Mangrove Ecosystems of Asia: Status, Challenges and Management Strategies
Abstract
Mangrove ecosystems occur in the inter-tidal region between sea and land in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes and provide important ecosystem goods and services. These forests help stabilize shorelines and reduce the devastating impact of natural disasters such as tsunamis and hurricanes. They serve as breeding and nursing grounds for marine species, and are sources of food, medicine, fuel, and building materials for local communities. However, these ecosystems have been declining at an alarming rate—perhaps even more rapidly than inland tropical forests—and much of what remains is in a degraded condition. Habitat destruction through human encroachment has been the primary cause of mangrove loss. The loss of mangrove habitats has resulted in a decline in fishery resources and biodiversity. This book provides an up-to-date account of mangrove ecosystems in Asia as well as restoration and ecosystem management techniques to ensure the sustainability and conservation of the mangrove. The book is divided into sections presenting the distribution and status of mangrove ecosystems in Asia, the challenges they are facing, the issues and opportunities arising from these challenges, and management strategies for mangrove conservation.
Chapters (11)
Unlike other types of forests which are more spatially widespread and can be found on varied soil types, the mangrove swamp forests are restricted to sheltered coasts, islands, lagoons, estuaries and rivers on muddy substrates. As an ecosystem it is an important habitat for diverse wildlife, including fishes, shells and microbes and a number of specialized plant forms. It is also of great socio-economic importance as a hydrological regulator, playing an important role in flood mitigation, buffering against saline intrusion and waves. It is also an important source for fuelwood, timber resources and provides a variety of produce used by local inhabitants. Despite these values, mangrove swamp forests are rapidly being cleared, degraded and transformed to other land-uses, especially for agriculture, aquaculture, resettlement, industrial and ecotourism infrastructures. In view of the recognized values, it is urgent that more suitable areas are protected for not only the biodiversity conservation purposes but also as a special and unique forest type. In Malaysia, a working plan for the Matang mangrove forest reserve, Perak (fifth revision) provides a comprehensive overview of the management and conservation of the mangrove ecosystem in Malaysia, which could also be a model for other mangrove areas in other states for their protection and management. In the long term, systematic and holistic planning represent the best means of achieving sustainable mangrove swamp forest management by incorporating conservation principles and forestry objectives.
Abstract This paper attempts to review the distributions and rarity of Rhizophoraceae
in Peninsular Malaysia. Results presented were from plot studies (11
sites), random field surveys (3 sites) and previously published reports. The primary
data were from four sites in Johor (Belungkor Forest Reserve, Pulai Forest
Reserve, Santi Forest Reserve and Tanjung Piai), four in Langkawi (Ayer Hangat,
Sungai Kilim, Kisap Forest Reserve and Selat Tuba), two in Matang Forest Reserve
(Compartment 49 and VJR), one in Selangor (West Port, Klang), one in Terengganu
(Kuala Kemaman Forest Reserve), and one each in Melaka (Tanjung Tuan) and Negeri Sembilan (Port Dickson), respectively. Secondary data were obtained from
reports of studies at Sungai Merbok Forest Reserve in Kedah, Matang mangrove
forest in Perak, Sementa mangrove forest in Selangor, Kuala Sedili Forest Reserve,
Johor, Terengganu mangrove forest, Terengganu and also a general survey throughout
Peninsular Malaysia. All trees at 5 cm and above diameter were recorded in plot
studies. A total of seven species from the family Rhizophoraceae were sampled at
the study plots, the number of which ranged from two to six. The most common and
highly abundant species in the study siteswas Rhizophora apiculata with an estimated
total of 1,184 trees (51.2% of the total). Other abundant species were R. mucronata
(25.5 %) and Ceriops tagal (12.2 %). The less abundant and restricted species in the
study sites were Bruguiera cylindrica (3.80 %), B. gymnorrhiza (2.94 %), B. parviflora
(4.06 %) and B. sexangula (0.30 %). Rhizophora stylosa, Ceriops decandra,
Kandelia kandel and Bruguiera hainesii were only found from random surveys and
not in plot studies and are considered rare species. The Rhizophora x lamarckii and
R. x annamalayana are considered very rare and endangered and were only found
in Selat Kuah, Langkawi and Pulai Forest Reserve and Merbok Forest Reserve,
respectively.
Indonesia is an archipelagic country of more than 17,504 islands with the length of coastline estimated at 95,181 km, which bears mangroves from several meters to several kilometers. They grow extensively along the inner facing coastlines of most of the large islands and estuarine. They consist of various community types, either mixed or pure stands, mainly distributed in the five big islands (Jawa, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua). In 2009, the Agency of Survey Coordination and National Mapping (Republic of Indonesia) of Indonesia reported the existing mangrove forest area in Indonesia of about 3,244,018 ha; however, at 2007 the Directorate General of Land Rehabilitation and Social Forestry, Ministry of Forestry (Ditjen RLPS MoF) of Indonesia reported about 7,758,411 ha of mangrove area (including an existing vegetated mangrove area). It was further reported that of those mangroves 30.7 % were in good condition, 27.4 % moderately destroyed and 41.9 % heavily destroyed. There are at least five ministries responsible for mangrove resource allocation and management in Indonesia, in which the Ministry of Forestry has the major authority. Nowadays, two Bureaus of Mangrove Forest Management, the National Mangrove Working Group and the Local (Provincial and Regency/City) Mangrove Working Group, as well as the Presidential Decree (PerPres) No. 73/2012 regarding National Strategy of Mangrove Management have been setup to strengthen the sustainable mangrove forest management. Currently the Indonesian Government leases a 85,000-ha mangrove forest in Bintuni, Papua and 28,280 ha in Batu Ampar, West Kalimantan to three forest concessioner companies to be harvested using seed tree method silvicultural systems. To enhance the conservation focus as stated on the Presidential Decree (Kepres) No. 32/1990, the width of the mangrove green belt in any coastal area should be set up about 130 × annual average of the difference between the highest and lowest tides. In Indonesia some mangrove forests have been destroyed by various causes, mainly conversion to other uses. In order to recover the destroyed mangroves, the Indonesian Government (c.q. Ministry of Forestry and Ministry of Marine and Fishery) collaborated with stakeholders (domestic and international) and executed rehabilitation as well as restoration of those destroyed mangroves, either in or outside state forest area.
Thailand’s coastal zone is covered by rich mangrove forests that support a
vital ecosystem. The mangrove system provides food for the local people and nutrients
to the surrounding seas. Further, these forests protect the local environment by
acting like a green wall that reduces coastal erosion and helps reduce effects of heavy
waves and strong winds on the coast. Climate change will undoubtedly adversely affect
this ecosystem. Rising sea levels will impact the chemical and physical properties
of mangroves, resulting in harm of both plant and animal species. Mangrove forests in Thailand have already suffered destruction by intensive aquaculture encroachment
and urban area extension. The Thai government is implementing new strategies to
protect, preserve, and reforest certain areas; however, urbanization continues to release
detrimental heavy metal discharge into waterways. Continued accumulation of
these metals into the sediment will result in a long-term effect that will not be easily
mitigated. Mangrove trees are fast growing and can also serve as carbon sinks. The
impact of their ability to mitigate greenhouse effects when faced with toxic metal
discharge is unknown. Studies determining a mangrove forest’s ability to act as a
carbon sink, even under the negative impact of human activity, will be important to
preserve this ecosystem.
The Philippines has very rich biodiversity in terms of number and percentage. It is regarded as one of 17 mega biodiversity countries due to its geographical isolation, diverse habitats and high rates of endemism. It ranks fifth globally in terms of the number of plant species and maintains 5 % of the world’s flora. In mangroves alone, the country holds at least 50 % mangrove species of the world’s approximately 65 species. However, due to anthropogenic activities as well as natural disturbances, the country continues to lose its rich biodiversity resources including mangroves. This chapter revisits the status of Philippines’ mangroves, its current and future threats and analyzes the mechanisms on how various stakeholders put efforts to address those threats. We found out that while a number of successful conservation and restoration efforts have been made, there are still clear gaps on how different stakeholders can turn their commitments and initiatives into actions to conserve and rehabilitate Philippines’ mangrove for human well-being and sustainable development.
The protected areas of Sundarbans maintain a globally significant ecosystem and provide ideal habitats for aquatic resources (fish, shrimp), birds, and wildlife. The UNESCO World Heritage Committee declared the whole Sundarbans as its 798th heritage site including three wildlife sanctuaries in order to conserve all flora and fauna. The study area, covering an area of 139,700 ha, was surveyed in the year 2012-2013 by stratified systematic sampling. The sampling sites were previously stratified on the vegetation map depending on the available forest types. A total of 31 families with 63 species and 11,619 individuals were enumerated from the study site across all size classes of trees including non tree plants. Leguminosae was found to be a comparatively diverse family having ten species, and Euphorbiaceae was dominated by a large number of individuals. The plant species richness (herbs, shrubs, climbers, etc.) was predominantly confined to the streamside than the 'forest proper', and the mean of these two groups was statistically significant. Due to domination by a few species, the overall Shannon's value of the study area was only 2.19. Mean number of species significantly varied between the protected areas. Species accumulation curves did not follow regular fashion due to domination by few species. The cluster diagram has validated environmental factors to discriminate species composition in protected areas. All other stand parameters also varied. Results are compared with the few available studies. Management of the study area should incorporate research activities to determine successional change due to dynamic ecological process. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights reserved.
Mangrove is a plant community of salt tolerant plant species which grow within transitional or inter-tidal zones of coastal, estuary and riverine areas of tropical and subtropical regions where rivers drain into the sea. They are highly productive habitat for a variety of fauna such as birds, fishes, reptiles, amphibians, mammals and aquatic as well as terrestrial invertebrates. The occurrence of higher diversity of fauna could be due to richness of food resources and diversity of vegetation, i.e. they provide ideal foraging and breeding sites and also shelter for these wide array of animals. Mangrove fauna are an important component of the food web and play a significant role in the mangrove ecosystem. Unfortunately, despite such a richness in animal communities, mangrove areas are still declining at an alarming rate day by day due to human activities. The habitat loss has seriously caused threats to different mangrove dependent animals such as birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, i.e., extinct and critically endangered species. The current information on the various fauna such as reptiles, mammals, invertebrates and fishes in Asia’s mangrove ecosystem is not sufficient. In the future, more research is required to determine the various aspects of fauna such as species richness, diversity, distribution and the association of fauna with water quality, food resources and habitats to explore the ways and means to conserve the fauna in and around mangrove areas.
