B"9:7;5" 6Q"K79=DV:;6=5" 5GCH"75"

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9=D"9:"7C9"75"78"799D7C9789<"$GCH"9D7I5"K6??"K:D^"V=59"KH=8";=I?:L=;"K69H";D6Q9"Q=8C=5<"

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OPERATIONAL!TOTAL!!!!!US$106,360!

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YEAR!ONE!PROJECT!TOTAL! ! ! ! US$385,520"

The environmental trade-offs of mining in a biodiversity hotspot

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2024

Katie Devenish

Mining supplies critical minerals, supports millions of livelihoods, and can help fuel economic development, particularly in low-and middle-income countries. Yet, these contributions can entail substantial trade-offs for biodiversity and ecosystems, through habitat loss, deforestation, and pollution. These impacts are particularly concerning when mining occurs in places which are also hotspots for biodiversity, such as Madagascar. In this thesis, I explore the challenges and opportunities for reconciling mining and biodiversity conservation in Madagascar. Using spatial data analysis and counterfactual methods for impact evaluation I evaluate the real and potential impacts of mining on the forests and, by proxy, biodiversity of Madagascar, and the effectiveness of policies to mitigate that impact. First, I evaluate the effectiveness of a key policy mechanism for mitigating the impacts of infrastructure development on biodiversity: biodiversity offsetting. Using statistical methods for counterfactual impact evaluation (statistical matching, difference-indifferences , and fixed effects panel regressions), I show that Madagascar's largest mine,

High interannual variability of a climate-driven amphibian community in a seasonal rainforest

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2020
BIODIVERS CONSERV

Seasonality exerts strong pressures on biodiversity patterns. Yet, temporal beta-diversity is poorly studied in tropical systems, and the drivers of variability in amphibian activity and seasonality remain largely unknown. We quantified intra- and interannual variation in temporal beta-diversity relying on a nine-year, year-round survey (51 species, n > 23 000) performed in a protected area (Betampona, Madagascar). We assessed the dependence on climate of beta-diversity and abundance using a distance-based redundancy analysis and generalised linear mixed models, respectively. Despite the majority of species being preferentially active during one specific period, beta-diversity and abundance were more variable between years than within years. Temporal variation in beta-diversity was best explained by temperature (but climate accounted for only 2% of variation). Species abundance was best explained by temperature (for 32% of the tested species), monthly humidity (30%) and monthly rainfall (24%). We found no climatic dependence for 24% of the species. Our results suggest that studies focusing on species phenology can be misleading when based on single-year surveys even in seasonal systems. The high interannual variability in diversity may be due to an adaptive responses to an important regime of stochastic events. Given the direction of the relationships between weather and abundances, we predict that a large proportion of amphibians would suffer from climate change in Madagascar. We emphasise the need to account for multiple temporal scales in studies of tropical species composition and abundance to better understand species phenology and their response to climate change, and make targeted conservation actions more effective.

Habitat preference based on herpetofauna spatial distribution in Coal Mining Area of PT Singlurus Pratama, East Kalimantan

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2018

Herpetofauna communities are formed due to the suitability of the habitat or adaptation process that forces a species to survive. The opening of the land mines result in missing or changing the habitat of herpetofauna. This research was conducted to know the preferences of the herpetofauna of habitat based on spatial distribution of herpetofauna in the vicinity of mining area of PT Singlurus Pratama. The survey was conducted in the area of revegetasi, forest fragmentation, the district adjacent to the mining area, rivers and water spots or natural and man-made on two mining blocks i.e. block Pearl and block independence. The method of election of purposive sampling location with direct search survey methods (Visual Encounter Surveys). The main species found 4 that its spread most widely with populations high. The most frequent species of herpetofauna and many found among others: Eutropis multifasciata, Enhydris enhydris, Fejervarya cancrivora, Polypedates leucomystax and Duttaphrynus melanostictus. Based on the value of the index indicates that the diversity of herpetofauna communities distress with low. Types of herpetofauna more land cover found in the undergrowth, secondary forest and agricultural areas that there are sources of water in it.

