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Flaxseed: Composition, detoxification, utilization, and opportunities
Abstract
Flaxseed cake is a low value, a protein-rich by-product of flaxseed oil pressing companies. Flaxseed oil has been known as a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids and has been widely used. However, due to the presence of anti-nutritive compounds such as phytic acid, linatine, and cyanogenic glycosides, flaxseed cake that has a high protein content has limited food application. Cyanogenic compounds, particularly cyanogenic glycosides, can be degraded to toxic HCN upon ingestion. Therefore, the cake with a high content of fibre and protein with great nutritional potential has been underutilised and has some limited animal feed applications. Detoxification of the flax cake from cyanogenic content can, therefore, improve the market value of the protein and increase its food application. This review focuses on various available methods for detoxification of flax seed cake with emphasis on nutritional properties of the final product. The impact of various flaxseed cake detoxification methods on the protein is critically evaluated, discussing the options available toward increasing the food application value of this high protein product.
... 50% of extruded linseed: Kouba et al., 2008; extruded linseeds with wheat bran and sunflower meal: Dalle Zotte et al., 2018). The availability of various linseed-derived products demonstrates the effort to find a solution to reduce the levels of cyanogenic glycosides (Bekhit et al., 2018), mucilage (Alzueta et al., 2003) and other anti-nutritional factors (Pirmohammadi et al., 2019) found in untreated linseeds used in poultry feeding. In broilers, these anti-nutritional factors impair the growth (Alzueta et al., 2003;Pirmohammadi et al., 2019) and reduce the protein digestibility of diets (Treviño et al., 2000). ...
... In broilers, these anti-nutritional factors impair the growth (Alzueta et al., 2003;Pirmohammadi et al., 2019) and reduce the protein digestibility of diets (Treviño et al., 2000). As with other oilseeds (e.g., soybean: Jahanian and Rasouli, 2016), extrusion (Wu et al., 2008), heat and other processing (Bekhit et al., 2018) reduce the anti-nutritional factors and increase the nutrient digestibility of linseed, each treatment having a particular effect. ...
... The number of animals used in the present study does not allow us to conclude on the influence of using high levels of linseed products for rabbit performances, although no negative effects were observed here on the live weight gain of rabbits fed with diets containing 16% of incorporation of ELM and LCW. This may indicate that the industrial process applied to obtain both products was effective in the reduction of the anti-nutritive factors present in whole linseed (Bekhit et al., 2018). ...
The digestible energy and protein content of two novel linseed-based ingredients were measured in growing rabbits: a high-fat extruded linseed meal cooked (ELM) and a mixture (70:30) of high-fat linseed chaff and wheat flour (LCW). Digestible energy (DE, MJ/kg of dry matter - DM) and digestible protein (DP, g/kg DM) values were obtained from regression analysis with three dietary incorporation levels of ELM or LCW: a basal diet (0%) and two diets with 8 or 16% of ELM or LCW, respectively. The regression curves were obtained from data collected in a faecal digestibility trial (n=10 rabbits per diet, 1:1 sex ratio, 42 to 46 d old) fed at two levels of inclusion (80 or 160 g/kg DM) of each ingredient in a basal diet formulated for growing rabbits (substitution method). The regression coefficients for DE (DE=10.4+0.003×ELW) and DP (DP=145.4+0.103×ELW) obtained for the ELM were significant (P<0.001). The estimated DE and DP values for the ELM were: 13.7±0.81 MJ/kg DM and 248.6±11.4 g/kg DM. The regression coefficient for DE (DE=10.4+0.011×LCW) for the LCW was significant (P<0.001), for an estimated DE content of 20.8±0.9 MJ/kg DM. The regression coefficient for DP (DP=145.6+0.011×LCW) for the LCW was not different from zero (P=0.09), giving an estimated DP of 166.9±11.3 g/kg DM. The ELM seems to be an adequate protein source for growing rabbits. The LCW appear to be an interesting composite ingredient. It provides moderate amounts of fibre fractions in addition to energy. Moreover, both ingredients contain high levels of C18:3 omega-3 fatty acids (ELM: 34.5 and LCW: 52.9 g/kg DM). These ingredients should be included up to 10% in feed formula. Based on their characteristics, these novel ingredients may improve the feed quality of growing rabbits.
... Flax seeds contain four CGs: diglucosideslinustatin and neolinustatin, and monoglucosideslinamarin and lotaustralin (Zuk et al., 2020). CGs can be degraded by acidic or enzymatic hydrolysis with the liberation of hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which is a toxic compound (Bekhit et al., 2018). According to the conclusions of the EFSA CONTAM Panel, the daily acute reference dose (ARfD) of 20 μg CN − kg − 1 b.w. ...
... This risk cannot be excluded especially for children. A successful cyanogenic compound removal from food requires two steps: (1) efficient CG degradation to HCN and (2) volatilization of released HCN (Bekhit et al., 2018). The HCN volatilization occurs above 26 • C (the HCN boiling point), and its rate increases with increasing temperature (Yamashita et al., 2007). ...
... Flaxseed fermentation application to CG efficient removal may overcome all the above limitations by minimizing environmental and nutritional impacts. It has shown that the biological method with fungi and bacteria could be effective for CG degradation in various plant sources (Bekhit et al., 2018). However, few studies have been done (Huang et al., 2023;Lei et al., 1999) on the activity of L. plantarum strains toward CG degradation in flax seeds. ...
... Vitamin E is a liposoluble antioxidant which protects unsaturated fat from oxidation, especially in seeds. In humans, it presents anti-inflammatory activity, the prevention of neoplastic transformation, the protection of artery walls, and the prevention of LDL oxidation [33]. Particularly, α-tocopherol is a good chain-breaking and peroxyl radical scavenger (seeds, 74 mg/kg, vs. flour, 17 mg/kg; Table 1). ...
... Particularly, α-tocopherol is a good chain-breaking and peroxyl radical scavenger (seeds, 74 mg/kg, vs. flour, 17 mg/kg; Table 1). γ-Tocopherol (seeds, 141 mg/kg, vs. flour, 31 mg/kg; Table 1) is more active against reactive nitrogen species [33]. Both vitamers were identified in flaxseed samples, γ-tocopherol was the predominant isomer, but seeds presented significantly more total vitamin E than the flour (215 mg/kg vs. 48 mg/kg, respectively; Table 1), probably due to their higher fat content (38% vs. 9%, respectively; Table 1) since this vitamin is liposoluble. ...
... Indeed, Bekhit et al. [33] also reported higher contents of total phenolic acids in the defatted extract (8440 mg/100 g) in comparison to the non-defatted extract (2767 mg/100 g), mainly p-hydroxybenzoic acid, followed by ferulic acid, coumaric acid, gallic acid, vanillin, sinapic acid, protocatechuic acid, and caffeic acid. ...
Background: Flaxseeds are functional foods popular in current diets. Cold-pressing is a solvent-free method to extract flaxseed oil, resulting in a by-product—defatted flour. Objectives/Methods: This study compared whole flaxseeds and defatted flour (proximate composition, fatty acids, vitamin E, total phenolics and flavonoids, antioxidant activity, amino acids, and protein quality) and updated the composition of cold-pressed oil (oxidative stability, peroxide value, UV absorbance, colour, fatty acids, vitamin E, total phenolics and flavonoids, and antioxidant activity) to assess the nutritional relevance and potential for food applications of these samples. Results: The flour had higher ash (6% vs. 4%), fibre (36% vs. 34%), protein (28% vs. 16%), phenolics (205 vs. 143 mg gallic acid equivalents/100 g), and antioxidant activity than seeds (p < 0.05), so it should be valued as a novel high-fibre food ingredient with high-quality plant-based protein, as it contains all essential amino acids (106 mg/g) and a high essential amino acids index (112%), with L-tryptophan as the limiting amino acid. The oil, while low in oxidative stability (1.3 h), due to its high polyunsaturated fatty acids sum (75%), mostly α-linolenic acid (57%), contains a significant amount of vitamin E (444 mg/kg), making it a specialty oil best consumed raw. Conclusions: The exploration of the flour as a minimally processed food ingredient highlights its role in supporting food security, circular economy, and sustainability goals, aligning with consumer preferences for natural, low-fat foods. Future research should investigate the bioactivity and shelf-life of the samples, as well as the bioavailability of compounds after digestion.
... Lněná semena a jejich produkty jsou nejčastěji aplikovány v pekárenském průmyslu (chléb, muffiny, sušenky) a u těstovin, ale využití bylo zaznamenáno také u mléčných výrobků (Bekhit et al., 2018;Kaur et al., 2018;Zhang et al., 2023). ...
... Kromě nutričně významných mastných kyselin obsahují lněná semena značné množství fosfolipidů, sterolů, vitaminů rozpustných v tucích a karotenů (Bekhit et al., 2018;Pramanik et al., 2023). Lněné semeno je bohaté také na látky s antioxidačnímu účinky -například lignany, flavonoidy a fenolické kyseliny (Singh et al., 2011;Bernacchia et al., 2014;Brito a Zang, 2019;Sumara et al., 2022). ...
... Pozitivní účinky lněných semen a produktů z nich na zdraví spotřebitelů spočívají zejména v prevenci kardiovaskulárních a neurodegenerativních onemocnění, snižování krevního tlaku a celkového cholesterolu v krvi (Bernacchia et al., 2014). I když lněná semena obsahují rovněž malé množství antinutričních látek, zejména kyanogenní glykosidy, fytovou kyselinu a linatin (Bekhit et al., 2018;Golebiewska et al., 2022), konzumace neznamená významné toxické riziko (Parikh et al., 2018). ...
... Alpha-linolenic acid is believed to provide health benefits, because it is a potent inhibitor of pro-inflammatory mediators (Oomah, 2001;Jhala and Hall, 2010), and its adequate intake has been increasingly recommended. The positive human health impact is also attributed to high content of lignans, high-quality proteins, and dietary fiber; lignans are phenolic compounds that act as both antioxidants and phytoestrogens (Jhala and Hall, 2010;Bekhit et al., 2018). ...
... Both flaxseed and flaxseed oil had long been thought to be poisonous and were not used as a food source in Japan (Ono, 2009). Flaxseeds indeed contain anti-nutrients, particularly cyanogenic glycosides, which can be hydrolyzed to produce toxic hydrogen cyanide upon ingestion (Bekhit et al., 2018;Dzuvor, et al., 2018). Cyano-genic glycosides occur in more than 2,500 plant species such as almond, wheat, barley, cassava, apples, and stone fruits (Cho et al., 2013), and the levels of cyanogenic glycosides in flaxseed (300-500 mg per 100 g of seeds: Singh et al., 2011) are considered too low to adversely affect the health of humans. ...
... Parikh et al. (2019) described that humans would need to consume the unrealistic amount of 1 kg of flaxseed daily for cyanide toxicity to ever manifests itself. We would also like to add that no adverse effect including food poisoning due to flaxseed consumption has been reported in the literature (Bekhit et al., 2018). ...
Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is an ancient crop that has been cultivated for thousands of years for its fiber as well as for its oil rich seeds. The crop was introduced into Japan in the end of the 17th century, but its popularity did not begin to increase until the 1890s. The production of domestic fiber flax exceeded 45,000 metric tons in the late 1910s, and Japan had a well-developed linen industry for flax processing. In the 1960s, the mass production of synthetic fibers led to the collapse of Japanese linen industry, and consequently fiber flax culture in the country disappeared. In Japan, flaxseed oil with rapid drying property was once exclusively used for manufacturing a variety of industrial products such as paints, varnishes, linoleum, and printer’s ink. Recently, this vegetable oil has gradually attracted the attention of Japanese consumers because of its health benefits mainly attributed to its high content of alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3 fatty acid). Over the past decade, the consumption of edible flaxseed oil has been increasing rapidly, but domestic oilseed flax production remains small. In this review, we describe the history of fiber flax cultivation in Japan. The current state, problems, and perspectives of oilseed flax culture and use in the country are also presented.
... Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), an annual herb belonging to the Linaceae family, produces small, flat seeds known as flaxseed (Kajla et al., 2015;Bekhit et al., 2018;Parvinder et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2021a). These seeds have garnered significant attention because of their abundant nutritional content, including linolenic acid, protein, lignan, and dietary fibre (Bekhit et al., 2018). ...
... Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), an annual herb belonging to the Linaceae family, produces small, flat seeds known as flaxseed (Kajla et al., 2015;Bekhit et al., 2018;Parvinder et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2021a). These seeds have garnered significant attention because of their abundant nutritional content, including linolenic acid, protein, lignan, and dietary fibre (Bekhit et al., 2018). Moreover, flaxseed is rich in minerals such as phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and potassium (Parvinder et al., 2018). ...
... It possesses emulsifying capacity, foaming capacity, and stability (Liu et al., 2018;Ye et al., 2022). Flaxseed exhibits approximately 75-800 times higher lignan content compared to cereals, legumes, fruits, and vegetables (Bekhit et al., 2018). This high lignan content is a crucial factor in preventing food lipid oxidation and extending shelf life. ...
In this study, Chinese dried noodles (CHDNs) were fortified with unhulled flaxseed flour (UHFF) and hulled flaxseed flour (HFF). The effects on texture properties and antioxidant activity during different storage conditions were investigated. The quality of wheat noodles can be significantly enhanced when UHFF and HFF were determined as 5% and 10%, respectively. During storage under various conditions for 60 days, the hardness, chewiness, total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity of the CHDNs gradually decreased over time. However, the resistance and extensibility initially increased and then declined in semi‐closed packaging storage under accelerated conditions. Antioxidant activity was found to have significant correlations with texture, packaging of flaxseed CHDNs during storage. In general, fully closed‐packaging CHDNs should be stored at room temperature; flaxseed CHDNs in semi‐closed packaging are recommended to be stored in cold storage, which is conducive to maintaining their texture and antioxidant activity.
... It was then moved to a 250 mL graduated cylinder for foam volume measurement. FC (%) = (foam volume/initial suspension volume) × 100 (14) The stability of the foam was determined by monitoring its volume in time, every 10 min for 1 h (Equation (15)): FC (%) = (foam volume after a period of time/initial foam volume) × 100 (15) The sample was dispersed in distilled water, forming concentrations ranging from 2% to 20%. Centrifuge tubes were heated for one hour in a boiling water bath and then rapidly cooled at 4 • C for three hours. ...
... The sum of the detected phenolic compounds was 6514.97 mg/kg. This value is in line with those found in the literature (7900-84,400 mg/Kg) [13,15]. Ferulic, gallic, and sinapic acids were not present in our study, compared to the study conducted by Mueed et al. [13]. ...
The by-products of the oil cold pressing of flaxseed are deemed to be safe, edible products. They have been shown to possess high nutritional value (compared with the seeds, they are richer in proteins and minerals) and adequate functional parameters (i.e., a high water-holding capacity and emulsion stability). In oilcakes, we found a portion of oil that was richer in unsaturated fatty acids (87.90%) than flax seeds (57.40%). Mg predominates in flax seeds, while Ce is predominant in flaxseed oilcake. Regarding essential amino acids, the seeds (76.71%) were found to be richer than the oilcake (70.46%). The use of methanol, low extraction temperatures, s high ultrasonic amplitude, and longer times resulted in the highest antioxidant capacity and phenolic content for flaxseed oilcake. Our analyses showed that oilcakes can be utilized as a functional ingredient or for the extraction of bioactive compounds, which can be incorporated into food products due to their nutritional, social, and economic benefits.
... Phenolic compounds are commonly found in plants and are frequently associated with numerous health benefits, primarily due to their strong antioxidant effects. Phenolic acids and flavonoids demonstrate a wide range of therapeutic effects, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, antiallergenic, anti-atherogenic, antioxidant, cardioprotective, and vasodilatory properties [23]. These antioxidant components also prevent the photo-oxidation in whole and ground flaxseed, preserving these seeds for longer times [4]. ...
... The values of phenolic acids depend on the cultivar and environment. Flaxseed phenolic acids primarily consist of p-hydroxybenzoic acid (1719 mg/100 g), with substantial contributions from chlorogenic acid (720 mg/100 g), ferulic acid (161 mg/100 g), and coumaric acid (87 mg/100 g) [23]. ...
Flaxseeds, which have been consumed for thousands of years, have recently gained increasing popularity due to their rich composition, including omega-3 fatty acids, lignans, proteins, and fibers. These components are strongly associated with various health benefits, such as improving cardiovascular health, preventing certain types of cancer, controlling diabetes, promoting gastro-intestinal well-being, and aiding in weight management. This monograph explores the role of flaxseeds in nutrition, as well as their potential risks. Despite their numerous health benefits, flaxseeds also represent concerns due to excessive consumption and possible contamination, particularly from cyanogenic glycosides. Therefore, the levels of these compounds must be controlled, and this monograph also analyzes the available methods to detect and reduce these contaminants, ensuring the safety of flaxseed and flaxseed products consumers. Flaxseed is considered a valuable addition when incorporated into the diet, but it is necessary to continue research and promote technological improvements to maximize their benefits and minimize their risks.
... Plant substances such as polyphenols are also generally considered to have anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, etc. effects [77]. Lignans contained in linseed also have anti-cancer properties and may be promising chemotherapeutic/chemopreventive substances [39]. ...
... In the presence of plant enzymes or intestinal microflora, these glycosides can be hydrolyzed into toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which is further metabolized into thiocyanates via intestinal β-glycosidase [3,26]. Studies indicate that consuming large quantities of unprocessed flaxseed can lead to hydrogen cyanide poisoning, which may manifest as loss of appetite, lethargy, and neurological disorders [39]. Furthermore, thiocyanates have been reported to inhibit iodine uptake by the thyroid gland, exacerbating iodine deficiency disorders such as goiter and cretinism with long-term exposure [3]. ...
Bioactive molecules present in plant products determine their very valuable health-promoting properties. Among the plants, due to these properties, particular attention is paid to the seeds of common flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), which have been used for over 6000 years and are known for their benefits. A review of 117 scientific articles indexed in PubMed/MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, and Wiley Online Library, published between 1997 and 2024, was conducted. These seeds are characterized by a high content of valuable nutrients, such as essential omega-3 fatty acids, including α-linolenic acid (ALA), lignans, isoflavones, phytoestrogens, flavonoids, vitamins, and minerals that influence the digestive system function and have anti-cancer properties. The presence of these bioactive compounds in flaxseeds provide anti-cancer properties.
... The increase in hydrolysis reaction caused the decrease in HCN compounds from boiling and steaming treatments. The hydrolyzed HCN dissolves in water and is carried along with water vapor and condensate (Bekhit et al., 2018). Meanwhile, a hydrolysis reaction occurs in the soaking process when the water penetrates the beans (Epriliati 2020). ...
... The hydrolysis reaction was catalyzed by endogenous enzymes that cause cyanogenic glucoside compounds to be converted into water-soluble HCN (Betancur-Ancona 2008). The germination process accelerates the activity of hydrolytic enzymes, particularly glucosidase, which results in the hydrolysis of the cyanogenic glucoside into HCN, a volatile compound at room temperature (Bekhit et al., 2018). ...
Indonesian velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens L.) has potential as a plant-based protein source for high-protein food products. Unfortunately, these beans are not widely used due to their high cyanide content. This study aimed to find a new approach to increasing protein content in velvet bean flour by implementing response surface methodology (RSM) and studying its characteristics. A preliminary study showed that white-type velvet bean flour with 24-hr soaking water treatment was chosen as the main treatment for producing highprotein velvet bean flour because it had less than 10 ppm of cyanide (2.85 ppm) and had the highest protein content (32.54%). RSM findings revealed that the optimum process variables were 10% initial substrate concentration, 0.3 mL additional α-amylase enzyme, 95.15°C temperature, pH 5.6, and a liquefaction time of 50.32 mins processing. The enzyme hydrolysis method efficiently decreased non-protein components while increasing protein by 28%, which also affected the improvement of the physicochemical and functional qualities of high-protein velvet bean flour. The high-protein velvet bean flour had a yield of 30.73%, protein content of 41.83%, bulk density of 0.43 g/mL, brownishwhite color, and water activity was 0.62. Moreover, water absorption capacity and oil absorption capacity levels were 1.67 mL/g and 1.83 mL/g, respectively. The emulsion capacity and stability were 32 and 56%, respectively. Foam capacity and stability were 64 and 67%, respectively. The optimum gelling concentration was 15%, and the in vitro protein digestibility was 79%. To summarize, high-protein velvet bean flour has the potential to be developed as a food product, particularly for sausage, bread, and meat analogs.
... During oil and olive oil production, from flaxseed and olive, a large amount, depending on the type of raw material and pressing system, of solid by-product known as cake or pomace is obtained. If not discarded, the cake is processed into meal for animal feed or fertilizer, providing energy for animals [14,24]. Olive pomace is also commonly repurposed as fuel and utilized as an ingredient for compost production, or as fertilizer for agricultural soils [25]. ...
... Post-oil extraction, bioactive compounds remain in the cake, making it valuable. Thus, the cake can also be used in food product development, aligning with circular economy principles [14,24]. Flaxseed cake is often ground into flaxseed flour, facilitating its use in food production. ...
The evolution of wheat bread as a dietary staple underscores its essential role in providing energy, protein, fiber, and vital nutrients. To address contemporary health challenges such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, fortifying wheat bread with health-promoting additives becomes imperative to mitigate deficiencies resulting from refined wheat flour consumption. Functional food innovations, aligned with sustainability goals and circular economy principles, offer promising approaches for addressing these concerns. Integrating by-products from fruits and oil crops into bread formulations enhances health benefits by boosting dietary fiber, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant potential. However, gaps persist in understanding anti-nutritional substances and contaminants in final products, necessitating further research for comprehensive safety assessments. The addition of by-product raw materials significantly influences dough rheology and sensory characteristics, potentially achieving quality comparable to traditional wheat bread. Challenges include inconsistencies in bread and by-product specifications across studies, hindering direct result comparison. Overcoming these obstacles is crucial for maximizing the potential of agri-food by-products in creating healthier, sustainable bread options while maintaining safety and quality standards.
... Flaxseeds (Linum usitatissimum L.) have been used as human food or animal feed since historical times [1]. Flaxseed contains 30-46% oil, 18-30% protein, 20-35% fibre (about 10% is soluble fibre), 3-4% ash, and 4-8% moisture [1][2][3][4][5]. Minor constituents include cyanogenic glycosides, phytic acid, polyphenols, linatine, lignans (phytoestrogens), cyclolinopeptides, vitamins, selenium, and cadmium or trypsin inhibitors [2]. ...
... CAI0434421.1), which represent 11S globulin or linin, respectively, occupy a relative representation in SC for all three cultivars in the range of 41-44%. Most authors report higher values, e.g., Bekhit et al. [4] report a relative representation of 64-66% for 11S globulin, while another study [7] reports a relative abundance of 70-85% for globulins. The difference may be explained by the fact that in most papers the abundance of globulins is reported as the abundance of the protein fraction soluble in salt solution, which may also contain other proteins. ...
The research is focused on the quantitative evaluation of the flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) proteome at the level of seed cake (SC), fine flour—sieved a fraction below 250 µm (FF)—and protein concentrate (PC). The evaluation was performed on three oilseed flax cultivars (Agriol, Raciol, and Libra) with different levels of α-linolenic acid content using LC-MS/MS (shotgun proteomics) analysis, which was finalized by database searching using the NCBI protein database for Linum usitatissimum and related species. A total of 2560 protein groups (PGs) were identified, and their relative abundance was calculated. A set of 33 quantitatively most significant PGs was selected for further characterization. The selected PGs were divided into four classes—seed storage proteins (11S globulins and conlinins), oleosins, defense- and stress-related proteins, and other major proteins (mainly including enzymes). Seed storage proteins were found to be the most abundant proteins. Specifically, 11S globulins accounted for 41–44% of SC proteins, 40–46% of FF proteins, and 72–84% of PC proteins, depending on the cultivar. Conlinins (2S albumins) were the most abundant in FF, ranging from 10 to 13% (depending on cultivar). The second most important class from the point of relative abundance was oleosins, which were represented in SC and FF in the range of 2.1–3.8%, but only 0.36–1.20% in PC. Surprisingly, a relatively high abundance of chitinase was found in flax products as a protein related to defence and stress reactions.