Mangrove forests occupy a relatively small area (1,300 ha) of the coastal zone of Timor-Leste, being composed of fringing stands of relatively few species (a total of 19 true mangrove species) inhabiting sand-dominated deposits in small lagoons along the south coast and sheltered embayments along the north coast. Despite their small size and disjunct distribution these mangroves are heavily used as a source of food, and wood for housing and fuel, and have been used as burial sites during past episodes of violence during occupation. Links between mangroves and fisheries offshore are uncertain, but it is clear that net canopy production is low, equivalent to the mangrove forests in other dry tropical zones. Timorese mangroves face a very uncertain future in light of their small, fragmented distribution, heavy human encroachment, and forecasted rise in sea level.
Mangroves are woody trees and shrubs which thrive in the inhospitable zone between land and sea along the tropical and subtropical coasts of the globe. Mangroves have made significant contributions to the economical status of the coastal communities of tropical regions for centuries, affording a large number of goods and services such as wood and timber production, salt production, support for commercial and subsistence fisheries, protection of shoreline from cyclones and typhoons and controlling coastal erosion. It has been estimated that the total mangrove area of the world was 137,760 km2 in 2000, and Asia occupies the largest mangrove covering area in the world. The mangrove forests of Asia are currently threatened by many human activities. Besides the overexploitation of mangrove ecosystems by human activities, climate changes pose serious impacts on Asian mangrove forests. The recent studies that have focused on various climate change components affecting the mangrove forests will be discussed in this chapter with special emphasis on Asian mangrove forests. The changes in the temperature, atmospheric CO2 concentration, precipitation, storms, ocean circulation patterns, hydrology (flows of tidal and fresh water within the mangrove ecosystem), sea level rise and anthropogenic activities are the major climate change components affecting the mangrove ecosystems of Asia. Damage of mangrove ecosystems caused by climate change will significantly affect the socio-economic lives of coastal communities of Asia. Climate change driven loss of the mangrove ecosystem also results in higher risk to human safety due to the loss of protection from coastal hazards such as flooding, soil erosion, storm waves and tsunami. Therefore, the immediate attention of biologists and ecologists is needed to protect the mangroves of the Asian coast lines as well as the world which are vulnerable to climate-change driven damage.
While mangroves are indigenous to northern New Zealand and an integral part of functioning estuaries, rapid expansion of mangrove forests has occurred in recent decades, resulting in widespread support for estuarine restoration projects focusing on mangrove removals. Mangrove expansion is primarily associated with changes in land-use that increase terrestrial sediment erosion and deposition into coastal and estuarine environments. Objectives for mangrove removal in northern New Zealand often include a desire by local residents to restore open estuary sandflat conditions in areas that have been colonised by mangroves since the 1950s, and reinstate the navigational, recreational and amenity value of these areas. However, the likelihood of successful restoration is rarely considered in consent decisions, and minimal information is available on long-term trends in ecosystem health from areas where mangroves were cleared. Here, we discuss methods of mangrove removal, and recovery trajectories at numerous mangrove removal sites to identify physical and biological attributes of sites that are associated with limited (or fast) recovery, and minimal adverse impacts. We also discuss cost-effective management strategies to manage further spread of mangroves in New Zealand. Within a challenging and politically vibrant topic, we are informing the 'mangrove debate' with science to create better outcomes for estuarine health. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights reserved.
Mangroves are tree-dominated ecosystems occupying intertidal areas in the tropics and subtropics. The mangrove communities and ecosystem functions are governed primarily by the interaction between flows of freshwater, sediments and nutrients from the landward side, and tidal flooding from the sea. For about two centuries, mangroves have been exploited and managed as forests, with practically no concern for their hydrology. Studies during the past 50 years have recognised them as wetlands, characterised by hydrology as the major determinant of their structure and function. Mangroves are well recognised for their high biodiversity and contribution to coastal fisheries. Yet, current approaches to their management, resource use, conservation or restoration continue to ignore the role of the freshwater component of their hydrology. This paper stresses upon the need to manage mangroves as wetlands, and the crucial role of, and therefore the necessity to pay attention to freshwater flows, for sustaining their biodiversity and ecosystem services.
... Mangroves are intertidal wetlands found along coastlines extending along the streams where the water is brackish (Faridah-Hanun et al., 2014) providing valuable ecosystem services (Bryan-Brown et al., 2020). They are an important area as a hatchery and nursery habitat for juveniles of fish and a large number of organisms like insects, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals live in this habitat (Bitantos et al., 2017). ...
... One factor that may contribute to these differences in the number of species per study station is the continuous destruction of mangrove forests as observed during sampling time. Accordingly, the main drivers of mangrove destruction and loss are population growth, economic development, and demand for cultivated seafood (Lee and Primavera, 2014) whereas, pond culture is responsible for 50% of mangrove loss in the Philippines and 50-80% in Southeast Asia (Faridah-Hanun et al., 2014;Macusi et al., 2022). In Davao City, as a highly urbanized area, these drivers are observed during sampling time such as large conversion to aquaculture specifically in the mangrove areas of Barangay Lanang, and construction of coastal highway, conversion to industry and settlement sites in all sampled Barangays. ...
... The general result in evaluating the abundance condition of regenerations was poor condition (<0.50) as shown by 33 species (97%) recorded, while only one species, Avicennia marina, had a fair condition with a general average evaluation value of 0.575. In South East Asia, over the past 60 years, a loss of 80% of mangrove area due to mangrove habitat clearance for coastal development, shrimp aquaculture, and others had led to species in many areas being locally extinct (Faridah-Hanun et al., 2014). This implies that the absence of some mangrove species in some parts of Davao City could be due to mangrove habitat clearances. ...
The decline of mangrove coverage across the Philippines to 50% of its original coverage in present years has, led to significant reductions of ecological functions to fisheries and benefits to man. The mangrove forest in Davao City was assessed for its taxonomic list, Importance Value Index, abundance and distribution of mangrove regenerations, forest structure, and species diversity status. The study was conducted in Barangay Bunawan, Lasang, Panacan, Matina Aplaya, 76-A, and Bago Aplaya. All data were gathered by establishing sampling plots (10m x 10m) using the modified transect-plot method. Overall, a total of 34 mangrove species were listed, of which 21 were identified as true mangroves and 13 as mangrove associates. The 21 mangrove species were very low in species richness (54%). Importance Value Index showed that Avicennia marina, Rhizophora apiculata, and Sonneratia alba, respectively, as dominant mangrove species. The mangrove regenerations were in poor condition (<0.50) while relative abundances of growth stages consisted of mature stands at 46.04%, saplings with 27.78%, and seedlings with 26.18%. General diversity indices obtained a low value on the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H'=1.42) and an average value on the species evenness index (E=0.61), all indicating stressful and unstable mangrove forests. Thus, the mangrove forest ecosystem has imbalances and eventually, only certain species would survive.
... Mangroves face inhospitable conditions stemming from high salinity, low oxygen, strong light intensity and powerful winds and, consequently, the vegetation associated with mangroves are known for their adaptive features, such as thick cuticles, salt-secreting glands, aerating roots ( Figure 1) and propagates through vivipary [2]. Mangroves are found in 123 countries in the world, mostly in the tropics and sometimes in temperate regions [3]. ...
... Phycology 2023, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 2 ygen, strong light intensity and powerful winds and, consequently, the vegetation associated with mangroves are known for their adaptive features, such as thick cuticles, saltsecreting glands, aerating roots ( Figure 1) and propagates through vivipary [2]. Mangroves are found in 123 countries in the world, mostly in the tropics and sometimes in temperate regions [3]. mangrove ecosystems. ...
... To question the ambiguity in cyanotoxin production in relation to N:P ratios and biological nitrogen fixation. 3. ...
In a paradigm shift in plastic wastes due to the COVID-19 pandemic, wetlands such as mangroves are threatened by a new form of pollution, plastics, on top of the eutrophication of estuar-ine waters due to nitrogen and phosphorus wastes/effluents that lead to cyanobacterial proliferation. Both plastic and nutrient pollution lead to prosperity of cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria that flourish in both and disperse leading to the detriment of fauna and flora in the mangrove ecosystem due to resulting toxicities. Although cyanotoxins are still a relatively poorly studied phenomenon in mangroves, their presence does create a focus of attention due to biofilm formation and the resultant flotation and sinking properties that are linked to cyanobacterial mats on plastic debris. Sri Lanka, being the first country in the world to conserve all its mangrove wetlands, does have a responsibility to prevent the invasion of plastics to this protected ecosystem, and binding with the Ramsar Convention, precluding plastic waste and their concomitant footprint, is a task at hand to the relative authorities. The path ahead mandates that we study the properties of plastics for cyanobacterial proliferation, biofilm formation, the fates of such plastics (flotation, dispersal and sinking), the cyanotoxin production changes that are attributed-or linked-to plastic pollution and the resultant impacts on mangrove ecosystems. Cyanotoxins are long-lived, and it is paramount that we find the necessary mechanisms to eliminate or curtail their production in mangrove ecosystems while establishing surveillance and monitoring of both the producers and the harmful agents. Cyanobacteria although vehicles for nitrogen fixation and replenishing of nutrients to an N-depleted ecosystem such as the mangroves, could lead to enhancements in cyanotoxins production. However , this phenomenon remains ambiguous and poorly studied in applied phycology in relation to mangroves. "New normal" plastics are lodged mostly on the surfaces of bark, prop roots, and pneumatophores, which are the localities where the highest level of new nitrogen is fixed, and this may lead to the proliferation of N-fixing, cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria, which may have repercussions on both flora and fauna of mangroves. Therefore, it is crucial that we monitor plastic pollution and find mechanisms for sanitizing plastics-imprinted mangroves to lessen the harmful footprint resulting from plastic overload.