PREFERENSI HABITAT BERDASARKAN DISTRIBUSI SPASIAL HERPETOFAUNA DI KAWASAN PERTAMBANGAN BATUBARA PT SINGLURUS PRATAMA, KALIMANTAN TIMUR

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2018

Teguh Muslim

Komunitas herpetofauna terbentuk karena adanya kesesuaian habitat atau proses adaptasi yang memaksa suatu spesies untuk bertahan hidup. Pembukaan lahan pertambangan berakibat hilang atau berubahnya habitat herpetofauna. Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui preferensi habitat herpetofauna berdasarkan distribusi spasial herpetofauna di sekitar kawasan pertambangan PT Singlurus Pratama. Survei dilakukan di areal revegetasi, hutan fragmentasi, kawasan yang berdekatan dengan areal pertambangan, sungai dan atau spot air alami dan buatan pada dua blok pertambangan yaitu blok Mutiara dan blok Merdeka. Metode pemilihan lokasi secara purposive sampling dengan metode survei pencarian langsung (Visual Encounter Survey). Ditemukan 4 spesies utama yang penyebarannya paling luas dengan populasi yang tinggi. Jenis herpetofauna yang paling sering dan banyak ditemukan antara lain: Eutropis multifasciata, Enhydris enhydris, Polypedates leucomystax, Fejervarya cancrivora dan Duttaphrynus melanostictus. Berdasarkan nilai indeks menunjukkan bahwa keanekaragaman herpetofauna rendah dengan komunitas yang tertekan. Jenis herpetofauna lebih banyak ditemukan pada tutupan lahan semak belukar, hutan sekunder dan areal pertanian yang terdapat sumber air didalamnya.

Colonizing Cane Toads cause population declines in native predators: reliable anecdotal information and management implications

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1997

Scott Burnett

This paper presents compelling, anecdotal evidence of severe population declines in five predator species, Dasyurus hallucatus, Varanus gouldii, V. mertensi, V. panoptes, and V. timorensis similis, in almost immediate response to Cane Toad colonization of their habitat in three widely distributed areas of northern Queensland. Furthermore, risk assessment of all quoll and monitor taxa whose distributions overlap the potential distribution of the Cane Toad in Australia (Sutherst et al. 1996), indicates that at the continental scale, three of the four quoll taxa and eight of the 20 monitor species examined are at high risk of severe population declines following Cane Toad colonization. One quoll taxon and seven monitor species are at moderate risk and five monitor species are at low risk. The definition of the threat which Cane Toads pose to native predators has received very little research attention, and fundamental questions including; which predator species are most at risk (testing of the risk assessment hypotheses presented here), the extent of these risks (is there a need to manage Cane Toad impacts upon predators?), and the contexts of intraspecific variation in relative extinction risk (for example, interactions of extinction risk with predator and Cane Toad population demography, climate, landscape, and land use), need to be assessed. Assuming that Cane Toads are found to have an impact across a range of taxa and landscapes (which I propose to be likely), management of the impact of this species on predators can be approached from two not necessarily exclusive directions; management of Cane Toad populations and management of predator populations, through both population and habitat management. At this stage, however, management from either viewpoint is constrained by a lack of published information relevant to autecology and fine scale distribution of predators.

The New Toad in Town: Distribution of the Asian Toad, Duttaphrynus Melanostictus , in the Toamasina Area of Eastern Madagascar

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2015

In March 2014, the Asian toad Duttaphrynus melanostictus was reported from Madagascar's second largest city and main port Toamasina, raising immediate concerns about the invasive nature of the newly introduced toad and its environmental impact should it spread throughout the island. As part of a study on the feasibility of eradication, we conducted 516 interviews and 120 visual encounter surveys between April and November 2014. We found the toad to be widespread to the south and west of city center and estimate its minimum range to include an area of at least 108 km 2. Social surveys indicate that the toad may have already been present for some years and potentially introduced prior to 2010, with the site of its introduction likely south of Toamasina near National Route 2 and the Ambatovy Plant. We discuss limitations of our survey methodology, proposed improvements for future work, and the implications of our results on eradication and control measures.