... It has been scientifically proven that proper processing operations are required to remove the antinutrients present in FC to make it suitable for human consumption (Bekhit et al., 2018). Some methods of removing antinutrients are enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, roasting, microwave, and extrusion. ...
Oilseed cake is a potential by-product with a rich nutrient profile that can be used to develope value-added products. Flaxseed cake (FC), a by-product of flaxseed oil extraction, has gained considerable attention due to its diverse nutritional profile, bioactive constituents, and potential health benefits. It is an economical source of various bioactives, especially proteins, alpha-linolenic acid, lignan, flaxseed gum, and dietary fiber with potential health benefits. FC also contains residual fat which is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids. Its high protein content and non-toxic nature make it a potential ingredient for use in human nutrition.
This review paper provides an overview of the nutritional profile of FC which includes macro and micronutrients as well as bioactive components such as lignans, phenolic compounds, and antioxidants along with their health-promoting properties. Due to the presence of antinutrients, processing is required for flaxseed cake which has been discussed. Furthermore, the health benefits linked to the consumption of FC are scrutinized.
Despite the positive attributes of FC, antinutrients namely cyanogenic glycosides, phytic acid, and tannins could restrict the absorption of nutrients. Several processing methods such as soaking, steaming, and fermentation have been proven to be beneficial in improving the nutritional quality of oilseed cake and the bioavailability of nutrients.
Graphical Abstract
... Влажность семян составляет 7,7%, а зольность -3,4% [2]. Лен масличный также богат цианогенными гликозидами, фенольными соединениями, лигнанами, слизью, минералами, витаминами и циклическими пептидами [2,3]. Большое разнообразие соединений, содержащихся в льняном семени, обеспечивает его высокую пищевую ценность, при этом некоторые из них обладают функциональными свойствами и могут быть использованы для разработки пищевых ингредиентов и специализированных пищевых продуктов [4,5]. ...
Oilseed flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a valuable crop characterized by a high content of fats, dietary fiber, protein and various biologically active substances, in particular cyclopeptides. Cyclic peptides are a group of cyclic hydrophobic peptides consisting of eight to ten amino acids with a molecular weight in the range of 950–2300 Da. Flax oil and seeds contain from 0.1 to 0.3% cyclopeptides, which can exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, antihypertensive and antitumor activity. The aim of this review was to systematize and summarize the available literature data on methods of extraction, separation and identification of cyclopeptides from flaxseed oil. It was found that the main methods for obtaining cyclopeptides are solid-liquid, liquid-liquid or solid-phase extraction. Commonly used solvents include methanol, hexane, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane, acetonitrile and deionized water. Preparative flash chromatography on silica gel or polymer adsorbents is used to purify and concentrate cyclopeptides, and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is used to obtain individual standards. The most commonly used stationary phases are non-polar modified sorbents — octadecyl (C18) and phenylhexyl functional groups. Identification is carried out using instrumental methods of analysis: IR spectroscopy, NMR, HPLC with a diode array detector (HPLC-PDA/DAD), high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (ESI-HR-MS/MS). For the qualitative and quantitative determination of cyclopeptides, the HPLC with a diode array detector at a wavelength of 214 nm is sufficient. In turn, mass spectral methods, including tandem mass spectrometry, make it possible to confirm the qualitative composition and establish the amino acid sequence of cyclic peptides.
... The residue after pressing the oil is degreased flax seeds (DFS). This by-product is a source of many nutritionally valuable ingredients [2], such as protein, fiber, mucous substances, and lignans, which makes it a potentially attractive raw material for use in the production of various types of functional food [3]. ...
... The free radical-scavenging behaviors and the antioxidant properties of different flavonoids isolated in cinnamon were evaluated for their antioxidant potential. These flavonoids showed the highest potential concerning antioxidant activity as well as characterized by the unique cinnamon flavor of the food products (Bekhit et al., 2018;Dzuvor et al., 2018). The highest antioxidant activity has been found in a comparative survey of 26 spices, which showed that cinnamon can be applied as a food antioxidant (Hariri and Ghiasvand, 2016). ...
Oxidation in edible oils and fats is one of the main problems faced by the fat and oil industry. Using natural anti-oxidants is considered the preferred choice to minimize the application of synthetic antioxidants in food products. The present study was conducted to extract cinnamon extract and evaluate its antioxidant potential. The cinnamon extract was incorporated in flaxseed oil samples at different concentrations of 0.5, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, and 0.25% (v/v) and compared with the control (with no addition of natural/synthetic antioxidant) and another sample with 0.1% (v/v) of synthetic antioxidant (butylated hydroxytoluene [BHT]). The antioxidant activity of the flaxseed oil added with cinnamon extract was carried out by DPPH and FRAP assay. The extraction method, time and temperature treatments, and solvent concentrations significantly affected cinnamon extracts’ proximate composition, DPPH, and FRAP activity. Cinnamon extract showed higher flavonoid and total phenolic contents, which led to higher antioxidant activity. Phenolic contents were observed at 313.61 ± 19.83 mg GAE/100 g acetone extract. The DPPH assay showed a significant observation of 84.58 ± 3.80%, while the FRAP assay was 143.82 ± 11.21 μmol/g. During 28 days of storage, there was a significant decrease in free fatty acids, peroxide, iodine, and thiobarbituric acid values for the treatments with higher concentrations of cinnamon extract as compared to the control. The T1 and T2, exhibited PV of 4.69 and 4.53 milli-equivalents (meq/kg), respectively. The maximum value of peroxide was detected in T0 (4.78 meq/kg) and the lowest in TBHT (3.50 meq/kg), followed by T3 (3.97 meq/kg), T4 (3.94 meq/kg) and T5 (3.89 meq/kg). As compared to T0 and TBHT, cinnamon extract was significant in reducing the per-oxide value. T0 showed the highest iodine value (198.51 I2/100 g), while TBHT and T5 showed the lowest iodine values of 173.76 and 175.29 g of I2 / 100 g, respectively. Moreover, T1, T2, T3, and T4 showed iodine values of 194.34
... Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate these substances by processing or genetic manipulation (Jithender et al., 2019). Oilseed residues cannot be used to their full potential due to the dangers associated with the consumption of anti-nutritional factors they contain (Bekhit et al., 2018) as well as possible degredation (Karaoğul et al., 2020;Yucegonul et al., 2024). The direct use of oilseed meals in human nutrition may be limited by the presence of antinutrients that affect their sensory properties, protein digestibility and bioavailability of elements (Gupta et al., 2018). ...
The food industry produces millions of tons of food waste worldwide, which can be used
as a source of valuable ingredients with high added value. The use of food waste as a
source of low-cost valuable compounds is important for environmental protection as well
as for sustainable green technology. Especially during the processing of oilseeds, plenty
of by-products emerge. It has been determined that oilseed by-products contain
considerable amounts of protein, carbohydrates, fiber, bioactive components,
antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. Antioxidants such as polyphenols can be extracted
from oilseed meals as functional food products. Since protein isolates obtained from
oilseed meals have rich amino acid content and functional properties, they can be
included in the human diet by adding them to various foods. This review includes
information about the nutritional values of oilseed residues and the importance of their
use in the food industry.
... The role of ALA is of particular importance for both humans and animals as it is a precursor of other acids from the omega-3 family, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Both groups of acids differently affect the metabolic functions of the organism; while omega-3 acids exhibit an anti-inflammatory activity, omega-6 are responsible for pro-inflammatory reactions in the body [1]. ...
Omega-3 fatty acids are an important factor contributing to the prevention and cure of numerous diseases, and therefore their supplementation with diet is a significant issue. There are numerous supplements on the market containing omega-3 acids, of both plant and animal origin. In our study, we compared an effect of linseed oil, ethyl esters of linseed oil and fish oil supplementation to rats’ diet on their blood serum and erythrocyte fatty acid profile. The animals were divided into nine groups, three groups did not receive supplements and differed in dietary fat content, three were fed a high-fat diet for the whole experiment and supplemented, three were fed a high-fat diet and then the control one together with supplements. The experiment lasted 12 weeks. Significant changes in the profile of omega-3 fatty acids, as well as the ration of omega-6 to omega-3, were found in supplemented groups compared to the controls, the changes were more beneficial in groups supplemented with ethyl esters of linseed oil. The results were also more beneficial in groups where in addition to supplementation, there was also a dietary change from high fat to control during the supplementation period. In the case of the erythrocytes, the alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) content in ethyl ester-supplemented groups increased (p < 0.05) by about 60–120%, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) by 80%, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) by 41–60% compared to the control. In turn, in the blood serum, this increase (p < 0.05) was about 70–125%, 26–40%, and 38–54%, respectively. In the case of ethyl esters, except for an increase in EPA and DHA acids, higher values of ALA were found, which can be further used in the process of conversion to longer-chain omega-3.
... Linum usitatissimum L. is commonly known as 'Flaxseed' or 'Linseed' [14]. The high content of the essential omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), and natural phenolic antioxidants of the flaxseed make it attractive to apply as a potential antioxidant [15]. Flaxseed has been reported to contain 40-50% oil, and flaxseed oil (FS-oil) comprises about 73% of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PAFUs) [16]. ...
In male rats, the flaxseed oil (FS-oil) modulatory properties were investigated on diazinon (DZN)-induced nephrotoxicity. Adult male Wistar rats were divided randomly into five groups. To induce nephrotoxicity, animals received DZN (70 mg/kg/day, p.o.). Also, treatment groups received FS-oil (100 and 200 mg/kg/day, p.o.). The animal treatment was 28 consecutive days. On the 29th day, serum and kidney tissue samples were removed and serum levels of the creatinine, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT), were measured. Also, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was applied for histological studies. DZN significantly increased the BUN, creatinine, and MDA levels compared to the control group. Besides, DZN significantly decreased the GPx and CAT activity in the kidney tissue. However, the modulatory effects of FS-oil were observed by improving renal enzyme factors, inhibiting oxidative stress, and histological change. This study demonstrated that FS-oil ameliorated DZN-induced nephrotoxicity and can be used as a preventive agent against DZN toxicity because of the FS-oil antioxidant characteristics.
... The analyzed content of free asparagine in the flaxseed samples ranged between 229 and 334 mg/kg, aligning more closely with the content determined in wheat flours than in chia seeds. As for chia seeds, only little data for the content of free asparagine in flaxseeds is available because amino acids are mainly evaluated after protein hydrolysis (Bekhit et al., 2018;Nitrayová et al., 2014). Only Bartkiene et al. published an amount for free asparagine in partially defatted flaxseeds (15 mg of asparagine/kg), which was lower than the amounts of the herein investigated samples (Bartkiene et al., 2016). ...
Despite potential health benefits of cookies with seeds, e.g., antioxidant and anticholesterolemic activity, their baking may lead to processing contaminants. This study investigated the acrylamide formation in cookies containing chia and flaxseeds (13 samples) in various formats and amounts by LC–MS/MS using stable isotope dilution analysis. Furthermore, the impact of different factors was studied. Cookies with chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) exhibit increased acrylamide contents from whole (112–286 μg/kg) to milled seeds (252–649 μg/kg). Acrylamide contents of cookies with whole or milled flaxseeds (Linum usitatissimum) (204–516 μg/kg) were comparable to those with chia seeds, while cookies with flaxseed flour had the highest exposure (790 μg/kg). Adding baking agents to cookies with chia seeds increased acrylamide by 20 %, while organic acids significantly lowered it (up to 78 %). The sugar source affected acrylamide in cookies with chia seeds, with brown sugar resulting in the highest content (213 μg/kg).