... More specifically, the majority of large mangroves are distributed throughout the Andaman Sea in the southern region of Thailand, whereas mangroves in the Gulf of Thailand are fragmented and scattered from the eastern region toward the southern region [9]. The mangrove ecosystem represents a complex link between freshwater and saltwater [10]. Taxonomy of plants in mangroves is considered important research since they are the main components of the ecosystem [10]. ...
... The mangrove ecosystem represents a complex link between freshwater and saltwater [10]. Taxonomy of plants in mangroves is considered important research since they are the main components of the ecosystem [10]. Research on insects in mangrove forest ecosystems has focused on terrestrial insects, especially pests and beneficial insects of mangroves themselves, or attractive insects [11]. ...
... Although the Thai government has been strongly protecting the mangrove areas from deforestation and habitat degradation, the rate of habitat destruction still occurs to an excessive degree [10]. Furthermore, land alteration for agricultural purposes in mangrove areas in Thailand is still taking place at a rapid speed [38]. ...
The Gerromorpha assemblages in mangroves located in the central and eastern regions of Thailand were examined, and a total of nine species belonging to six genera and three families were discovered. Four of the recorded species are new records for Thailand. Asclepios annandalei Distant, 1915 was the most common species and widely distributed throughout the study area. The most diverse genus was Xenobates, which consisted of Xenobates argentatus Andersen, 2000, Xenobates mandai Andersen, 2000, Xenobates murphyi Andersen, 2000, and Xenobates singaporensis Andersen, 2000. Three of these species are new country records. Here, we present taxonomic and ecological information of mangrove gerromorphans in the central and eastern regions of Thailand.
... The total areal loss of mangrove forests in South America is 1360 km 2 between 1990 and 2020 ( Table 2). Among the Asian countries, Indonesia encountered the highest areal loss (more than 700 km 2 ) [38], while Malaysia experienced the highest loss in percentage (more than 3%) [66] between 2000 and 2010. Mangrove forests in Ramsar sites also encountered a substantial loss (5% of the global coverage) between 2000 and 2010 [59]. ...
... Aquaculture and agriculture were identified as the most dominant driver of global mangrove deforestation in our consolidated literature, accounting for approximately 47% loss of the global mangrove coverage [3,31,66]. Besides conversion of mangrove forests for fisheries and plantations, aquaculture and agriculture were associated with reduced ground water levels, and soil and water pollution from the effluents, which further intensified mangrove deforestation [123]. ...
... Besides conversion of mangrove forests for fisheries and plantations, aquaculture and agriculture were associated with reduced ground water levels, and soil and water pollution from the effluents, which further intensified mangrove deforestation [123]. For example, the mangrove habitat loss in Kenya during 2000-2010 was associated with soil and water pollution [124], caused by agricultural and aquacultural intensification [66,125]. Aquaculture and agriculture were also shown to be the main driver of loss for the CR and EN mangrove species [71,72]. ...
Globally, mangrove forests are substantially declining, and a globally synthesized database containing the drivers of deforestation and drivers’ interactions is scarce. Here, we synthesized the key social-ecological drivers of global mangrove deforestation by reviewing about two hundred published scientific studies over the last four decades (from 1980 to 2021). Our focus was on both natural and anthropogenic drivers with their gradual and abrupt impacts and on their geographic coverage of effects, and how these drivers interact. We also summarized the patterns of global mangrove coverage decline between 1990 and 2020 and identified the threatened mangrove species. Our consolidated studies reported an 8600 km² decline in the global mangrove coverage between 1990 and 2020, with the highest decline occurring in South and Southeast Asia (3870 km²). We could identify 11 threatened mangrove species, two of which are critically endangered (Sonneratia griffithii and Bruguiera hainseii). Our reviewed studies pointed to aquaculture and agriculture as the predominant driver of global mangrove deforestation though their impacts varied across global regions. Gradual climate variations, i.e., sea-level rise, long-term precipitation, and temperature changes and driven coastline erosion, salinity intrusion and acidity at coasts, constitute the second major group of drivers. Our findings underline a strong interaction across natural and anthropogenic drivers, with the strongest interaction between the driver groups aquaculture and agriculture and industrialization and pollution. Our results suggest prioritizing globally coordinated empirical studies linking drivers and mangrove deforestation and global development of policies for mangrove conservation.
... The total areal loss of mangrove forests in South America is 1360 km 2 between 1990 and 2020 ( Table 2). Among the Asian countries, Indonesia encountered the highest areal loss (more than 700 km 2 ) [38], while Malaysia experienced the highest loss in percentage (more than 3%) [66] between 2000 and 2010. Mangrove forests in Ramsar sites also encountered a substantial loss (5% of the global coverage) between 2000 and 2010 [59]. ...
... Aquaculture and agriculture were identified as the most dominant driver of global mangrove deforestation in our consolidated literature, accounting for approximately 47% loss of the global mangrove coverage [3,31,66]. Besides conversion of mangrove forests for fisheries and plantations, aquaculture and agriculture were associated with reduced ground water levels, and soil and water pollution from the effluents, which further intensified mangrove deforestation [123]. ...
... Besides conversion of mangrove forests for fisheries and plantations, aquaculture and agriculture were associated with reduced ground water levels, and soil and water pollution from the effluents, which further intensified mangrove deforestation [123]. For example, the mangrove habitat loss in Kenya during 2000-2010 was associated with soil and water pollution [124], caused by agricultural and aquacultural intensification [66,125]. Aquaculture and agriculture were also shown to be the main driver of loss for the CR and EN mangrove species [71,72]. ...
Globally mangrove forests are substantially declining and a globally synthesized database of the drivers of deforestation and drivers’ interaction is scarce. Here we synthesized the key social-ecological drivers of global mangrove deforestation by reviewing about two hundred published scientific studies over the last four decades (from 1980 to 2021). Our focus was on both natural and anthropogenic drivers with gradual and abrupt impacts and their geographic ranges of effects and how these drivers interact. We also summarized the patterns of global mangrove coverage decline between 1990 and 2020 and identified the threatened mangrove species and their geographic ranges. Our consolidated studies reported a 8,600 km2 decline in the global mangrove coverage between 1990 and 2020 with the highest decline occurring in South and Southeast Asia (3870 km2). We could identify 11 threatened mangrove species, two of which are critically endangered (Sonneratia griffithii and Bruguiera hainseii). Our reviewed studies pointed to aquaculture and agriculture as the predominant driver of global mangrove deforestation though the spatial distribution of their impacts varied. Gradual climate variations, i.e. seal-level rise, long-term precipitation and temperature changes and driven coastline erosion, constitute the second major group of drivers. Our findings underline a strong interaction across natural and anthropogenic drivers with the strongest interaction between the driver groups aquaculture and agriculture and industrialization and pollution. Our results suggest prioritizing globally coordinated empirical studies linking drivers and mangrove changes and a global development of policies for mangrove conservation.
... Mangrove vegetation, as commonly observed, primarily consists of dicotyledonous woody shrubs or trees, and these species predominantly thrive within the tropical regions of the world (Md Isa and Suratman, 2021). In the study by Faridah-Hanum et al. (2014), it is highlighted that mangroves are primarily distributed in the states of Perak, Kedah, and Johor in Malaysia, with additional smaller mangrove areas found in Pahang, Terengganu, and Kelantan. Japar Sidik's research, as cited in Faridah-Hanum et al. (2014), indicates that Malaysia houses a total of 38 distinct mangrove species, comprising 57 non-exclusive species and nine related species. ...
... In the study by Faridah-Hanum et al. (2014), it is highlighted that mangroves are primarily distributed in the states of Perak, Kedah, and Johor in Malaysia, with additional smaller mangrove areas found in Pahang, Terengganu, and Kelantan. Japar Sidik's research, as cited in Faridah-Hanum et al. (2014), indicates that Malaysia houses a total of 38 distinct mangrove species, comprising 57 non-exclusive species and nine related species. Furthermore, in a separate study by Giesen et al. (2006), a total of 42 true mangrove species were identified. ...
This study aims to provide a preliminary checklist of true mangroves in the Balok river, Kuantan Pahang. Three samples were collected for each plant species. The plants collected fulfil the requirement of having roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruit with no or minimal damage. These samples were pressed, dried, and affixed onto herbarium sheets and processed as herbarium vouchers by using the standard herbarium technique. These vouchers were then carefully catalogued and placed at, the Herbarium Department of Plant Science, International Islamic University Malaysia. Our research successfully identified and recorded a total of 16 true mangrove species where Rhizophora mucronata and Rhizophora apiculata were identified as common species. The findings from this study contribute significant potential for aiding future academic inquiries along with the conservation efforts of the Balok River mangrove ecosystem.
... The main determinant behind the destruction of mangrove forests on a global scale is the socio-economic factor. The complexity of balancing socio-economic needs and environmental concerns (Faridah-Hanum et al., 2014) becomes even more challenging in countries where mangroves are abundant, such as Bangladesh, as the management of mangrove resources and conservation efforts are overseen by numerous government agencies that often have imbrication or inconsistent objectives and responsibilities (Choong et al., 1990). For instance, Indonesia, home to Asia's largest mangrove forest, has implemented a comprehensive system of more than 22 laws and 18 agencies dedicated to conserving these valuable ecosystems. ...
... In addition, policy challenges and ineffective approaches impede reconciliation between different government departments, stakeholders, and forestreliant communities in improving livelihoods and the mangrove conservation process. However, in order to effectively preserve and oversee mangrove forests in a sustainable manner, it is essential to adopt a comprehensive, cooperative, and integrated approach that encompasses multiple sectors and considers the broader landscape at both the national and regional levels, in line with established policies (Faridah-Hanum et al., 2014). The following discourse pertains to various significant nations with extensive mangrove habitats, emphasising the urgent need for their conservation efforts. ...