Widespread presence of the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in wild amphibian communities in Madagascar

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2015

Amphibian chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has been a significant driver of amphibian declines. While globally widespread, Bd had not yet been reported from within Madagascar. We document surveys conducted across the country between 2005 and 2014, showing Bd 's first record in 2010. Subsequently, Bd was detected in multiple areas, with prevalence reaching up to 100%. Detection of Bd appears to be associated with mid to high elevation sites and to have a seasonal pattern, with greater detectability during the dry season. Lineage-based PCR was performed on a subset of samples. While some did not amplify with any lineage probe, when a positive signal was observed, samples were most similar to the Global Panzootic Lineage (BdGPL). These results may suggest that Bd arrived recently, but do not exclude the existence of a previously undetected endemic Bd genotype. Representatives of all native anuran families have tested Bd-positive, and exposure trials confirm infection by Bd is possible. Bd's presence could pose significant threats to Madagascar's unique ''megadiverse'' amphibians.

Asian common toads in Madagascar: An urgent effort to inform surveys and eradication efforts

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2014
GLOBAL CHANGE BIOL

Richard G. Pearson

Kolby et al. (2014) reported the very recent arrival of Asian common toads (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) in Madagascar, most likely arriving inside shipping containers from Asia. The species’ relative, the cane toad (Rhinella marina), has caused widespread ecological destruction in Australia, and there is now concern that an invasion in Madagascar will have disastrous impacts on the island's unique fauna. Over 90% of Madagascar's terrestrial animals are endemic to the island, raising the prospect of substantial loss of biodiversity through poisoning from toxins released by the toads, predation, competition for resources, and spread of disease (though, fortunately, there are no known infections to date of the lethal chytrid fungal disease among Asian common toads; see http://www.bd-maps.net/). Potential impacts on agriculture, contamination of drinking water, and parasite transmission also raise concerns for human health and livelihoods (Kolby, 2014).This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Levels of Predation Modulate Antipredator Defense Behavior and Metamorphic Traits in the Toad Bufo melanostictus

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2011

The influence of the presence of nonlethal predators on antipredator defense behavior and metamorphic traits was studied in the toad Bufo melanostictus. Tadpoles reared with caged predaceous tadpoles of Hoplobatrachus tigerinus delayed metamorphosis and also emerged at a smaller size compared to those in a predator-free environment. Different predaceous cues (kairomones, alarm cues and dietary cues, derived after feeding the predator with conspecific prey) induced increase in stationary phase and swimming speed and decrease in swimming spurts and time used for feeding. The intensity of defense behaviors varied with the cue. They were more intense in response to cues of predators fed on conspecific prey item. The response to alarm cues or kairomones or predators fed on heterogeneric tadpole species was similar but lower in magnitude compared to that elicited in response to predators fed on conspecific prey item. Most intense defense behavior in response to the odors of the predator that consumed conspecific members is possibly caused by a combined effect of kairomones, alarm, and dietary cues. The findings suggest that B. melanostictus tadpoles are capable of assessing levels of prédation risk and modulating the intensity of their defense behavior in accordance with the perceived threat. Interestingly, despite longer larval period, size at metamorphosis of the toadlets was smaller in the presence of caged predator.

'Fantastic Voyage': A live blindsnake (Ramphotyphlops braminus) journeys through the gastrointestinal system of a toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus)

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2013

Abstract. We report an unusual predator-prey interaction between the Common Asian toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus, and the Brahminy blindsnake, Ramphotyphlops braminus, as observed in Manufahi District, Timor-Leste. The live blindsnake was found emerging headfirst from the cloaca of the toad, with about one-third of its body length still inside. This interaction may indicate that indiscriminate foraging by invasive toads could endanger small vertebrate prey, while it appears that the physiology and habits of blindsnakes may allow them on occasion to elude predation in an unexpected manner.