... Walaupun tubuh bisa mentoleransi sedikit sianida, asupan sianida yang dapat masuk ke dalam tubuh manusia tidak boleh melebihi 1 mg per kilogram berat badan per hari. Gejala-gejala keracunan sianida termasuk penyempitan pada tenggorokan, mual, muntah, sakit kepala, dan dalam kasus yang parah, dapat menyebabkan kematian(Bekhit et al., 2018).Tabel 3. Kadar Sianida Biji Petai Cina MentahMakanan yang kurang diolah biasanya memiliki kandungan gizi yang lebih baik. Namun, penting untuk diketahui bahwa beberapa sayuran memiliki kandungan glikosida sianogenik, prekursor tiosianat yang bersifat goitrogenik, yaitu zat yang menghambat penyerapan yodium Copyright @ Dadang Muhammad Hasyim, Yogi Rahman Nugraha, Firman Muharam ke dalam tubuh, sehingga dapat meningkatkan risiko yang terjadi akibat gangguan kekurangan yodium (GAKY). ...
Sianida merupakan senyawa anti-nutrisi yang umum terdapat dalam berbagai jenis tanaman, salah satunya pada biji petai cina. Sebagian besar masyarakat Cisompet Kabupaten Garut memanfaatkan biji petai cina untuk sayuran. Biji petai cina mengandung sianida yang dapat menyebabkan keracunan hingga kematian jika dikonsumsi dalam jumlah berlebihan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis sianida pada biji petai cina mentah melalui pendekatan analisis kualitatif dan kuantitatif. Analisis kualitatif diterapkan dengan memanfaatkan kertas pikrat, sedangkan analisis kuantitatif dilaksanakan menggunakan spektrofotometri UV-Vis. Penelitian ini mengungkapkan bahwa sampel biji petai cina mentah yang diambil dari enam pohon berbeda semuanya menunjukkan hasil positif untuk keberadaan sianida. Hal ini ditunjukkan secara kualitatif oleh warna kertas pikrat yang berubah dari kuning menjadi merah bata. Hasil analisis kuantitatif menunjukkan bahwa kadar sianida pada biji petai cina mentah sebesar 16,155 mg/kg. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian tersebut, biji petai cina mentah mengandung sianida dalam kadar rendah dan berada di bawah ambang batas yang ditentukan.
... However, flaxseed is a poor source of sulfur-containing amino acids. [80] Hempseeds (Cannabis sativa L.) contain mainly high amounts of proteins and essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. [79] They contain albumin and globulin while they are rich sources of sulfur-containing amino acids. ...
... FG located in the outermost layer of the hull accounts for approximately a quarter of the total carbohydrate in faxseed, making up about 7-10% of the total seed composition. Te insoluble part of faxseed carbohydrate is composed mainly of nonstarch polysaccharides, including cellulose and lignan [13,14]. Structural studies reveal that FG consists of heterogeneous polysaccharides with a stif random coil structure [15]. ...
The extraction of gum from natural raw materials is of increasing importance in various industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics, particularly due to their emulsifying properties and potential applications as stabilizers and thickeners. This study presents an insight on the influence of changing parameters like reagents and operating condition on yield and some properties of the flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) seed gum. The extraction conditions were meticulously examined using a full factorial design, highlighting the significant impact of pretreatment, seed preparation, and solvent selection on the extraction yield. A response surface methodology (RSM) was then applied to optimize the water/benzoic acid ratio of the pretreatment step, the ethyl alcohol/water ratio, and the medium pH of the extraction method, resulting in a maximum yield of 14.47%. Furthermore, detailed analyses of the chemical and emulsifying properties of the gum were conducted showing emulsifying capacities over 94%, offering promising application prospects, particularly in the food industry.
... Notably, cultivar G-22186 exhibited superior growth performance and increased levels of antioxidant enzymes and tocopherols when treated with 10^-7 M TRIA, indicating enhanced stress tolerance compared to cultivar G-20888. These findings suggest that foliar application of TRIA, particularly at a concentration of 10^-7 M, can effectively mitigate the adverse effects of drought stress and promote drought tolerance in linseed crops (9). The implications of this research are profound, highlighting the potential of TRIA as a valuable agronomic tool for enhancing the resilience of linseed to environmental stressors. ...
Background:
Fertilizers play a crucial role in modern agriculture, significantly boosting crop yields and global food production. However, their widespread use has unintended consequences that raise significant environmental and health concerns. Nitrogen-based, phosphorus-based, and potassium-based fertilizers contribute to nutrient replenishment in soils but can lead to soil and water contamination, posing risks to ecosystems and human health.
Objective:
This narrative review aims to comprehensively examine the health and environmental impacts of excessive soil fertilization, with a focus on understanding the mechanisms by which fertilizers affect soil and water quality and the subsequent implications for human health.
Methods:
An extensive literature search was conducted across multiple electronic databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Articles published between 2000 and 2023 were selected based on predefined inclusion criteria, focusing on studies that provided empirical data or substantial theoretical insights into the environmental and health impacts of fertilizer use. A qualitative analysis was performed to synthesize findings and identify common themes.
Results:
The review highlighted that nutrient runoff from excessive fertilizer use leads to significant water quality degradation, with nitrate concentrations in some regions exceeding recommended safety limits by 30-50%. Prolonged exposure to contaminated water is linked to various health issues, including a 20% increased risk of methemoglobinemia in infants and a 15-25% higher risk of gastric and colorectal cancers in adults. Additionally, heavy metal accumulation in crops due to fertilization practices raises concerns, with cadmium levels in some crops surpassing safe consumption limits by 40-60%.
Conclusion:
While fertilizers are essential for enhancing agricultural productivity, their excessive use poses significant environmental and health risks. A balanced approach integrating sustainable agricultural practices, effective water management, and comprehensive regulatory frameworks is imperative to mitigate these adverse effects. Continued research and collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and the agricultural community are necessary to promote a sustainable and health-conscious approach to fertilizers use.
... Flaxseed mucilage is located in its outermost layer shell. When flaxseed gets wet, it forms a sticky layer (17). The mucilaginous part of flaxseed binds to water in the bowel, swells the stool, and thus increases the bowel volume. ...
Background
Flaxseed powder seems to improve bowel movements in these patients. Therefore, this study compares the effects of flaxseed powder and magnesium hydroxide on bowel movements of acute myocardial infarction patients hospitalized in ICU.
Methods
The population of the present parallel randomized controlled clinical trial included 70 acute myocardial infarction patients hospitalized in ICU who had no history of chronic constipation. The patients in the intervention group were given three sachets of flaxseed powder (each sachet was 3 g) twice a day for four days. The patients in the control group were given 20 cc of magnesium hydroxide syrup each morning. The Bristol scale was used to describe stool consistency.
Results
The mean and standard deviation of the number of bowel movements within five days after intervention are 1.86 ± 1.08 and 1.6 ± 0.65 in the intervention and the control groups, respectively. The frequency of normal stool consistency of the first bowel movement is 94.3% for the intervention group and 85.7% for the control group, which shows no significant differences between the two groups in terms of stool consistency and bowel movement frequency (P=0.510). The bowel movements started on average after 35.2±97.97 hours in the flaxseed group and 24.771±2.677 hours in the magnesium hydroxide group (P=0.023).
Conclusion
The results showed that flaxseed powder increases bowel movement frequency and improves the patients’ stool consistency, but the differences between the two groups are insignificant. Finally, the time to the first defecation was shorter in the magnesium hydroxide group.
... It might be appropriate for usage in a variety of cuisines. In research trials, flaxseed has been added to snack bars, bagels, muffins, bread, tea biscuits, buns, cinnamon rolls, and spaghetti with success (Ursoniu et al., 2016;Bekhit et al., 2018). Flaxseed was added to foods intended for human consumption at levels ranging from 5% to 28% (by weight) of the total ingredients before baking. ...
Flaxseed, derived from the humble flax plant (Linum usitatissimum L.), has gained substantial recognition as a nutritional powerhouse in recent years. This abstract delves into the multifaceted attributes that make flaxseed an inimitable functional food for the human diet. With its rich history dating back to ancient civilizations, flaxseed has undergone a remarkable resurgence due to its exceptional health benefits. One of the standout features of flaxseed is its remarkable nutritional profile. It is renowned for being an excellent source of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), a plant-based omega-3 fatty acid crucial for heart health. Furthermore, flaxseed is abundant in dietary fiber, lignans, and various essential vitamins and minerals, making it a versatile ingredient for promoting overall well-being. The advantages of flaxseed for health are numerous. It is known to reduce the risk of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and certain cancers. Its high fiber content aids in digestive health and weight management. Moreover, the lignans found in flaxseed exhibit powerful antioxidant properties, helping to combat oxidative stress and inflammation. Flaxseed's versatility extends to its culinary applications. It can be easily incorporated into a myriad of dishes, including smoothies, baked goods, and salads, enhancing both flavor and nutrition. In conclusion, flaxseed stands out as an inimitable functional food for the human diet, offering a potent combination of essential nutrients and health-promoting compounds. Incorporating this humble seed into daily nutrition holds the potential to transform health outcomes and contribute to a healthier, more vibrant future for individuals worldwide.
... It is widely used in food processing and plays a crucial role in medicine, health products, and feed additives [21]. Studies show the primary nutrients of flaxseed are concentrated in the kernel, which is abundant in unsaturated fatty acids, high-quality plant proteins, and other essential nutrients [22][23][24][25]. Notably, the kernel contains α-linolenic acid, an essential fatty acid with cardiovascular, brain, and retinal health benefits [26][27][28], as well as phosphorus, potassium, vitamin B, and other trace elements [29][30][31]. ...
With the improvement in living standards and growing appreciation for flaxseed’s nutritional value, global demand for flaxseed and its economic significance are continuously increasing. As a major flaxseed producer and exporter, China plays a crucial role in the development of its agricultural economy. Flaxseed, one of China’s five key oil crops, is renowned for its rich nutritional content. This study employed a literature review to systematically examine the research status of key flaxseed dehulling technologies in China. It explored the characteristics, efficiencies, and quality differences among various dehulling methods, while also drawing on advanced techniques, such as chemical and ultrasonic dehulling, to provide new perspectives and theoretical support for flaxseed dehulling. Comprehensive analysis revealed that mechanical dehulling (the impact method and rolling and rubbing method) is the primary method used in China. The study also identified the issues in current flaxseed dehulling research in China and offers suggestions to guide future improvements and innovations in flaxseed processing, aiming to enhance the quality and nutritional value of flaxseed to meet diverse market demands.
... Flaxseed's potential mechanisms of action on glucose metabolism and insulin resistance may be due to its bioactive compounds such as ALA, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG), and fiber 11 . The lipid content of flaxseed is approximately 73%, of which 32-45% is ALA, making it the primary source of this omega-3 11,[25][26][27] . This fatty acid is a precursor for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which have anti-inflammatory properties. ...
La prevalencia de enfermedades como sobrepeso, obesidad, diabetes, cáncer y afecciones cardiovasculares enfatiza la necesidad de promover una educación de alta calidad en la formación de profesionales de la salud, como lo son los estudiantes de la Licenciatura en Nutrición. Para lograr esto, una de las competencias más importantes a desarrollar es la evaluación del estado nutricional y el establecimiento de un diagnóstico claro. Esta obra transita por los aspectos generales de este proceso de evaluación, donde se incluyen antecedentes relacionados con la alimentación, antropometría, exámenes físicos y datos bioquímicos, entre otros. Es una herramienta útil, didáctica y de consulta que brinda la información y las prácticas necesarias para dominar las particularidades de la evaluación nutrimental.
... Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.; flaxseed) and linseed oil have been traditionally used as nutritional supplements in both human and animal nutrition, especially as a source of α-linolenic acid (C18:3 omega-3; ALA), with a relatively low ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids [17,18]. To improve the growth and immunity of calves, either flaxseed oil [12] or a mixture of fish and flaxseed in MR [11,19] or calf starter [20] as a source of omega-3 fatty acids were used. ...
Simple Summary
Although there has been significant progress in management practices for the rearing of dairy calves in many countries in the last two decades, still the mortality and morbidity rates are unacceptably high. This study aimed to determine the effect of supplementing liquid feeds with a mixture of ethyl esters of polyunsaturated fatty acid of linseed oil (EEPUFA) on feed intake, body weight gain, feed efficiency, and health of dairy calves. We found better starter intake, dry matter intake, daily body weight gain, and a lower percentage of days with diarrhea relative to the number of days receiving treatment in the EEPUFA group than the control group. Overall, there is quite promising impact of EEPUFA on the growth performance and health of dairy calves.