The sole home for the iconic Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris), the Sundarbans mangrove forest, 5 is now confronting multi-layered threats. This paper aims to analyse the existing integration 6 approaches to conserve the invaluable wild species of the Sundarbans mangrove forest and 7 critically evaluate the pragmatism and challenges of the integration approaches, such as in-8 situ and ex-situ methods, and the role of development partners, which include non-9 governmental organisations (NGOs) and other actors. This study finds that tree cover 10 substantially increased by only 4% in the Sundarbans mangrove forest, whereas various 11 forms of mangrove forest degradation are prevalent. The vulnerability of the wildlife 12 sanctuaries, national parks, captive breeding centres, Ecologically Critical Areas (ECAs), 13 eco-parks, and wildlife and game reserves also raises questions regarding the preservation of 14 wild species. Yet, many local and foreign-run NGOs are launching numerous projects to 15 conserve the Sundarbans mangrove forest and improve the livelihood of coastal forest-reliant 16 communities.
... Eksploitasi sumberdaya mangrove di 4 sektor utama seperti perikanan, pertanian, pembangunan infrastruktur dan vegetasi rendah juga menjadi penyebab banyaknya deforestasi hutan magrove (Arifanti, 2020). Adapun aktivitas perikanan dan pertanian diketahui menjadi penyebab utama terjadinya penurunan luasan hutan mangrove (Faridah et al., 2014 (Rahman et al., 2024). Alih fungsi hutan mangrove menjadi lahan tambak juga relatif kecil ditemukan di Kabupaten Lombok Barat dan Lombok Timur. ...
... Trait coordination across species and between groups This study is based on a comprehensive dataset of leaf traits collected from 38 mangrove species, representing most species found in China 24 and the most widespread mangrove species across the Asia-Pacific region 25 . The sampling sites spanned subtropical and tropical regions, extending over 20,000 hectares and 935 km north to south 24 . ...
The leaf economics spectrum (LES) has been proposed as a framework for understanding leaf resource-investment and plant growth strategies, but it is scarcely examined in mangrove communities. This study investigates LES patterns in mangrove communities to examine whether the trait coordination spectrum, if it exists, is associated with plant growth strategies. By conducting a comprehensive sampling across a wide range of mangrove species in China, we confirmed the presence of LES across mangrove species, and found that true mangroves generally exhibit a more conservative strategy characterized by higher leaf mass per area (LMA) and lower leaf nutrient concentrations compared to mangrove associates. We also observed considerable intraspecific variation in traits, particularly in LMA. In some cases, fast-growing species exhibited higher LMA and lower leaf nutrient concentrations than slow-growing species. Fast-growing species also showed higher leaf thickness than slow-growing species, but no difference in leaf density between them, suggesting that LMA composition is important in understanding trait coordination and its link with plant growth strategies in mangrove communities. Our findings highlight a complex link between trait coordination and plant growth strategies in mangrove species.
... alon (PVC) sebagai pelindung dapat membantu. Paralon ini berfungsi mengurangi dampak guncangan akibat gelombang, sehingga bibit mangrove dapat bertahan dan tumbuh dengan baik hingga akarnya kuat menancap pada substrat. Pendekatan ini memastikan keberhasilan penanaman mangrove di lingkungan yang memiliki tantangan fisik dari gelombang laut yang kuat(Faridah- Hanum et. al,. 2013).2.2. Zona Intertidal yang pendek (Sempit) akibat reklamasi PantaiKematian anakan mangrove di lapangan salah satunya penyebabnya adalah penanaman yang tidak memperhatikan zona intertidal atau zona pasang-surut. Penanaman dilakukan pada kedalaman laut 150 cm pasang tertinggi sedangkan anakan mangrove yang ditanam tinggi ratarata sebesar ...
This study evaluates the success and failure of mangrove rehabilitation in Inner Ambon Bay, focusing on environmental factors, planting techniques, and habitat conditions. The research was conducted over 12 months, from May 2022 to April 2023, using descriptive quantitative and qualitative methods. Primary data were collected through field observations and interviews, while secondary data from relevant institutions were analyzed using Survival Rate and Growth Rate formulas. Out of 1,260 planted mangrove seedlings, only 29 survived, yielding a success rate of 2.3%. Failure factors include inadequate substrate, narrow intertidal zones due to reclamation, and wave disturbances. Proposed solutions include substrate modification, species zoning adjustments, and mechanical protection for seedlings. These findings highlight the importance of ecologically integrated approaches in mangrove rehabilitation programs to ensure long-term success.
... The country is considered to be an extremely diverse and carbon-rich mangrove forest. It is home to approximately 29 mangrove species (Garcia et al. 2014) and stores seven percent of the global carbon stocks (Chatting et al. 2022). The possibility of mangrove loss and post-typhoon mangrove assessment is an invaluable study that sheds light on the impact of typhoon events on mangroves. ...
Raising global climate change has increased the frequency and severity of typhoons, posing a serious threat to mangroves and the well-being of coastal communities. These typhoons contribute to a loss of 10% of the mangrove cover each year, but little attention has been paid to the impact of typhoons on mangroves in Southeast Asia. This study fills this knowledge gap by assessing the aftermath of Typhoon Rai and its impact on mangroves and livelihoods in Palawan, Philippines. Sentinel-2 satellite images were utilized to conduct a normalized difference vegetation index analysis and compare vegetation conditions before (2021) and after the typhoon (2022). In addition, household survey interviews involving 266 household heads and key informant interviews with 12 entities responsible for mangrove management were conducted to assess their impact on livelihood. Focus group discussions and field visits were conducted to validate and supplement the collected data. The results showed significant changes in mangrove cover between the pre-typhoon and post-typhoon periods. Dense mangrove areas have experienced a decline of about -96% (-15,091.1 hectares), while sparse and bare mangrove areas have declined by 1,650 % (13,605.1 hectares) and 192% (1,485.8 hectares), respectively. Following mangrove changes, ecosystem goods and services have also changed. Mangrove-dependent households experienced a decline in the yields of shrimp, crabs, mangrove clams/clams, mangrove snails, sea cucumbers, and nipa (Nypa fruiticans), and a decline in ecotourism businesses. In particular, there was an increase in the yield of woodworms (tamilok), the felling and collection of mangrove wood/poles, recreational/tourism activities, and research initiatives. Nevertheless, total revenue from mangrove resources decreased by about 50%, a loss of PHP 77,8560 (USD 1,406) compared to pre-typhoon levels in 2021, amounting to PHP 154,886.90 (US$2,796.15) on average. Although some communities recognize typhoon-related mangrove operations, household participation remains low. This study highlights the need for targeted mangrove interventions, particularly in denuded areas, to accelerate recovery and mitigate losses to mangrove ecosystems and livelihoods. Additionally, providing livelihood support to households that lack coping strategies can help stabilize their income until mangrove ecosystem services are restored.
... Sebaran ekosistem mangrove tersebut berada di wilayah yang dipengaruhi oleh pasang surut air laut sehingga sering ditemukan di wilayah pesisir. Genus mangrove di Asia umumnya berasal dari sonneratia, avicennia, rhizopora, dan bruguiera serta membentuk hamparan zonasi yang diikuti nypa dan tumbuhan pesisir lainnya (Hanum et al., 2014) dengan susunan seperti Gambar 2. ...
ABSTRACT This research aims to analyze mangrove economic values in in Lantebung Makassar City as one of tourism destinations. The mangrove area was assessed by the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of the Sentinel 2A satellite image, acquired on June 8, 2020. Direct use value (DUV), indirect use value (IUV) and optional value (OV) of Mangrove' ecosystem were carried out using the benefits transfer approach. This approach refers to previous research and employs consumer price index as an adjustment factor. This research was conducted on August 2022. The results present that mangrove area was 103.35 Ha with value of DUV, IUV and OV was Rp10.3 billion/year, Rp31.4 billion/year and Rp242 million/year, repectively. The spatial planning of Lantebung was mangrove area, acted on Presidential Regulation No. 55 of 2011. The total economic value of around Rp42 billion/year should be considered on the revisions of spatial planning when integrating marine and land spatial planning in accordance to the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 11 of 2020 on Job Creation. Should the Government of Makassar City changed the allocation of mangrove space to another use, they must consider the current TEV of mangroves. Had the government preserved the allocation of mangrove space, it is necessary to regulate the limitation activities in mangrove areas, residential areas, and industrial areas which directly adjacent to mangroves. In addition, the TEV can be the basis of calculations on the compensation for mangrove damage in the Lantebung Tourism Area.
... Indonesi a is an archipelago nation made up of over 17,504 islands, has a coastline that extends to 95,181 km, and a sea area that covers more than 70% of its total territory [1]. With a population estimated to exceed 242 million people in 2006, it is known that around 60% of Indonesia's population lives along coastal areas [2]. ...
Bawean Island displays significant natural potential with abundant natural resources and natural beauty that is attractive for tourism and industrial development. However, this potential is threatened by various environmental and socioeconomic problems such as limited availability of clean water, erosion of coastal structures, accumulation of rubbish, economic challenges, and low levels of community education. To overcome these challenges, an integrated and sustainable approach is needed that involves the government, community, and other related parties in sustainable natural resource management and considers ecological, economic, and social aspects. Systematic analysis is carried out to understand the potential of coastal natural resources and the problems that threaten the ecosystem. An integrated and sustainable approach is needed, involving collaboration between government, society, and related parties. The integration of new technologies, including renewable energy technologies, was identified as a potential solution to several specific problems, such as waste management and clean water supply. An integrated and sustainable approach is analyzed by involving collaboration between government, society, and related parties. With collaboration and a deep understanding of the challenges and potential of Bawean Island, it is hoped that a sustainable coastal ecological balance can be achieved for the welfare of the environment and local communities.
... Despite being significant in providing substantial ecosystem services and functions (Nagelkerken et al. 2008, Lee et al. 2014, Latiff & Faridah-Hanum 2014, Serafy et al. 2015, most of the mangrove forests in the world are subjected to various degrees of disturbance, including agriculture, aquaculture, building of port facilities, and industrial areas (UNEP 1994, Bryan-Brown et al. 2020) and globally, up to 35% of mangroves have been lost since the 1980s, (Curnick et al. 2019). Consequently, mangroves are experiencing rapid degradation as a result of human activities which have been recognized as major causes of biodiversity loss and disturbance in coastal habitats (Nagelkerken et al. 2008). ...