Male Reproductive Cycle of the Toad Bufo melanostictus in Taiwan

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2009

The male reproductive cycle of the toad, Bufo melanostictus, was studied with emphasis on spermatogenic activity, plasma androgen, and changes in the weights of testes, liver, and fat bodies. A total of 98 toads were collected between March 1990 and March 1991 in central Taiwan. Histological evidence indicated that the spermatogenic cycle of this toad is of a fluctuating continuous type. Although cell nests of all spermatogenic types were present every month of the year, the greatest intensity of spermatogenic activity, as expressed by the presence of sperm bundles, occurred in March. Both testicular weight and plasma androgen levels peaked in March. The weights of fat bodies peaked in July, which was not coincident with the beginning of breeding. Combined data from spermatogenic activity, plasma androgen levels, and changes in the weights of testes, fat bodies, and livers revealed that B. melanostictus is a continuous breeder. However, its annual reproductive cycle could be divided into 4 periods: 1) breeding period (February–April); 2) post-breeding period (May–June); 3) reproductive energy preservation period (July–September); and 4) torpid period (October–January).

Eradication or control of vertebrate pests?

Article

Jan 1995

Herein 6 criteria are suggested for deciding if eradication is technically possible and preferable to continuing control for managing vertebrate pests. The authors assess 3 case studies against the criteria. -from Authors

Growth and Metamorphosis of Bufo melanostictus Tadpoles: Effects of Kinship and Density

Article

Jun 2001

Growth and metamorphosis of the toad Bufo melanostictus was studied by rearing tadpoles of different sibships in isolation or in groups of siblings and nonsiblings (mixed rearing) under crowded and uncrowded conditions. All tadpoles survived and metamorphosed successfully. Growth rate and duration of metamorphosis of tadpoles reared in isolation were similar among the six sibships regardless of genetic differences. Tadpoles reared in sibling groups metamorphosed in 25 days, whereas those reared with nonsiblings metamorphosed between days 30-35. The largest mean body mass at metamorphosis was for sib groups reared in lower densities. When reared with siblings, growth was uniform, resulting in the production of bigger toadlets and a narrow spectrum of size classes. Mixed rearing retarded growth rates, increased larval duration, and produced smaller individuals at metamorphosis, resulting in extreme variability in size classes, especially under crowded conditions. Our study shows that both kinship and density affect larval duration and size at metamorphosis in this species.

Restricting access to invasion hubs enables sustained control of an invasive vertebrate

Article

Feb 2015

Biological invasions often occur through expansion of satellite populations that become established at ‘invasion hubs’. Invasion hubs can result from random dispersal events, but frequently arise when invading individuals actively choose habitats using cues that signify high‐quality environments where the fitness consequences are positive. Theoretical studies suggest that targeted control at invasion hubs can effectively suppress the populations and impacts of invaders. In arid A ustralia, small dams that provide water for livestock function as invasion hubs by providing an invasive vertebrate, the cane toad R hinella marina , with refuge from extreme aridity during the annual dry season. Toads are attracted to dams and use them as stepping stone habitats from which they disperse during rainy periods. Here, we ask whether sustained control of this invasive vertebrate can be achieved by converting invasion hubs into ecological traps. We did this by manipulating invasion hub habitats to induce a mismatch between toads' habitat preference and the fitness consequences of their habitat choice to cause high mortality. We constructed fences to exclude toads from dams and maintained these fences for 1 year. This period encompassed periods of dry and wet seasonal climatic conditions. Our manipulation did not alter the attractive cues for invading toads which died en masse while attempting to settle at fenced dams that prevented toads from reaching water. Toad populations at the fenced dams were suppressed by 1–2 orders of magnitude compared to unfenced controls and procedural controls. Toad populations remained suppressed for a year after exclusion. By excluding toads from dams, we converted invasion hubs into ecological traps and effectively thwarted the reinvasion of cane toads. Our research suggests that water exclusion devices could be used to prevent toad invasion or to control cane toad populations in arid landscapes colonized by toads. Synthesis and applications . Our study demonstrates that sustained control of invader populations can be achieved by restricting their access to invasion hubs. Control of invasive species via elimination of invasion hubs could be conducted reactively, to control established populations of invaders, or conducted strategically, by rendering invasion hubs unsuitable for colonization ahead of the invasion front to prevent further population spread.

Asian toad eradication feasibility report for Madagascar

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