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the effect of supplementing liquid feeds with a mixture of ethyl esters of polyunsaturated fatty acid of linseed oil (EEPUFA; α-linolenic acid—64.5%, linoleic acid—16.1%, and oleic acid—19.4%) on feed intake, body weight gain, feed efficiency, and health of dairy calves. Thirty-six healthy female Holstein–Friesian calves (7 d of age, 41.2 ± 4.0 kg) were assigned to one of two treatment groups (18 calves per group), i.e., control or EEPUFA, and fed liquid feed (whole milk (WM) or milk replacer (MR)) either without or with 10 mL/d of EEPUFA supplementation, respectively, for 56 days (till 63 d of age). Average daily intake of WM and MR was similar between treatments (p = 0.94). Average daily total DM intake and average daily starter feed DM intake were higher for the EEPUFA group (p = 0.05 and p = 0.01, respectively). The average daily body weight gain was also higher for the EEPUFA group (55 g/d; p = 0.03), although final body weight turned out not to be significantly different between groups (75.6 kg vs. 79.0 kg, control vs. EEPUFA, respectively; p = 0.20). Supplementation of liquid feeds with EEPUFA did not affect feed efficiency (p = 0.37) and most of investigated health parameters. However, the percentage of days with diarrhea relative to the number of days receiving treatment was higher in the control group than the EEPUFA group (76 vs. 42, respectively; p = 0.04). Although the results of this preliminary study are promising, further research is needed to establish the dose effect of EEPUFA on the performance and health of calves.
Flaxseed meal (FSM) is a by-product of flaxseed product production that is wasted unreasonably at present. In this study, we used Bacillus subtilis K6, a dominant microbial strain, for solid-state fermentation (SSF) of FSM following preliminary screening to improve FSM utilization efficiency and enhance the soluble dietary fiber (SDF) content while modifying its functional properties. FSM’s microstructure was characterized before and after fermentation, and the functional properties of the dietary fiber (DF) in the FSM were assessed. Single-factor experiments combined with response surface methodology were conducted to optimize SSF parameters using SDF yield as the response variable. The optimal conditions were determined as follows: 45 h fermentation time, 40.5 °C temperature, and 1:0.65 material-to-liquid ratio. Under these conditions, the SDF yield reached 33.45 ± 0.24%, an SDF yield increase of 36.92%. Scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy demonstrated FSM’s structural disruption during fermentation. Furthermore, SDF and insoluble DF showed improved water-holding, oil-holding, and swelling capacities following fermentation. These results indicate that SSF effectively enhances the SDF content in FSM and optimizes its functional properties, thereby providing a theoretical foundation for the valorization of flaxseed by-products.
Breast cancer causes the deaths of approximately 685,000 women annually, posing a severe threat to women’s health. Consequently, there is an urgent need for low-cost, low-toxicity and effective therapeutic methods to prevent or mitigate breast cancer progression. PDBP are natural, non-toxic, and affordable substances and have demonstrated excellent anti-breast cancer activities in inhibiting proliferation, migration, and invasion, and promoting apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo, thus effectively preventing or inhibiting breast cancer. However, there are no comprehensive reviews summarizing the effects and mechanisms of PDBP on the treatment of breast cancer. Therefore, this review described the inhibitory effects and mechanisms of active peptides from different plant protein sources on breast cancer. Additionally, we summarized the advantages and preparation methods of plant protein-derived anticancer peptide-encapsulated nanoparticles and their effects in inhibiting breast cancer. This review provides a scientific basis for understanding the anti-breast cancer mechanisms of PDBP and offers guidance for the development of therapeutic adjuvants enriched with these peptides.
Flax seeds are valuable medicinal and food raw materials because of their various complex of biologically active substances (BAS). They have a great potential for pharmaceutical practice and food industry. The purpose of the work is to study the possibilities for improvement of methods for standardization of flax seeds and drugs (infusion is the dietary supplement (DS), which contains fatty flax seeds extra virgin oil in gelatin capsule and fatty flax seeds oil containing in multicomponent drugs) on their basis. The following groups of BAS are studied by modern physicochemical methods: contents of polysaccharides (gravimetry), contents and composition of the fatty acids containing in fatty oils (gas flame photometric chromatography) and contents of vitamins B2, C, E, carotenoids (α- and β-carotenoids) (high-performance UV chromatography). The study establishes, that the whole flax seeds contain 8.23±0.38% of polysaccharides, 438±53 mg/g of fatty oils (the main fatty acids are α-linoleic acid (234±47 mg/g), oleic acid (60±12 mg/g), and linoleic acid (61±12 mg/g)), 31.00±4.65 mg/100g of vitamin B2, 330.00±49.50 mg/100g of vitamin C, 19.60±2.94 mg/100g of vitamin E, and 10.30±1.55 mg/100g of carotenoids. Contents of 0.62±0.04% of polysaccharides, 2.85±0.43 µg/100 ml of vitamin B2, and 45.00±6.75 µg/100 ml of vitamin C are peculiar to the infusion. We have determined that the DS “Flax seeds oil in capsules” contents three major fatty acids. They are α-linoleic acid (234±47 mg/g), oleic acid (60±12 mg/g), linoleic acid (61±1 2mg/g), 27.00±4.05 mg/100g of vitamin E (summarized tocopherols in terms of tocopherol acetate), and 14.90±2.24 mg/100g of carotenoids. Contents of fatty oil in the “Dicloran ® Plus” drug is of 277±33 mg/g (the main fatty acids are α-linoleic acid (20±4 mg/g), oleic acid (6±1 mg/g), and linoleic acid (4±1 mg/g)) and 1.10±0.17 µg/100 g of vitamin E. Ratio of major fatty acids containing in the subjects, which consist of fatty flax seeds oils, are: α-linoleic acid: oleic acid: linoleic acid is 4:1:1 is peculiar. The received data is used to update current regulatory documentation and to introduce the new one to regulate quality of flax seeds and flax drugs.
This study aimed to realize the full processing and utilization of isolated protein from flaxseed meal. Flaxseed protein isolate and degummed and defatted flaxseed protein isolate (DD-FPI) were prepared from the cold-pressed flaxseed meal (FM) using ultrasound-assisted aqueous extraction. A comparison was also made on their physicochemical, structural and functional properties. The results showed that the protein mass fractions in the FM, and degummed and defatted flaxseed meal were (37.52 ± 0.04) % and (37.47 ± 0.02) %, respectively. The degumming and degreasing treatment of FM increased the protein purity by about 15% before protein extraction. The molecular weights of FPI and DD-FPI were determined to be 10–55 kDa, indicating the most outstanding protein bands. A total of 17 amino acids were identified in each of them, including the abundant essential and non-essential amino acids. FTIR spectroscopy showed that the secondary structures of FPI and DD-FPI were similarly the looser structure, withaverage stability. SEM observed that the FPI exhibited the lower microscopic porosity than DD-FPI. The XRD diffraction intensities and peak shapes showed that there was less crystallinity or orderly arrangement in the structures of both FPI and DD-FPI, where the crystallinity of DD-FPI was lower than that of FPI. The amphiphilicity, hydrophilicity and the lipophilicity of the two proteins were better than those of soybean protein isolate. Both FPI and DD-FPI presented the excellent alkali solubility at different pH and salt ion concentrations. The foaming ability, emulsification activity and emulsion stability of DD-FPI were better than those of FPI, while the foam stability was the opposite. Therefore, the two isolated proteins can be expected to apply into the field of functional food.
Graphical Abstract
Contemporary animal feed production increasingly embraces zero-waste strategies, focusing on the use of food waste and cost-effective by-products to promote environmental sustainability. Oilseed cakes, by-products from oil extraction, have emerged as valuable resources due to their nutritional benefits and diverse applications. However, their use in animal feed is challenged by various antinutritional factors (ANFs) such as glucosinolates, cyanogenic glycosides, phytic acid, saponins, sinapine, tannins, and enzyme inhibitors, which can negatively impact nutrient absorption, digestibility, and feed palatability. The chemical properties of these ANFs differ considerably, and their concentrations vary significantly depending on the plant type. This variability makes it difficult to pinpoint a universally effective method for their reduction and removal. This paper aims to provide an overview of the different ANFs present in oilseeds used for animal feed, their concentrations, and their adverse effects on animal health and feed intake. It also reviews traditional methods for ANF removal, including heating, autoclaving, soaking, and chemical treatments, and explores novel techniques such as fermentation and enzymatic methods based on previous studies.
Linseeds/flax seeds that belong to the Linaceae crop family have fantastic health benefits and commercial usage. Linseeds are grown worldwide in different climate zones, mainly in countries lying in the northern hemisphere. Linseeds became a viable alternative to meat and dairy and gained popularity as a superfood. The linseed market size is estimated at USD 0.80 billion in 2023 and is expected to reach 1.38 billion by 2028, growing at a compound annual growth rate of 11.57%. Asia–Pacific is the largest producer and consumer region in the world. Russia ranked highest in linseed production with 1.3 million metric tonnes, followed by Kazakhstan and Canada. The linseed supply chain has many members internationally. While the United States has some of the top-selling companies, Canada, Sri Lanka, Russia, and Germany are all leading members of the supply chain. The linseed market is segmented based on nature, type or form, end use, and distribution channel. The linseed market, based on the applications, can be further segmented into foods, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, animal feeds, linen manufacturing, paints and varnishes, and others. The ground linseed segment will dominate the global linseed segment market in the upcoming years due to its wide incorporation in the production of various food products. The food industry is also involved in adding new value-added food products. More research is required to explore all the health benefits of these products.
Currently, the cultivation of chia has expanded globally owing to its abundance of nutrients and bioactive compounds. This study aimed to explore the nutritional profile, fatty Acid composition, flavonoids (TFC), and antioxidant activity (AA) of chia seed (Salvia hispanica) cultivated under the climatic conditions of the Siberian region compared with flax seed (Linum usitatissimum) and psyllium husk (Plantago ovata). Additionally, the influence of different green solvent (water:ethanol) ratios on the TPC, TFC, and AA was examined. Results demonstrated that chia seeds have considerably greater dietary fiber (27.50 ± 0.021%) and protein contents (23.50 ± 0.015%) compared to flax seed and psyllium husk (P < 0.05). The major fatty acid were found to be α-Linolenic acid in chia seed, flax seed and psyllium husk extract were found to be with relative percentages of 62.65%, 52.40%, and 59.66%, respectively. Chia seed also demonstrated considerably greater TPC (2.17 ± 0.08 mg GAE/g), TFC (1.08 ± 0.20 mg QE/g), and AA (88.13 ± 0.11) than flax seed and psyllium husk (P < 0.001). The measurement of phenolic compounds will be provided in this section whenever the results are available. Pearson’s correlation (R2 = 0.987) demonstrated a substantial link between TFC and their respective AA. This study revealed that chia seed extracts accumulate a tremendous number of nutritional profile and phytochemicals, as well as demonstrate excellent antioxidant activity. Therefore, it is important to consider the possibility of cultivating chia seeds in the Siberian area since the climatic conditions do not have an effect on the nutritional and phytochemical components of the seeds.