Mangrove forests are critical ecosystems that require conservation and restoration efforts to mitigate global logging trends, shoreline ingression and sea level rise. Using bioacoustic approach, this study assessed the diel acoustic patterns of four mangroves of varying ages, size and habitat gradients in Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Twenty bioacoustic audio recorders were set up in Telok Gong, Kapar Tambahan, Banjar Utara Forest Reserves, and Kuala Selangor Nature Park, for 30 min at each hour for 24 hours and seven days, to collect acoustic data of these soundscapes. Almost all the measured acoustic indices, especially Acoustic Complexity, Acoustic Diversity, and Normalized Difference Soundscape Indices, exhibited similar temporal patterns with a peak at the beginning of dawn and dusk. Differences in soundscapes among the study sites may potentially reflect the conditions of the mangroves which requires further investigation. Through bioacoustics approach, this study demonstrated the potential of using acoustic indices as indicators of mangrove health which may aid in monitoring the success or progress of mangrove restoration projects in the future.
... The mangrove ecosystem along the north coast of Java , the coastal areas of Jakarta Bay, the waters of Batam (Rizki et al., 2017), Sulawesi (Analuddin et al., 2023), the coast of Kalimantan (Sukarna and Syahid, 2015), and the coasts of Papua and West Papua (Rumahorbo et al., 2020;Sasmito et al., 2020) has been damaged. Likewise, mangrove degradation has occurred in several other countries, such as New Zealand (Faridah-Hanum et al., 2014), Thailand, India, and other Asian countries (Mitra, 2013;Nortey et al., 2016). ...
Coastal communities are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. This study aimed to review the impact of land use change and mangrove degradation on coastal areas and analyze the problems and strategies of mangrove management in Indonesia. Journal data sources were obtained from the Scopus and Google Scholar databases. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method was used in the study. The results indicate that economic activities such as mining, industry, and ponds are the main cause of mangrove damage, which in turn leads to increased disasters, CO2 emissions, and decreased community income. To address this issue, mangrove management strategies that take into account social, economic, and environmental factors are necessary. Successful mangrove restoration requires increased inclusion, community capacity, budgeting, and stakeholder involvement. Government policies regulating sustainable spatial planning, law enforcement, and institutional frameworks are crucial components of mangrove management. The study's results are expected to serve as the foundation for developing sustainable coastal management strategies that enhance the safety of coastal communities from disasters and improve their welfare.
... Indonesia and Malaysia experienced the greatest loss and fragmentation of mangroves globally [1]. Between 1989 and 2009, mangrove areas in Indonesia decreased by 20%, with an annual average deforestation rate of 2% [2] [3]. Segara Anakan Lagoon (SAL) is representative of the degraded mangrove forest on Indonesia's most populous island, Java. ...
The Segara Anakan Lagoon (SAL) is a prominent estuarine mangrove ecosystem located in Java, which is recognised as the most densely populated island in Indonesia. SAL is a degraded mangrove forest due to the encroachment of mangrove edge ecotone species such as Nypa frutican (NF), as well as the proliferation of understory communities including Derris trifoliata and Acanthus spp. within the interior of the forest. Nevertheless, there has been a scarcity of research conducted on this particular phenomenon. The present study employed a land-use/cover change model to examine the following inquiries pertaining to the expansion of these communities: 1) What factors contributed to the expansion of the community?, and 2) What are the projected patterns of future community expansion? Various statistical models were employed to conduct a causal analysis in order to assess the factors influencing driving factors. The multi-temporal mangrove maps from the previous study were used as input data for the model. Explanatory variables used in the model included environmental data, such as multi-temporal maps depicting the coastline of the lagoon, distances to the shoreline and river mouth, as well as the lagoon outlet. Additionally, multi-temporal maps representing ground elevation were also incorporated. The Conversion of Land Use and its Effects at Small Regional Extent (CLUE-S) dynamic model was employed to forecast the extent of land spreading. The dynamic model was executed utilising the provided statistical model as the input. The land-use/cover change (LULCC) library package was employed to execute all procedures in R. The results indicated that alterations in ground elevation and shoreline played a significant role in influencing the spread of NF and understory, as well as the displacement of mangrove tree, articularly in the western region of the study area. According to the prediction model, it was forecasted that the invasion would persist unless the influencing factors including sedimentation and salinity state were effectively controlled.
... It is crucial to draw attention to this issue since it is a crucial component of our responsibility to safeguard the environment. Moreover, this issue is essential in promoting public awareness since mangroves protect maritime environments' ecosystems (Latiff and Faridah-Hanum, 2014;Omar, Misman, and Linggok, 2018). Mangrove forests have a bad reputation due to perceived environmental disservices, such as being home to dangerous animal species and disease vectors (Friess et al., 2020). ...
Forty different mangrove species found their home in Sungai Merbok, Sungai Petani, Kedah, the highest among other mangrove ecosystems in Malaysia. This region is notable for its magnificent landscape and also rich environment, which the United Nations have recognised as one of the world's few significant biospheres. However, several species, particularly in Merbok, are threatened. Therefore, the objective of this project is to identify the mangrove species as the main bio-inspiration for the digital design patterns and to provide awareness of mangrove preservation and environmental sustainability. This research used an approach of pragmatic qualitative analysis to achieve the research outcomes.
... Mangrove Forest Avicennia germination L., Sonneratia caseolaris L., and Rhizophora apiculata are the three different types of mangrove species identified during primary data collection. Rhizophora apiculata is known as the most common native mangrove species in Malaysia (Faridah-Hanum et al., 2014;Kanniah et al., 2015). It lives in large groups on the thick, soft mud of estuaries flooded by high tides. ...
Natural attractions and distinctive geographical settings make the coastal environment a promising opportunity for economic and social development. However, coastal areas are susceptible to environmental change, as the recent event shows that sea level rise has damaged Kelanang Beach. Controlling and minimizing the damage caused by sea level rise in the coastal zone is important for the area's benefit and long-term survival. Coastal protection strategies are essential to the survival of coastal ecosystems and the communities that rely on them. This study proposes coastal protection strategies in sustainable landscape design for Kelanang Beach, Selangor. The study entails the collection of primary data through site observation, in addition to the collection of secondary data which both compiled in the stage of site inventory, analysis, and map synthesis. The proposed design focuses on three main areas: the Kelanang Beach area, the glamping site area, and the mangrove trail area. The aesthetic value and practicality of these areas are highlighted through the design process including a zoning diagram, functional diagram, spatial diagram, design idea plan, and master plan proposal. Coastal protection strategies suggested in the master plan proposal include the integration of hard and soft strategies such as breakwater, planting buffer, and mangrove replanting. The design emphasized vegetation richness to stabilize the beach embankment and maintain the coastal line in the near future. This master plan idea is one of the landscape planning mechanisms to develop coastal areas while strengthening positive symbiotic relationships between local residents, tourists, and the natural environment.
... Mangrove ecosystem is a transitional land and sea which is very vulnerable to environmental changes, such as land-use conversion and climate changerelated threats, including sea-level rise [2]. A promising approach to be developed in facing threats to mangrove ecosystems is the development of mangrove ecotourism [3]. Ecotourism is a form of conservation-oriented natural tourism development that is responsibly managed naturally [4]. ...
... Sehubungan dengan manfaat ekologis dan ekonomis yang penting tersebut, ekosistem hutan mangrove sebagai ekosistem produktif di wilayah pesisir dan lautan sudah selayaknya untuk dipertahankan keberadaan dan kualitasnya. (2004); Hanum et al. (2004); serta Saint-Paul dan Schneider (2010) yang menyatakan bahwa mangrove merupakan sekelompok tumbuhan yang berbeda satu sama lain, namun memiliki kesamaan dalam adaptasi morfologi dan fisiologi terhadap habitat yang dipengaruhi oleh pasang surut air laut. A u t h o r ' s P e r s o n a l C o p y b y I P B ...
Buku ini berisi tentang penjelasan teknis pengenalan vegetasi mangrove dan pengelolaaannya. Informasi jenis sangat berperan dalam menentukan strategi pengelolaan karena berkaitan dengan eksistensi fungsi ekologi mangrove.
... There still remains the issue of how to address mangrove health. With the remaining mangroves left in Peninsular Malaysia at approximately 97,500 ha (Latiff and Faridah-Hanum, 2014), the development of the MQI could be a way forward to determine mangrove health and provide solutions to rectify disturbances and take effective mitigation measures to protect the resource sustainability. Additionally, the MQI could be a useful tool for managers to employ for decision making in matters pertaining to the mangroves such as the intensity of rehabilitation, aquaculture project considerations and extent of resources' protection. ...
... Ancaman degradasi ekosistem mangrove terjadi di beberapa Negara Asia yang disebabkan karena berbagai tekanan aktivitas masyarakat (Faridah, 2015). Degradasi dan perubahan penggunaan kawasan mangrove sangat berdampak terhadap kerusakan ekosistem mangrove (Hasidu et al., 2020;Hasidu et al., 2021a). ...