Plant-based diets have gained significant attention in recent years due to increased demand for healthier, environmentally friendly, and ethical options (Wang & Arntfield, 2017). Subsequently, a plethora of new and innovative plantbased sources are becoming more popular, which cater not only to vegetarians and vegans but also to those looking to diversify their source of protein intake. Plant-based sources of proteins are generally low in saturated fats and cholesterol-free while being rich in fibers, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants (Schwingshackl et al., 2017). Research has shown that diets rich in plant-based proteins can contribute to improved heart health, weight management, improved digestion, enhanced immunity, and overall wellness (Chen et al., 2021). Incorporating plant-based proteins as functional ingredients in food products contributed to the development of products with targeted health benefits (Wang & Arntfield, 2017). For instance, using plant-based proteins in sports nutrition products can support muscle recovery, growth, and maintenance, while also providing essential nutrients for overall wellness. Similarly, incorporating plantbased proteins in products designed for specific dietary needs, such as those catering to the elderly, can help address issues such as age-related muscle loss and malnutrition (McClements, 2020). The main sources of plant-based proteins are legumes, grains, nuts, and oilseeds. Among the oilseeds, soybean is the most used protein source, while sunflower, canola, and flaxseed proteins are emerging sources. Legumes, such as beans, lentils, and chickpeas, grains such as quinoa, oats, and barley also provide significant amounts of protein, while nuts and seeds, such as almonds, sunflower seeds, and chia seeds, are rich sources of proteins and unsaturated fats. Innovative protein sources such as microalgae, fungi, insects, leaves, and hemp are also being explored for their high protein content and/or high sustainability index. Plant proteins are available in different forms including flours, concentrates, isolates, hydrolysates, and textured (TVP). They are rich in essential amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins required for various biological processes. Additionally, they contain bioactive compounds such as phytochemicals, which possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. These compounds contribute to the overall health benefits of plant-based proteins, including disease prevention, immune support, and improved gut health (Desai et al., 2016). Depending on the source, the form, and protein contents, plant proteins have different functional properties such as solubility, emulsification, gelling, and foaming capacities. The functionality of plant-based proteins plays a crucial role in developing innovative plant-based foods with appreciated nutritional and organoleptic quality (Wang & Arntfield, 2017). In this light, this chapter aims to explore the realm of plant-based protein sources.
Flax seeds are a valuable raw material for the production of functional bakery products. The article investigates the fermentation processes in wheat dough supplemented with whole and crushed flax seeds in dry and soaked states. For a holistic understanding of the fermentation process, the regularities of the kinetics and dynamics of gas formation in the experimental samples were analyzed. It was found that during fermentation in samples with whole flax seeds in dry and soaked states, the amount of carbon dioxide released slightly increases compared to the control. In the samples with crushed dry and soaked flax seeds, the total amount of carbon dioxide released is higher than in the control sample by 16.5% and 19.0%, respectively. In the sample with crushed flax seeds, the nature of the dynamics of carbon dioxide release differs from the control sample, namely, a one-stage fermentation is observed. At the same time, the peak of carbon dioxide release was observed almost 30 minutes later than in the control sample. This may be due to the fact that soaking flaxseed products produces viscous solutions of polysaccharides, which envelop the yeast cells during dough kneading and slow down the supply of nutrients to them. Based on the analysis of the dynamics of carbon dioxide emission, it is recommended to reduce the duration of dough fermentation for the sample with whole flax seeds to 90 minutes, and for the samples with crushed seeds and soaked flax products to 60 minutes, so that the most intense carbon dioxide emission in these experimental samples occurs during the period of proofing of dough pieces. It was found that the introduction of whole and crushed flax seeds in soaked form slows down the rise of the dough due to the thickening of the dough system with water-soluble and insoluble flax dietary fiber, reducing fermentation and the formation of sugars in the dough system.
This work aimed to develop gluten-free snacks such as crispbread based on beetroot pomace (Beta vulgaris L.) and golden linseed (Lini semen). Beetroot is attracting more and more consumer attention because of its nutritional and health properties. The use of beet pomace contributes to waste management. Linseed, known as a superfood with many health-promoting properties, was used to produce crispbreads as an alternative to cereals, which are allergens. Beetroot pomace and whole or ground linseed were used in different proportions to produce crispbread snacks. Chemical and physical analyses were performed including water activity, dry matter, betalains, and polyphenols content, as well as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). A sensory evaluation and microstructure observations were also performed. The obtained snacks were characterized by low water activity (0.290–0.395) and a high dry matter content (93.43–97.53%), which ensures their microbiological stability and enables longer storage. Beetroot pomace provided betalains—red (14.59–51.44 mg betanin/100 g d.m.) and yellow dyes (50.02–171.12 mg betanin/100 g d.m.)—while using linseed enriched the product with polyphenols (730–948 mg chlorogenic acid/100 g d.m.). FTIR analysis showed the presence of functional groups such as the following: -OH, -C-O, -COOH, and -NH. The most desired overall consumer acceptability was achieved for snacks containing 50% beetroot pomace and 50% linseed seeds. The obtained results confirmed that beetroot pomace combined with linseed can be used in the production of vegetable crispbread snacks.
Protein ingredients, originating from both animal and plant sources, play a crucial role in the food industry due to their nutritional and functional properties. Despite the long-standing preference for animal protein, a shift toward plant proteins has been observed due to their potential health benefits, lower environmental impact, and increasing concerns about animal welfare. Various plant sources, such as cereals, legumes, oilseeds, nuts, tubers, and other seeds, have been explored for their protein content, with a focus on their respective protein’s solubility and other functional attributes, which influence their application in diverse food products. While plant protein offers certain nutritional benefits, including dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals, it faces challenges with regard to its replacement of animal protein due to inferior protein quality, bioavailability, and antinutritional factors. Functional differences and unfavorable flavor attributes also pose challenges. However, various solutions, such as combining different plant proteins, heat application, and food processing techniques, are being investigated to mitigate these issues. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the plant sources, extraction methods, food applications, challenges, and potential solutions in the development of plant-based protein products.
avocado oil has gone from a little known specialty fat to now a popular commodity.It is available as the unrefined (virgin) oil or as a fully refined stable cooking oil.Its properties and composition are summarized in the article.
The application of flaxseed extracts as food ingredients is a subject of interest to food technologists and nutritionists. Therefore, the influence of the extraction method on the content and composition of beneficial compounds as well as anti-nutrients is important. In the study, the effects of two solvent extraction methods, aqueous and 60 % ethanolic, on phenolic and cyanogenic glucoside profiles of flaxseed extract were determined and compared. The impact of extracted phenolic compounds on the antioxidant capacity of the extracts was also investigated. Defatted meals from brown and golden flax varieties were used as extraction material. The ethanolic extraction was more selective for phenolics (100.8-131.7 mg g(-1)) than the aqueous one (11.5-15.7 mg g(-1)). However, the contribution of particular phenolic compounds to total phenolics was much more dependent on flax variety than extraction method. A strong relationship was observed between both radical scavenging and ferric reducing activity and the content of phenolics (particularly secoisolariciresinol diglucoside). The correlation between extract chelating ability and phenolics was moderate suggesting that other flaxseed compounds are involved in this activity. The extraction method strongly affected cyanogenic glucoside content of flaxseed extracts; the aqueous extraction caused 96 % reduction in cyanogenic glucoside content (0.56-0.62 mmol g(-1)) when compared to the content in defatted meal (9.1-11.6 mmol g(-1)). On the contrary, ethanolic extraction resulted in the high cyanogenic glucoside content in the extracts (71-89 mmol g(-1)). The results reveals that ethanolic extraction gives extracts rich in antioxidant lignans; aqueous extracts have lower antioxidant activity than ethanolic but cyanogenic glucosides are significantly reduced.
The importance of biodiversity (below and above ground) is increasingly considered for the cleanup of the metal contaminated and polluted ecosystems. This subject is emerging as a cutting edge area of research gaining commercial significance in the contemporary field of environmental biotechnology. Several microbes, including mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal fungi, agricultural and vegetable crops, ornamentals, and wild metal hyperaccumulating plants are being tested both in lab and field conditions for decontaminating the metalliferous substrates in the environment. As on todate about 400 plants that hyperaccumulate metals are reported. The families dominating these members are Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Cyperaceae, Cunouniaceae, Fabaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Violaceae, and Euphobiaceae. Brassicaceae had the largest number of taxa viz. 11 genera and 87 species. Different genera of Brassicaceae are known to accumulate metals. Ni hyperaccumulation is reported in 7 genera and 72 species and Zn in 3 genera and 20 species. Thlaspi species are known to hyperaccumulate more than one metal i.e. T. caerulescence = Cd, Ni. Pb, and Zn; T. goesingense = Ni and Zn and T. ochroleucum = Ni and Zn and T. rotundifolium = Ni, Pb and Zn. Plants that hyperaccumulate metals have tremendous potential for application in remediation of metals in the environment. Significant progress in phytoremediation has been made with metals and radionuclides. This process involves rising of plants hydroponically and transplanting them into metal-polluted waters where plants absorb and concentrate the metals in their roots and shoots. As they become saturated with the metal contaminants, roots or whole plants are harvested for disposal. Most researchers believe that plants for phytoremediation should accumulate metals only in the roots. Several aquatic species have the ability to remove heavy metals from water, viz., water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms); pennywort (Hydrocotyle umbellata L.) and duckweed (Lemna minor L.). The roots of Indian mustard are effective in the removal of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn and sunflower removes Pb, U, 137Cs, and 90Sr from hydroponic solutions. Aquatic plants in freshwater, marine and estuarine systems act as receptacle for several metals. Hyperaccumulators accumulate appreciable quantities of metal in their tissue regardless of the concentration of metal in the soil, as long as the metal in question is present. The phytoextraction process involves the use of plants to facilitate the removal of metal contaminants from a soil matrix. In practice, metal-accumulating plants are seeded or transplanted into metal-polluted soil and are cultivated using established agricultural practices. If metal availability in the soil is not adequate for sufficient plant uptake, chelates or acidifying agents would be applied to liberate them into the soil solution. Use of soil amendments such as synthetics (ammonium thiocyanate) and natural zeolites have yielded promising results. Synthetic cross-linked polyacrylates, hydrogels have protected plant roots from heavy metals toxicity and prevented the entry of toxic metals into roots. After sufficient plant growth and metal accumulation, the above-ground portions of the plant are harvested and removed, resulting the permanent removal of metals from the site. Soil metals should also be bioavailable, or subject to absorption by plant roots. Chemicals that are suggested for this purpose include various acidifying agents, fertilizer salts and chelating materials. The retention of metals to soil organic matter is also weaker at low pH, resulting in more available metal in the soil solution for root absorption. It is suggested that the phytoextraction process is enhanced when metal availability to plant roots is facilitated through the addition of acidifying agents to the soil. Chelates are used to enhance the phytoextraction of a number of metal contaminants including Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn Researchers initially applied hyperaccumulators to clean metal polluted soils. Several researchers have screened fast-growing, high-biomass-accumulating plants, including agronomic crops, for their ability to tolerate and accumulate metals in their shoots. Genes responsible for metal hyperaccumulation in plant tissues have been identified and cloned. Glutathione and organic acids metabolism plays a key role in metal tolerance in plants. Glutathione is ubiquitous component cells from bacteria to plants and animals. In phytoremediation of metals in the environment, organic acids play a major role in metal tolerance. Organic acids acids form complexes with metals, a process of metal detoxification. Genetic strategies and transgenic plant and microbe production and field trials will fetch phytoremediaition field applications. The importance of biodiversity and biotechnology to remediate potentially toxic metals are discussed in this paper. Brassicaceae amenable to biotechnological improvement and phytoremediation hype are highlighted.
Hemp, flax and canola seed cakes are byproducts of the plant oil extraction industry that have not received much attention in terms of their potential use for human food instead of animal feed. Thus, the bioactivity profiling of these oilseed cakes is of interest. For their effect-directed analysis, planar chromatography was combined with several (bio)assays, namely 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenging, acetylcholine esterase inhibition, planar yeast estrogen screen, antimicrobial Bacillus subtilis and Aliivibrio fischeri assays. The streamlined high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC)-bioassay method allowed the discovery of previously unknown bioactive compounds present in these oilseed cake extracts. In contrast to target analysis, the direct link to the effective compounds allowed comprehensive information with regard to selected effects. HPTLC-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry via the elution-head based TLC-MS Interface was used for a first characterization of the unknown effective compounds. The demonstrated bioactivity profiling on the feed/food intake side may guide the isolation of active compounds for production of functional food or for justified motivation of functional feed/food supplements.