: Ekosistem mangrove memiliki potensi yang cukup besar dalam menyerap emisi karbon dari atmosfer. Karbon tersebut mampu tersimpan di dalam biomassa maupun sedimen, dan dikenal sebagai blue carbon. Meskipun demikian, degradasi mangrove dapat mengganggu potensi tersebut. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui struktur komunitas, biomassa permukaan (AGB), simpanan karbon biru vegetasi mangrove, serta kemampuan serapan karbon ekosistem mangrove yang telah mengalami degradasi di sepanjang pesisir Kabupaten Kolaka. Ekosistem mangrove di kawasan tersebut merupakan mangrove tepian (Fringe Mangrove), dan ketebalannya kurang dari 100 meter. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode transek kuadrat sejajar garis pantai. Sebanyak 5 plot berukuran 100m2 diletakkan disepanjang transek. Data yang dikoleksi di setiap plot berupa diameter batang (dbh), jenis, dan jumlah jenis. AGB diestimasi menggunakan persamaan allometrik yang telah dikembangkan oleh beberapa peneliti terdahulu. Sementara itu stok karbon diestimasi menggunakan data AGB dan konstanta karbon dari bahan organik. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ekosistem mangrove di pesisir Kolaka tersusun atas 8 spesies mangrove. Kerapatan mangrove tertinggi berturut-turut stasiun 3 (2180 ind/ha; kategori baik), stasiun 4 (2160 ind/ha; kategori baik), stasiun 1 (1520 ind/ha; kategori baik), dan stasiun 2 (1160 ind/ha; kategori sedang). Total AGB untuk seluruh stasiun sebesar 1242,29 ton/ha dengan AGB tertinggi pada stasiun 4 (455,58 ton/ha). Total stok karbon vegetasi mangrove untuk seluruh stasiun yaitu sebesar 583,85 ton/ha, dengan stok karbon tertinggi terdapat pada stasiun 4 (214,11 ton/ha). Sementara itu, total serapan karbon untuk seluruh stasiun sebesar 1362,46 ton/ha, dengan serapan karbon tertinggi terdapat pada stasiun 4 (499,65 ton/ha). Nilai AGB berbanding lurus dengan nilai stok karbon dan serapan karbon. Mangrove ecosystem has a great potential to absorb carbon emission from atmosphere. Those carbon could be stored into the biomass as well as into the sediment, and it’s well known as blue carbon. Nevertheless, mangrove degradation could disturb those mangrove potential. The aims of this study were to knows the community structure, aboveground biomass (AGB), blue carbon stocks of mangrove vegetation, as well as the ability of carbon absorbtion of degraded mangrove ecosystem along Kolaka Coastal Line. The mangrove ecosystem at those areas was a fringe mangrove, and the mangrove thickness less than 100 meters. This study using quadratic transect method prependicular to the coastal line. 5 plots sized 100m2 were placed along transect line. The data were collected in each plot were stem diameter (dbh), species and total of species. The AGB were estimated using allometric equation that has been developed by previous researcher. Meanwhile, the carbon stock was estimated by using the AGB data and carbon constant value from organic matter. The results of this study showed that mangrove ecosystem of Kolaka coastal line constructed by 8 mangrove species. The highest mangrove density were station 3 (2180 ind/ha; good category), station 4 (2160 ind/ha; good category), station 1 (1520 ind/ha; good category), and station 2 (1160 ind/ha; medium category) respectively. The AGB total for all stations was about 1242,29 ton/ha, with the highest AGB was in the station 4 (455,58 ton/ha). The total of carbon stock of mangrove vegetation for all stations was about 583,85 ton/ha, with the highest carbon stock was in the station 4 (214,11 ton/ha). Meanwhile, the total of carbon absorbtion for all stations was about 1362,46 ton/ha, with the highest carbon absorbtion was in the station 4 (499,65 ton/ha). The AGB values has directly proportional to the carbon stock and carbon absorbtion.
... Mangrove forests form pure and mixed stands along the shorelines of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, which cover almost 19,700 ha. Among the six countries of the region (i.e., Iran, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain), Iran ranks first in total mangrove area (approximately 47%) [14,17,18]. Mangrove spatial distribution is one of the first quantitative characteristics influenced by natural and anthropogenic threats. ...
Mangrove forests distributed along the coast of southern Iran are an important resource and a vital habitat for species communities and the local people. In this study, accurate mapping and spatiotemporal change detection were conducted on Iran’s mangroves for three decades, using the Landsat imagery available for the years 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020. Four general vegetation indices andeightmangrove-specificindiceswereemployedformangrovemappinginthreestudysites. Additionally, six important landscape metrics were implemented to quantify the spatiotemporal alteration ofthemangroveforestsduringthestudyperiod. Ourresultsshowedtherobustnessofthesubmerged mangrove recognition index (SMRI), validated as the most effective index (AUCmangrove ≥ 0.96), which was used for mangrove identification within all nine sites. The mangrove area of southern Iran was estimated at approximately 13,000 ha in 2020, with an overall increase of 2313 ha over the whole period. A similar trend could be observed for both the landscape connectivity and complexity. Our results revealed that a stronger connectivity and higher complexity could be detected in most sites,whiletherewasincreasedfragmentationandaweakerconnectioninsomelocations. Thisstudy provides an accurate map of Iran’s mangrove forests over time and space
... Governmental and non-governmental organisations worldwide are showing greater commitment to the sustainable use of mangrove areas. As the Malaysia Forestry Departments realised the importance of mangrove resources to the communities, they began to take steps towards forest protection and conservation by allocating some mangrove swamp forests as forest reserves, such as Virgin Forest Reserves, and efficiently managing them based on good forestry management practices (Wood, 2019;Anwar and Ibrahim, 2014). For example, a coastal mangrove forest reserve in Selangor state is found mainly along the coastline of Sabak Bernam, Kuala Selangor, Klang, Kuala Langat and Sepang. ...
... In the red mangrove model, however, the importance of distance to shoreline outweighed that of main creeks, indicating that red mangroves are more likely to distribute along the shoreline. In agreement with our findings, Faridah-Hanum et al. (2013) showed that in multi-species mangrove forests, Rhizophora species occupy the seaward side of mangrove patches to experience a longer tidal inundation period whereas Avicennia species, have a greater ability to occupy regions with differing environmental conditions, such as short inundation times. Similar findings were also reported by Alshawafi et al. (2016) and Barreto et al. (2016). ...
In southern Iran, Sirik Estuary hosts the only two-species (Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia marina) mangrove forest in the northwesternmost edge of the Indian Ocean mangrove distribution. Aiming to protect its forest reserve and compensate for inevitable losses, this study utilized habitat suitability modeling (the Maxent model) to identify suitable afforestation zones for each species, independently. The model was calibrated using the location of successfully established mangrove saplings as presence points and an array of physical and sediment physio-chemical layers as predictive variables. The model yielded an acceptable training AUC value of 0.963 for A.marina and 0.982 for R.mucronata. Moreover, physical variables had the highest contribution to predicting suitable habitats with different levels of importance for each species. The majority of A.marina suitable habitats were distributed along the in-estuary creek banks, creating mangrove-lined waterways while the R.mucronata suitable habitats were mostly distributed at the base of the main water creeks in the seaward reaches of the estuary. According to the Mann–Whitney U test results, there was a statistically significant spatial niche segregation (z = − 12.14, p = 0.000, sig ≤ .05, 2-tailed) between the species’ suitable habitats. The results showed that white mangroves tend to create mangrove-line structures along the water creeks penetrating inside the estuary while red mangroves mostly prefer the seaward side of the existing mangrove patches which are in danger of sea level rise.
Graphical abstract
... Arboretums need to be established for endangered species in three saline areas of the Sundarbans. Limited knowledge about mangrove distributions and species habitat requirements has squeezed the victory of safeguarding initiatives in many countries (Lewis, 2005), as well as Bangladesh (Islam et al. 2014). Unless suitable adaptation approaches are executed, the climate change-related environmental deviations will perhaps cause severe multidimensional influences to our eco-socio-economic circumstances, manipulating coastal habitats, facilities and health. ...
The mangrove biodiversity declination is a source of concern to researchers around the world. The biodiversity of the Sundarbans is declining day by day like all the forests of Bangladesh.
This study will provide you with a brief overview of the significant surveys of the Sundarbans from 1892 to 2016. It will also be possible to find out the reasons behind the destruction of biodiversity in the Sundarbans. A brief suggestion of what steps we should take to protect biodiversity is discussed.
... The mangrove forests in Malaysia are very extensive and in Malaysia they are the sources of charcoal, firewood, and poles. The most notable plants are species of Rhizophora, Ceriops, Aegiceras, Bruguiera, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Xylocarpus, Intsia bijuga, Brownlowia argentata that form the 104 species of exclusive mangroves, non-exclusive species and also those associated with the mangrove swamp forests (Latiff and Faridah-Hanum, 2013). Two common species of ferns are Acrostichum aureum and A. speciosum (Parkeriaceae). ...
This is the first volume in the new multi-volume set, Global Biodiversity. Each volume in this series aims to provide insightful information on the biodiversity of selected nations in particular regions. The volumes summarize the available data on both wild and cultivated plants, wild and domesticated animals, and microbes of the different nations.
The first chapter in the volume provides an informative overview of what is biodiversity along with biogeographic classifications. It provides explanations of biodiversity patterns and species number; biodiversity conservation, protection, and international commitments and cooperation; biodiversity threats and drivers of change (such as human population growth, climate change, land use change); and the economics of biodiversity as well.
Volume 1: Selected Countries in Asia provides an abundance of
biodiversity information on Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia,
Iran, Iraq, Japan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mongolia (page 351-394), Myanmar, Nepal, and Vietnam. (119 color and 2 b/w illustrations. 548 pages with index.)
An assessment on tree stand structure and mangrove plant diversity was conducted in Pulau Semut, Pulau Busung, and Pulau Tok Haji of Setiu Lagoon, Terengganu. Three 100 m×20 m plots were randomly set up at study sites. The trees were enumerated, identified and measured for their stem diameter in each plot. 18 species representing 11 families, including 13 exclusive and 5 non-exclusive mangrove species were recorded. Rhizophora apiculata from Rhizophoraceae dominated with the highest Important Value (IVI) of 89.49 (1491 individuals). This forest comprise mainly young trees with 80% of trees consist ≤10 cm DBH. Pulau Semut exhibited the highest species diversity and richness, compare to Pulau Busung and Pulau Tok Haji. Seven species had IVI values more than 10, indicating mixed mangrove forest characteristic. This study provides an important data for future sustainability management, protection and conservation of mangrove forest in east coast of Peninsular Malaysia.
Mangrove forests protect coastlines from erosion, enhance biodiversity, store carbon, and support coastal communities. These ecosystems rely on hydrological conditions. This paper reviews past, present, and future hydrological characteristics of Bangladesh’s Sundarbans to guide restoration and sustainable development. It examines historical and projected hydrological indicators, addressing knowledge gaps and suggesting strategies. Renowned for productivity, biodiversity, and socio-economic benefits, the Sundarbans depend on seasonal freshwater from the Ganges River. However, threats from climate change and human activities, including reduced freshwater flow due to India’s Farakka Barrage on the Ganges, rising salinity, cyclones, and pollution, endanger these ecosystems. The primary threat is mangrove destruction for alternate land use and reduced sediment supply due to upstream dam construction. Sea-level rise is a secondary concern, as a healthy Sundarbans delta could naturally accrete with adequate sediment input and mangrove growth. Sustainable management practices are critical, including maintaining upstream water flow, minimizing deforestation, and rehabilitating degraded areas. Alternative livelihoods and strategies addressing salinity rise are essential. Long-term approaches should adopt adaptive management and ensure sustainable resource use. Policy actions must regulate human activities, mitigate cyclone impacts, ensure freshwater availability, halt harmful industries, and promote awareness and surveillance. Protecting mangroves to reduce CO2 emissions and advancing research are vital.