A recombinant Pichia strain GS115-Ch-Glu expressing both β-glucosidase and cyanide hydratase was constructed to remove cyanogenic glycosides in edible plants. The β-glucosidase could hydrolyze cyanogenic glycosides into cyanide and its gene (Glu) was amplified by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). A cyanide hydratase could catalyze cyanide to formamide and its gene (Ch) was obtained by C (PCR). Both Glu and Ch genes were integrated into the genome of Pichia strain GS115 by homologous recombination. The engineering strain GS115-Ch-Glu was confirmed by multiple analytical methods, and was inoculated to induce expression of the recombinant Glu and Ch genes. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) showed that the fused proteins of interest had specifically been expressed as 31 and 52 KDa, which corresponded to the predicted molecular weights of the two enzymes. The enzyme preparation containing cyanide hydratase and β-glucosidase produced by strain GS115-Ch-Glu could completely decompose cyanogenic glycosides in flaxseed power into cyanide, and further catalyze the hydrolysis of over 80% cyanide.
Flax (Linum usitatissimum) has been used for centuries as a source for oil extraction. In recent years it has attracted considerable interest as a result of studies which attribute potential health benefits to its components, including the prevention of chronic non-communicable diseases. Among these compounds presenting biological activity, alpha-linolenic acid, lignans and soluble fibre are of special interest. Southern Chile has comparative advantages for the cultivation of this crop. Together with its full processing, this crop could strengthen regional industry. The purpose of the present work is to learn how the best use can be made of these compounds, by studying flaxseed and flaxseed cake as sources of compounds of interest for food industry. Oil extracted from flaxseed contained 51.86% of linolenic, 16.34% of linoleic and 20.98% of oleic acid. Fractioning of defatted flaxseed cake produced a polyphenol content of 0.73 mg GAEg-1 extract and a protein isolate of considerable purity, 53.15% yield with 0.78 gof albumin equivalent g-1 protein isolate. Additionally, a polysaccharide was isolated with low protein content as impurity, 10.71% yield with 1.37 mg of glucose equivalent per gram of polysaccharide. This information will form the basis for assessing the extraction of products of interest for the food industry from flaxseed cake.
The effect of the defatting process, acid and alkali extractions on the physicochemical and functional properties of hemp, flax and canola protein isolates was studied. The defatting process enriched the protein content from around 35 to 52–55 % in the defatted oilseed cakes. Further treatment with acid and alkali led to the highest enrichment (P < 0.05) in the protein content (>90 %). The defatting process produced the lightest (P < 0.05) colour compared to the parent oilseed cakes and the protein isolates. Alkali extraction produced protein isolates with the highest (P < 0.05) water holding capacity while the original oilseed cakes had the highest oil holding capacity. Acid and alkali extractions produced protein isolates with the highest emulsifying activity and emulsion stability. The alkaline soluble flax protein isolate and acid hemp protein isolate had the highest (P < 0.05) creaming stability and largest droplet size respectively. Amino acid profiles of protein isolates after acid and alkali extraction were improved, leading to a protein suitable for fortification in food products that meet human nutrition requirements.
This study investigated the capability and efficiency of flaxseed soluble dietary fibre /mucilage to enhance bacterial survival and growth in kefir as well as the antioxidant activity of the mucilage. Crude flaxseed mucilage was extracted using a microwave method, followed by enzymatic and dialysis treatments to obtain pure mucilage. The antioxidant activities of the pure and crude mucilage were measured using different assays. Microbial analyses, pH and total titratable acidity (TTA) were measured in kefir samples, supplemented with probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium lactis) and pure or crude flaxseed mucilage during 28 cold storage periodat 4 ºC. The results showed that for all kefir samples, the total bacteria counts were above7.9 log cfu/mL at the end of cold storage period. However, kefir samples supplemented with pure flaxseed mucilage enhanced significantly (P < 0.05) higher viability of bacteria (9.5 log cfu/mL) and acidity (0.78% TTA). An overall pH decline of 0.2 was observed during cold storage period. The total phenolic content (TPC) in crude mucilage was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than pure mucilage (10.5 ± 0.2 and 5.7 ± 0.1 mg Gallic acid equivalent /g flaxseed, respectively). The mucilage from crude flaxseed exhibited strong antioxidant activity; Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) value of 51.2 ± 3.3 ?mol Trolox equivalent /g, 53.7 ± 2.8% discoloration for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and 68.3 ± 9.2% Beta-Carotene bleaching which was well in agreement with high TPC. This study demonstrated that flaxseed mucilage acts as a good source of prebiotic, enhancing lactic acid bacteria growth in kefir model in addition of their high antioxidant beneficiary.
Cyanogenic glycosides are HCN-producing phytotoxins; HCN is a powerful and a rapidly acting poison. It is not difficult to find plants containing these compounds in the food supply and/or in medicinal herb collections. The objective of this study was to investigate the distribution of total cyanide in nine genera (Dolichos, Ginkgo, Hordeum, Linum, Phaseolus, Prunus, Phyllostachys, Phytolacca, and Portulaca) of edible plants and the effect of the processing on cyanide concentration. Total cyanide content was measured by ion chromatography following acid hydrolysis and distillation. Kernels of Prunus genus are used medicinally, but they possess the highest level of total cyanide of up to 2259.81 CN(-)/g dry weight. Trace amounts of cyanogenic compounds were detected in foodstuffs such as mungbeans and bamboo shoots. Currently, except for the WHO guideline for cassava, there is no global standard for the allowed amount of cyanogenic compounds in foodstuffs. However, our data emphasize the need for the guidelines if plants containing cyanogenic glycosidesare to be developed as dietary supplements.
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) meal, the main byproduct of the flaxseed oil extraction process, is composed mainly of proteins, mucilage, and phenolic compounds. The extraction methods of phenolics either commonly employed the use of mixed solvents (dioxane/ethanol, water/acetone, water/methanol, and water/ethanol) or are done with the aid of alkaline, acid, or enzymatic hydrolysis. This work aimed at the study of optimal conditions for a clean process, using renewable solvents and enzymes, for the extraction of phenolics and proteins from flaxseed meal. After a screening of the most promising commercial preparations based on different carbohydrases and proteases, a central composite rotatable design and a mixture design were applied, achieving as optimal results a solution containing 6.6 and 152 g of phenolics and proteins, respectively. The statistical approach used in the present study for the enzyme-enhanced extraction of phenolics and proteins from the major flaxseed byproduct was effective. By means of the sequential experimental design methodology, the extraction of such compounds was increased 10-fold and 14-fold, when compared to a conventional nonenzymatic extraction.
Linum usitatissimum, the specific name for flax within the family Linaceae, aptly describes its usefulness and versatility. In fact, the name Linum originated from the Celtic word lin or ‘thread,’ and the name usitatissimum is Latin for ‘most useful’ (Kolodziejczyk and Fedec, 1995). According to the Compact Oxford Dictionary, the old French word ‘linnet’ means ‘the bird which hovers feeding on the seeds over flax fields.’ The word ‘line’ is derived from a Latin or Greek ancestor, linum, meaning ‘flax’; other words such as linen, lining, linear, and lineage are all derived from the word ‘line’ (Judd, 1995). These ancient linguistic origins underscore the importance of flaxseed or linseed, as it is sometimes called, to the economic and social development of humans.
The proteins in the oilseeds of species from 11 families, including sunflower, mustard, linseed, almond, lupin, peanut, cucumber, Brazil nut, hazelnut, yucca, castor bean, and cottonseed were studied. Sucrose gradient centrifugation showed that a substantial proportion of the total seed protein from each species migrated with a 2S sedimentation coefficient. The 2S proteins, being water-soluble and thus termed albumins, comprised 20–60% of the total seed proteins, while faster migrating globulins comprised the rest. The amino acid compositions of the 2S proteins were characterisitic of storage proteins by having a high amide content. However, the 2S proteins are different from the classical globulin storage proteins in having a high content of cysteine. It is proposed that 2S albumins are seed storage proteins with a wide distribution and with chemical properties distinct from those of the globulin storage proteins. They play an additional and unique role of providing sulfur reserve for germination.
The anti-ulcer activity of the oil and mucilage obtained from flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) was evaluated in a rat model of ethanol-induced gastric ulcer. Our results show that pretreatment of rats with flaxseed oil and flaxseed mucilage significantly reduced the number and length of gastric ulcers induced by ethanol. Flaxseed oil was more effective than flaxseed mucilage in reducing the number of ulcers. The reduction in ulcer severity (cumulative length in mm) provided by an oral dose of flaxseed oil (5 ml/kg) was more prominent than that obtained by ranitidine (50 mg/kg). This study indicates that both flaxseed oil and flaxseed mucilage can provide a cytoprotective effect against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in rats.
Physicochemical (zeta potential (zeta), conductivity, surface hydrophobicity (H-0), protein solubility (PS)) and emulsifying (emulsion capacity (EC), droplet size, polydispersity (PDI), emulsifying activity (EAI), and stability (ESI) indexes) properties of alkali-(A-FPC), enzymatic-(E-FPC), and enzymatic-solvent-(ES-FPC) extracted protein concentrates from flaxseed meal (FM) were investigated and compared to commercial pea protein concentrate (PPC). The yield, composition, and properties of the protein concentrates were significantly influenced by the methods of extraction. All emulsions were similar in polydispersity with mono-modal droplet distribution and size of <= 0.43 mu m that carried a net negative charge at neutral conditions (pH 7.0). A-FPC showed significantly higher H-0 (66.14) than that of ES-FPC (52.63), and E-FPC (43.27) and was comparable to PPC (68.47). The highest solubility was found for E-FPC followed by A-FPC at neutral pH. A-FPC displayed significantly (p < 0.05) the highest EC (87.91%), EAI (87.18 m(2)/g) and ESI (12.51 min) compared to the other protein concentrates.
Hemp protein isolates (HPIs) were hydrolysed by proteases (AFP, HT, ProG, actinidin and zingibain). The enzymatic hydrolysis of HPIs was evaluated through the degree of hydrolysis and SDS-PAGE profiles. The bioactive properties of the resultant hydrolysates (HPHs) were accessed through ORAC, DPPḢ scavenging and ACE-inhibitory activities. The physical properties of the resultant HPHs were evaluated for their particle sizes, zeta potential and surface hydrophobicity. HT had the highest rate of caseinolytic activity at the lowest concentration (0.1 mg. mL-1) compared to other proteases that required concentration of 100 mg. mL-1 to achieve their maximum rate of caseinolytic activity. This led to the highest degree of hydrolysis of HPIs by HT in the SDS-PAGE profiles. Among all proteases and substrates, HT resulted in the highest bioactivities (ORAC, DPPḢ scavenging and ACE-inhibitory activities) generated from alkali extracted HPI in the shortest time (2 h) compared to the other protease preparations.
IT has been shown that the growth of chicks is retarded when they are fed rations containing over 4.5 percent linseed oil meal, and that growth may be improved when the meal is first given a water treatment (Kratzer, 1946; MacGregor and McGinnis 1948). It has also been found that the addition of pyridoxine to linseed oil meal will improve the growth of the chicks to which it was fed, although the ration contained pyridoxine in greater amounts than is ordinarily required for good chick growth (Kratzer and Williams, 1948). Since there are some differences between the nutritive requirements of chicks and poults, it was of interest to determine whether linseed oil meal also causes a depression of the growth rate in young poults.
EXPERIMENTAL
Three experiments were conducted, but since the results were in agreement, the details of only one experiment will be reported. The basal ration contained the . . .
Flaxseed protein isolate (FPI) was extracted from flaxseeds, and its amino acid composition and functional properties (solubility, thermal stability, emulsifying properties and electrostatic charge density, water holding and fat absorption capacities) were determined. The highest purity of FPI (90.6%) was achieved by extraction at 60 °C. FPI had a low lysine to arginine ratio of 0.25, which is desired in heart-healthy foods and infant formulas. The denaturation temperature of FPI was 105 °C. FPI had the highest emulsion activity index (375.51 m2/g), highest emulsion stability index (179.5 h) and zeta potential (-67.4 mV) when compared to those of other commonly used proteins, such as sodium caseinate (SC), whey protein isolate (WPI), gelatin (Gel) and soy protein isolate (SPI). The average emulsion droplet size of emulsions stabilized by these proteins was in the order SC < FPI < WPI < Gel < SPI. Water holding and fat absorption capacities of FPI were similar to those of the above mentioned proteins.