Mangrove ecosystems, which are renowned for their ecological significance and resilience in coastal environments, host a rich diversity of fungi, vital for nutrient cycling, decomposition, and symbiotic relationships with mangrove plants. This chapter delves into the intricate world of mangrove-associated fungi, exploring their taxonomic diversity, ecological roles, adaptations to extreme environments, and influence of various factors on fungal community dynamics. Taxonomic studies have revealed that a plethora of fungal families and genera thrive within mangrove habitats, with notable contributions from taxa such as Dothideomycetes, Pleosporaceae, and Xylariaceae. These fungi play diverse ecological roles, from decomposers to symbionts, shaping the functioning of mangrove ecosystems. This chapter also discusses the factors influencing fungal diversity in mangrove ecosystems, including environmental conditions, unique host associations, geographic location, disturbance regimes, interactions with other organisms, and successional dynamics. Environmental factors such as salinity, pH, temperature, and moisture significantly impact fungal community composition and dynamics, highlighting the adaptability of mangrove fungi to extreme environmental conditions. Moreover, host-specific associations between fungi and mangrove plants contribute to the spatial heterogeneity of fungal communities within mangrove habitats. Furthermore, this chapter explores the biogeography of mangrove-associated fungi, elucidating regional patterns of diversity and shared cosmopolitan species across different geographic regions. Molecular techniques, including DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, have revolutionized our understanding of fungal diversity and evolutionary relationships in mangrove ecosystems, providing valuable insights into the cryptic diversity and phylogenetic affinities of mangrove-associated fungi. Finally, this chapter discusses the ecological roles of mangrove fungi in decomposition, nutrient cycling, and symbiotic interactions with other organisms, highlighting the importance of these fungi in maintaining the health and functioning of mangrove ecosystems.
The mangrove ecosystem is a sensitive and highly productive ecosystem in the sea-land transition zone. Mangroves are almost saturated with marine ecosystems and provide ecological services and the organisms of the mangrove ecosystem are adapted to the dynamic conditions of the intertidal zone. For global sustainability, anthropogenic activities that destroy mangrove ecosystems must be reduced, and effective management is needed to mitigate these threats to improve mangrove health and ecosystem services. Plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPMs), which include growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) such as Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Flavobacterium, Paenibacillus, Pseudomonas, and Rhizobium, plant growth promoting actinobacteria (PGPA) Actinophytocola, Nocardiopsis, Pseudonocardia, and Streptomyces, plant growth promoting fungi (PGPF) Aspergillus, Fusarium, Gliocladium, Humicola, Penicillium, Phoma, and Trichoderma and plant growth promoting cyanobacteria (PGPC) like Anabaena, Aphanothece, Calothrix, Lyngbya, Microcoleus, Nostoc, and Oscillatoria help the mangrove plants to acquire nutrients, produce growth-promoting substances, and resist stress. In addition, PGPMs promote nutrient cycling, leaf litter degradation, organic and inorganic pollutant remediation, pathogen inhibition, and enhance soil stabilization. The biofilm formed by PGPMs increases physical, chemical, and biological stress resistance, and the associated extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) stabilize the soil. This complex and highly structured microbial community is essential to plant and soil health. The primary goal of this review is to explore the ecological interactions between microbes, mangrove plants, and the intertidal environment, focusing on implementing PGPM-based strategies to sustain mangrove ecosystems. Additionally, this review explores how PGPMs enhance plant and soil health, mitigate stress in mangrove vegetation, and improve ecosystem services.
Mangrove ecosystems face increasing environmental threats and changes, making it crucial to unravel the complex interrelationship between Avicennia and Sonneratia and their diverse habitats. This study identified the environmental factors, including water salinity and substrate, that impact the distribution and abundance of Avicennia alba, A. marina, A. rumphiana, Sonneratia alba , and S. caseolaris . Three unique mangrove habitats include the isolated rocky island of Pulau Burong, the muddy-sand inland lagoon of Pengkalan Nangka, and the sandy mud to firm mud of coastal Teluk Buih. Pulau Burong is surrounded by marine water of salinity 31 to 35, Pengkalan Nangka is brackish water ranging from 12 to 19, and Teluk Buih is brackish to marine water of salinity 15 to 32. A. alba and A. marina from Pulau Burong have shorter leaf lengths, narrower widths, and thicker leaves compared to Pengkalan Nangka Lagoon and Teluk Buih (p<0.05). Similarly, S. alba from Pulau Burong has a shorter leaf length, narrower width, and thicker leaves than Teluk Buih. Water salinity had perfectly negative correlations with the leaf length of A. alba (r= -0.93) and A. marina (r= -0.91). A. marina leaf width and thickness were strongly negatively correlated with water salinity (r= -0.85 for leaf width and r= -0.84 for thickness). All three Avicennia species' flowering responses, including cyme-like spike inflorescences, were documented. These findings enhance understanding of Avicennia and Sonneratia ecology in the context of unique ecosystems facing environmental challenges .
The growth of mangroves is inhibited due to environmental degradation, and changes in the growing health of mangrove forests cause changes in internal physicochemical parameters. The canopy chlorophyll content is an important indicator to monitor the health status of mangroves. We study the effective inversion data sources and methods of mangrove health indicator parameters to monitor the health of mangrove ecosystems in typical areas of Beibu Gulf, Guangxi. In this study, we evaluated the capability of UAV, GF-6 data, and machine learning regression algorithms in estimating mangrove species-scale canopy chlorophyll content (CCC). Effective measures for mangrove pest and disease pressure, Sporobolus alterniflorus invasion, and anthropogenic risk are also explored, which are important for mangrove conservation and restoration. (1) We obtained several feature variables by constructing a combined vegetation index, and the most sensitive band of mangrove CCC was selected by the characteristic variable evaluation, and the CCC model at the mangrove species-scale was evaluated and validated. Through variable preferences, the feature variables with the highest contribution of Avicennia marina, Aegiceras corniculatum, Kandelia candel, and a collection of three categories of species in the UAV data were indices of RI35, MDATT413, RI35, and NDI35. (2) Random Forest, Gradient Boosting Regression Tree, and Extreme Gradient Boosting were evaluated using the root-mean-square error and coefficient of determination accuracy metrics. Extreme Gradient Boosting regression algorithms were evaluated for accuracy. In both UAV data and GF-6, RF achieved optimal results in inverse mangrove Aegiceras corniculatum species CCC, with higher stability and robustness in machine learning regressors. (3) Due to the sparse distribution of Kandelia candel in the study area and the low spatial resolution of the images, there is an increased possibility that individual image elements contain environmental noise, such as soil. Therefore, the level of CCC can effectively reflect the health status of mangroves and further reflect the increased possibility of the study area being exposed to risks, such as degradation. The establishment of the current protected areas and restoration of degraded ecosystems are effective measures to cope with the risks of mangrove pest and disease stress, invasion of Sporobolus alterniflorus, and anthropogenic activities, which are important for the protection and restoration of mangroves. This study provides an important data reference and risk warning for mangrove restoration and conservation.
This study reviewed some of the challenges faced by local authorities in disaster management, especially flood disasters that occurred in Malaysia. Flood disasters are the most frequent disasters in Malaysia, especially during the monsoon seasons. The hard structure developed by Malaysia’s National Security Council (MKN) under ‘Directive 20’ is used to manage disasters in the country. Although Malaysia has become more skillful in managing flood disasters, the frequent climate changes along with weakness in implementing flood risk management plans resulted in much losses and damages throughout the country. Therefore, this study explored the gaps and weaknesses in flood risk management (FRM) in Malaysia by reviewing the available literature to recommend better flood management. This study revealed four main issues which are weaknesses in terms of (i) coordination and communication, (ii) manpower and assets, (iii) public awareness, and (iv) power and authority among local authorities to implement flood management plans. The capacity of local authorities and individuals in charge of disaster management is inadequate, especially for flood risk preparedness and management. Hence, responsible individuals are also in a vulnerable situation to implement management plans or rescue operations when flood disasters occur since they are also flood victims. Thus, the National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA) which acts as the main coordinator of disaster management in Malaysia should re-examine the flood management plan to ensure that it can be implemented efficiently and effectively, especially at the local level as they are the first respondents on the scene when the disaster occurs. The combination of both structural and non-structural measures might require in many cases the management of flood disasters; however, the disaster risk preparedness and management of individuals via customized training is a must to prevent flood disasters as well as minimize their impact. The flood management plan should also incorporate natural-based approaches at the whole-river-basin level for the long-term solution and sustainable development, not only focusing to manage the localized flood problem at the specific area.
Buku ini memuat tentang berbagai metode dan analisis data terkait studi ekosistem mangrove. Cocok menjadi buku pedoman bagi para peneliti dan pemerhati ekosistem mangrove.
Mangrove forests are essential for supporting the habitats of numerous fish species, some of which are vital for local economies. These forests serve as breeding and nurturing environments for fish, providing a safe haven for juvenile fish and protecting them from predators and environmental stressors. There are many different species of fish that use mangrove forests as a breeding and nursery ground. Although many studies on the biodiversity of mangrove organisms on Sumatra Island exist, data on fish species diversity in Lampung Bay is still lacking. Morphological identification is often inadequate to distinguish between potential fish species, even across different life stages such as adults, juveniles, or larvae. However, DNA barcoding has the potential to identify species at any developmental stages accurately. Thus, this study aimed to identify and confirm fish species originating from the mangrove ecosystem in Lampung Bay specifically the Sebalang Mangrove Ecopark (South Lampung) and Petengoran Mangrove Forest, Gebang Village (Pesawaran), through a molecular approach using DNA barcoding techniques. Twenty samples can be identified at the species/genus level, demonstrating that using short, standardized genetic region Cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) mitochondrial gene sequences can accurately and quickly classify fish samples. Furthermore, twenty mitochondrial DNA sequences of various fishes have been submitted to the massive genetic database, GenBank. By identifying species accurately and quickly, DNA barcoding can improve the knowledge about fish biodiversity especially samples taken from the mangrove ecosystem in Lampung Coastal Bay.