Use of microwave and pulsed electric field (PEF) technologies for optimization of polyphenol extraction from defatted flax seed cake was attempted using a Box-Behnken response surface design. Polyphenols were extracted after microwave or PEF treatments using ultrasound under fixed variables of 200 W of ultrasonic power, a 70°C water bath, and 20 min of extraction time. Measured responses were total phenolic and total flavonoid contents, and 2,2,-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH·) scavenging activity and ferric reducing/antioxidant power activities. Maximum yields of all responses were achieved under optimum conditions for microwave processing=5 min, a liquid to solid ratio=6, and at 644 W, and for PEF-assisted extraction for 30 V at 30 Hz with a 10% ethanol concentration, and a treatment time=10 s. Under optimized microwave or PEF processing conditions, yields of polyphenols from defatted seed cake were maximized. © 2015, The Korean Society of Food Science and Technology and Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.
Pectin, a polysaccharide, is composed primarily of essentially linear polymers of D-galactopyranosyluronic acid units joined in α-D(1→4) glycosidic linkages; the polymer chains are esterified to various degrees with methanol. This regular structure is interrupted, however, with L-rhamnopyranosyl units and with side chains containing other neutral sugars. The polymer chains may also be partially acetylated. The most important physical property of pectin is its ability to form spreadable gels. Gel formation results when the polymer chains interact over a portion of their length to form a three-dimensional network. This aggregation of chains occurs through hydrogen bonding, divalent cation crossbridging, and/or hydrophobic interactions.
The aim of this work was to study the effects of high voltage electrical discharges (HVED), mild temperature (20-60 degrees C) and ethanol addition in water (0-25%) on the extraction of total polyphenols and lignans from whole and crushed flaxseed cake. HVED noticeably enhanced the aqueous and hydro-ethanolic extractions of total polyphenols from both crushed and non crushed flaxseed cake. The addition of ethanol had a synergic effect and increased the extraction efficiency. For the uncrushed cakes, the diffusivity of total polyphenols from the untreated samples was in the range of 1.1-1.8 x 10(-9) m(2)/s (without ethanol) and 3.2-5.9 x 10(-10) m(2)/s (with ethanol). The diffusivity of polyphenols from the HVED-treated samples was higher: 2.6-2.7 x 10(-9) m(2)/s (without ethanol) and 3.0-4.2 x 10(-9) m(2)/s (with ethanol). However, the results obtained for lignan extraction were lower than those found in the literature (around 20 mg SDG/g defatted flaxseed).
A study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of reducing the hydrogen cyanide
(HCN) content of flaxseed by various processing. Flaxseed was processed by oven heating, solvent
extracting, autoclaving, microwave roasting, and water boiling. The optimal parameters for each
processing methods were gained. Microwave roasting of flaxseed reduced the HCN content by 82%;
autoclaving flaxseed reduced its HCN content by 27%; solvent extracting once reduced HCN content
by 52%, twice by 80%, and thrice by 89%; and the water boiling reduced HCN by 100%. The
determination of cyanogenic glucosides in flaxseed was performed by “picrate method” presented by
Dr Howard Bradbury and colorimetric method promulgated by AOAC (Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists).
By numerical optimization, 60% microwave power (580W) and 300 seconds heating time was found to be desirable reducing HCN content in flax seeds under permissible limit of 37.5mg/kg. HCN content of flaxseed was thus reduced from 190 ± 2.13 to 36.4 ± 0.9 mg/kg. There were no significant changes in nutrient composition and fatty acid profile after microwave roasting.
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) provides multiple nutritional benefits, including high quality protein, dietary fiber, and is the most abundant source of α-linolenic acid (C18:3). However, the presence of anti-nutritional factors, such as cyanogenic compounds, restricts flaxseed's consumption as a food or feed. This study investigated the reduction of cyanogenic compounds, measured as hydrocyanic acid (HCN), in full-fat flaxseed using extrusion processing without a die by following the response surface methodology. The ranges of processing variables selected were: barrel exit temperature of 76.3–143.6°C; screw speed of 59.6–160.5 rpm; and feed rate of 26.4–93.6 kg/h. The experimental values of HCN reduction obtained were from 60.8 to 86.6%. Optimum extrusion conditions of barrel exit temperature, screw speed, and feed rate were found to be 143.6°C, 133.5 rpm, and 57.8 kg/h for maximum (89.1%) reduction of HCN. This effect was mainly dependent on barrel exit temperature, whereas screw speed and feed rate had no or minimal effect. The mutual interaction effect of barrel exit temperature and screw speed was found to be significant (p ≤ 0.01). The degree of correlation (R2) for HCN reduction was 97.2%, which showed the validity of applied second-order response model. The results of this study demonstrated that significant reduction of HCN in flaxseed can be achieved commercially using an extruder without a die.
Linum usitatissimum (Linn.), commonly known as flaxseed, which is a good source of dietary fiber and lignans. Secoisolaricirecinol diglucoside (SDG) from flaxseed and omega-3 fatty acids (n-3-FA) from algal source have been shown to have multiple health benefits including cardiovascular disorders and related disorders. The objective of present study was to prepare methanolic fraction of flax lignan concentrate (MF-FLC) and to investigate the antihyperlipidemic activity of MF-FLC and omega-3-fatty acid alone and in combination after acute administration in poloxamer-407 induced hyperlipidemic rats. Solvent–solvent extraction method revealed around 3 times increase in SDG lignan content than that of flax lignan concentrate. Acute hyperlipidemia was induced in rats using poloxamer 407 (1 ml of 30%, w/v; i.p.). Concomitant administration of MF-FLC (100 mg/kg) and n-3-FA (1 ml/kg) significantly reduced serum cholesterol (p < 0.001), triglyceride (p < 0.001) and very low density lipoprotein (p < 0.001) whereas high density lipoprotein showed significant increase (p < 0.05). It can be concluded that supplementation of MF-FLC and n-3-FA can be useful for prevention/control of hyperlipidemia.
Flaxseed protein hydrolysate has been fractionated by electrodialysis with two ultrafiltration membranes (20 and 50kDa) stacked in the system for the recovery of two specific cationic peptide fractions (KCl-F1 and KCl-F2). After 360min of treatment, peptide migration increased as a function of time in KCl compartments. Moreover, the use of two different ultrafiltration membrane allowed concentration of the 300-400 and 400-500Da molecular weight range peptides in the KCl-F1 and KCl-F2 fractions, respectively, compared to the initial hydrolysate. After mass spectrometry analysis, higher amounts of low molecular weight peptides were recovered in the KCl-F2 compartment while relatively higher molecular weight peptides were more detected in the KCl-F1 compartment. Amino acid analysis showed that His, Lys and Arg were especially concentrated in the KCl compartments. Finally, glucose-transport assay demonstrated that the KCl-F2 fraction increased glucose uptake while oral administration of KCl-F1 and final FPH decreased systolic blood pressure.
The growing consumer demand for food with sensory quality and nutritional has called for research to develop new products with consumer acceptance as cookies made from flaxseed meal, that can be inserted in diet of celiacs. Celiac disease characterized by an inappropriate immune response to dietary proteins found in wheat, rye and barley (gluten and gliadin). It can affect anyone at any age and is more common in women. The celiac disease does not have cure and the only scientifically proven treatment is a gluten free diet. Irradiation as a decontamination method used for a many variety of foodstuffs, being very feasible, useful method to increase the shelf life, effective and environmental friendly without any sensory properties significant change. Sensory analyses were used to assess gluten-free bakery foods subjected to ionizing radiation sensory attributes.
The objective of this study was to enhance the nutritional quality and antioxidant activity of rice paper by adding ground whole flaxseed to develop omega-3 rice paper (ORP). The amounts of omega-3 and dietary fibre in the ORP were 2.7 g/100 g and 9.1 g/100 g respectively, both of which were absent in the traditional rice paper (TRP). The antioxidant activity of the ORP evaluated by the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) (231.7 μmol TE/g) was significantly higher than that of TRP (50.2 μmol TE/g). This correlated well with the results of the DPPH radical scavenging activity. In addition, the total phenolic content of the ORP was much higher than the total phenolic content of the TRP. Sensory analysis indicated that ORP was preferred in all of the tested attributes, particularly in taste and texture. The results suggest that the development of ORP by the addition of flaxseed improved both the nutritional value and the sensory characteristics of rice paper.
Proteins via interactions with other components in food systems perform several desirable functions which are related to their structure and physico-chemical properties. In this paper the nature of food foams, the possible relationships between the molecular structure and the foaming capacity of different proteins, and factors affecting these are discussed.
Cyanogenic glycosides occur in a wide range of plant species. The potential toxicity of cyanogenic glycosides arises from enzymatic degradation to produce hydrogen cyanide, which may result in acute cyanide poisoning and has also been implicated in the aetiology of several chronic diseases. One hundred retail foods were sampled and analysed for the presence of total hydrocyanic acid using an acid hydrolysis-isonicotinic/barbituric acid colourimetric method. Food samples included cassava, bamboo shoots, almonds and almond products, pome fruit products, flaxseed/linseed, stone fruit products, lima beans, and various seeds and miscellaneous products, including taro leaves, passion fruit, spinach and canned stuffed vine leaves. The concentrations of total hydrocyanic acid (the hydrocyanic acid equivalents of all cyanogenic compounds) found were consistent with or lower than concentrations reported in the scientific literature. Linseed/flaxseed contained the highest concentrations of total hydrocyanic acid of any of the analysed foods (91-178 mg kg(-1)). Linseed-containing breads were found to contain total hydrocyanic acid at concentrations expected from their linseed content, indicating little impact of processing on the total hydrocyanic acid content. Simulation modelling was used to assess the risk due to the total hydrocyanic acid in fruit juice and linseed-containing bread.
Flax seed (Linum usitatissimum L.) can be used for both industrial and food products including a wide variety of nutraceuticals and health foods and for which a restricted and specific fatty acid (FA) profile is required. As functional foods, flax meal is provided to humans in the form of ground vacuum-packed grains or flaxseed-enriched baked products. However, no reports are yet available on the potential food use for fresh flax products. A comparative study was conducted using two flax cultivars, AC McDuff and Linola, to evaluate FA accumulation in developing bolls at 12 different developmental stages and to determine stages having well balanced omega-6/omega-3 FA ratio. The lipid hydroperoxide level in fresh bolls and seeds, and the cyanogenic glucoside content in developing bolls were also measured in AC McDuff following different heating treatments. The findings indicated and suggested that the use of flax bolls as health promoting vegetable can be considered if adequately processed and palatable food attributes are obtained.
Plant hydroxynitrile lyases (Hnl) have attracted the attention of bioorganic scientists for more than 90 years. However, the most important increase in knowledge of this class of enzymes has only arisen in the recent decade. The industrial application of these enzymes as biocatalysts for the synthesis of enantiomerically pure α-cyanohydrins may be responsible for the growing interest in this area.
The Hnls are involved in the catabolic degradation of cyanogenic glycosides, releasing HCN which serves as defense agent against herbivores and microbial attack, or as a nitrogen source. Hydroxynitrile lyases from various plant families appear to represent a new example of enzymes that originated from the convergent evolution of different precursor proteins. The enzymes have been classified into non-FAD- and FAD-containing proteins. FAD-containing enzymes have been isolated exclusively from the Rosaceae, whereas the FAD-independent Hnls, which are more heterogenous in structure, have been characterized from various plant families (Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Linaceae, Olacaceae. Filitaceae). The aim of this review is to present a general survey of the natural function and localization of this class of enzymes and a comprehensive summary of the biochemical and genetic data of the isolated proteins.
A dry mechanical process was evaluated for obtaining a hull-rich fraction from flaxseed. Flaxseed hulls (seed coats) are an excellent source of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG), a lignan with potential functional food applications, but flaxseed hulls adhere tightly to the embryo, making separation difficult. A Comitrol processor was used to mill the seed, followed by sieving and aspiration to obtain a hull-rich fraction from Neche and Omega flaxseed cultivars. As a result, the content of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (nonfat, dry basis) increased from 12.9 and 14.3 g/kg in whole Neche and Omega seed, respectively, to 27.6 and 23.8 g/kg (weighted averages) in the hull-rich fractions. The significant (P