Simple Summary
In order to examine the genetic diversity and population structure of the Rhizophora mucronata population in Thailand, we utilized 10× Genomics technology to obtain a comprehensive whole-genome sequence, and restriction site associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) to genotype the population. Using SNPs discovered from the R. mucronata genome sequence, we detected moderate levels of genetic diversity and differentiation across 80 R. mucronata accessions collected from the coastal regions of Thailand. Both population structure and principal component analysis (PCA) converged on a clustering of two subpopulations. However, the results of two genetic groups did not correspond to the Gulf of Thailand or the Andaman Sea. Several factors could have influenced the R. mucronata genetic pattern, such as hybridization and anthropogenic factors.
Abstract
Unique and biodiverse, mangrove ecosystems provide humans with benefits and contribute to coastal protection. Rhizophora mucronata, a member of the Rhizophoraceae family, is prevalent in the mangrove forests of Thailand. R. mucronata’s population structure and genetic diversity have received scant attention. Here, we sequenced the entire genome of R. mucronata using 10× Genomics technology and obtained an assembly size of 219 Mb with the N50 length of 542,540 bases. Using 2857 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers, this study investigated the genetic diversity and population structure of 80 R. mucronata accessions obtained from the mangrove forests in Thailand. The genetic diversity of R. mucronata was moderate (I = 0.573, Ho = 0.619, He = 0.391). Two subpopulations were observed and confirmed from both population structure and principal component analysis (PCA). Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed that there was more variation within populations than between them. Mean pairwise genetic differentiation (FST = 0.09) showed that there was not much genetic difference between populations. Intriguingly, the predominant clustering pattern in the R. mucronata population did not correspond to the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, which are separated by the Malay Peninsula. Several factors could have influenced the R. mucronata genetic pattern, such as hybridization and anthropogenic factors. This research will provide important information for the future conservation and management of R. mucronata in Thailand.
There are multiple purposes of conducting forest inventories and forest resource assessment. One of them is to serve as information on the development of forest planning and management strategy which requires gathering of data about forest resources at the national level for the development of strategic policy. In order to characterise accurately both quantity and quality of the forest resources, enhanced information is required. Remote sensing technology offers potential gains in inventory efficiency based on its ability to quantitatively characterise stand canopies through spectral reflectance. Also, the frequency with which remote sensing data are acquired, and the availability of data for extensive areas, increases the attractiveness of these data for inventory purposes. For example, visible, near-, and mid-infrared radiance measurements, which are routinely available from the optical remotely sensed imagery, could be related to forest parameters and stand attributes such as biomass, basal area, diameter, stand age, and wood volume. The need for effective inventories for forest resources is the impetus for this chapter into reviewing traditional methods of ground-based surveys with information from satellite remote sensing. In addition, this chapter discusses the development of remote sensing sensors, which include their characteristics, applications, current practices, and future development of the remote sensor.KeywordsRemote sensingForest inventorySampling design
Mangrove forests provide numerous valuable ecosystem services and can sequester a large volume of carbon that can help mitigate climate change impacts. Modeling mangrove carbon with robust and valid approaches is crucial to better understanding existing conditions. The study aims to estimate mangrove Above-Ground Carbon (AGC) at Loh Buaya located in the Komodo National Park (Indonesia) using novel Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGB) and Genetic Algorithm (GA) analyses integrating multiple sources of remote sensing (optical, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), and Digital Elevation Model (DEM)) data. Several steps were conducted to assess the model’s accuracy, starting with a field survey of 50 sampling plots, processing the images, selecting the variables, and examining the appropriate machine learning (ML) models. The effectiveness of the proposed XGB-GA was assessed via comparison with other well-known ML techniques, i.e., the Random Forest (RF) and the Support Vector Machine (SVM) models. Our results show that the hybrid XGB-GA model yielded the best results (R² = 0.857 in the training and R² = 0.758 in the testing phase). The proposed hybrid model optimized by the GA consisted of six spectral bands and five vegetation indices generated from Sentinel 2B together with a national DEM that had an RMSE = 15.40 Mg C ha⁻¹ and outperformed other ML models for quantifying mangrove AGC. The XGB-GA model estimated mangrove AGC ranging from 2.52 to 123.89 Mg C ha⁻¹ (with an average of 57.16 Mg C ha⁻¹). Our findings contribute an innovative method, which is fast and reliable using open-source data and software. Multisource remotely sensed data combined with advanced machine learning techniques can potentially be used to estimate AGC in tropical mangrove ecosystems worldwide.
This study performed a coupled modeling approach to assess the past-to-future distribution of white mangrove trees (Avicennia marina) along an intertidal zone in the Strait of Hormuz. Historical mangrove distributions were extracted from 3 temporally-median-filtered Landsat images in 2002 (ETM+), 2011 (TM), and 2020 (OLI). The mangrove habitat suitability was investigated using the Maxent model, employing distance from shoreline, creeks, and mangroves, elevation and sediment physio-chemical characteristics. The sediment attributes including EC, pH, sediment texture, total organic carbon, bulk density, and total nitrogen and phosphorous were measured at 25 sampling points and interpolated using the IDW technique. The resulting habitat layer was used as the transition layer in the CA-Markov to predict the future distribution of mangroves by 2030 and 2040. From 2002–2020, the mangrove cover increased by 165 ha (annual rate of 8.19 ha) through both edge- and out-growth patterns. The habitat suitability modeling was performed successfully with an AUC of 0.962 with distance from mangrove patches, distance from water creeks, sediment texture, and phosphorous as the most important predictors. According to the CA-Markov prediction (AUC of 0.690), the area of mangroves is projected to increase to 497 and 543 ha in a compact edge-growth pattern by 2030 and 2040, respectively.
Simple Summary
We utilized the 10× Genomics technology to obtain a reference whole-genome sequence for assessing the genetic diversity and population structure of Rhizophora apiculata in Thailand. Using SNPs identified from the R. apiculata genome sequence, moderate genetic diversity and high genetic differentiation were observed among 82 R. apiculata accessions collected along the coasts of Thailand. Two subpopulations corresponding to the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea coasts were clustered and confirmed from three approaches: population structure, PCA, and phylogenetic analyses. The AMOVA result revealed that the percentage of variation within populations (76%) was higher than that among populations (24%).
Abstract
Rhizophora apiculata is one of the most widespread and economically important mangrove trees in the Indo-West Pacific region. Knowledge of the genetic variation of R. apiculata in Thailand is limited. Here, we generated a whole-genome sequence of R. apiculata using the 10× Genomics technology. R. apiculata genome assembly was 230.47 Mb. Based on its genome, 2640 loci of high-quality biallelic SNPs were identified from 82 R. apiculata accessions collected from 17 natural mangrove forests in Thailand to assess the genetic diversity and population structure among them. A moderate level of genetic diversity of R. apiculata was observed. The average observed heterozygosity (Ho = 0.48) was higher than the average expected heterozygosity (He = 0.36). Two subpopulations were observed and confirmed from three approaches: population structure, PCA, and phylogenetic analyses. They corresponded to the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea separated by the Malay Peninsula. AMOVA analyses indicated that genetic variation was attributable to 76.22% within populations and 23.78% among populations. A high level of genetic differentiation between the two subpopulations (FST = 0.24, p < 0.001) was observed. This study evaluated the genetic diversity and population structure of R. apiculata, providing useful information for sustainable mangrove management in Thailand.
The impacts of environmental changes and mangrove disturbance on the gelatinous zooplankton community structure were investigated monthly for one annual cycle at six stations in three estuaries in Matang, Malaysia. Tiram, Tinggi, and Sepetang estuaries were classified based on the Mangrove Quality Index (MQI) to represent the least (MQI 5 = excellent), moderately (MQI 4 = good), and highly disturbed (MQI 2 = bad) areas, respectively. Among the gelatinous zooplankton species, the holoplanktonic ctenophore, Pukia ohtsukai (formed 56%–58% of the total gelatinous zooplankton), was the most dominant species and showed increased densities with the increasing level of disturbance. On the other hand, a hydrozoan, Blackfordia sp. (39%–43%), which needs suitable substrates for the survival of polyploids, was found to be most abundant in the moderately disturbed area, indicating low densities in areas with too little or too much disturbance. Salinity, a parameter influenced by river discharge and tidal changes, was identified as the main environmental factor affecting the species' seasonal variability. The dry season was associated with an increase in gelatinous zooplankton density and prevalence of marine species. Also, factors related to water clarity (turbidity, transparency, and suspended solids) and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) explained 91% of the variables that affected the gelatinous zooplankton community structure. The species diversity (H’) in the least and moderately disturbed areas were significantly higher than in the highly disturbed estuary. In contrast, the highest mean density was recorded in the highly disturbed estuary (34.4 ± 19.8 inds. m⁻³) followed by the moderately (21.6 ± 6.1 inds. m⁻³) and the least disturbed areas (9.7 ± 4.1 inds. m⁻³⁾. The present study suggested that the gelatinous zooplankton biodiversity declines and the abundance escalates with increasing disturbance levels.
Traditional cultural landscapes are classified and described, which might occur all around the globe or only in certain regions of the world. These landscapes have been shaped by humans over the centuries and represent a historical continuity, despite landscape dynamics and historical changes. Typically, these landscapes have a considerable proportion of low-input and extensive land-use types (agriculture and forestry) and/or fishery. The cultural landscape classification encompasses forest landscapes, agroforestry landscapes, pasture landscapes, terraced landscapes, irrigation landscapes, lakescapes, riverscapes, coastal landscapes and seascapes, saltscapes, hunting and park landscapes, monastic landscapes, and sacred and spiritual landscapes. These landscapes integrate natural as well as cultural heritage.KeywordsAgroforestry landscapesExtensive land-use systemsIrrigation landscapeLandscape classificationLow-input agricultureRiverscape
Mangroves are essential carbon reserves, and their role in carbon sequestration is remarkable. However, anthropogenic pressures such as aquaculture development threatened this highly susceptible ecosystem. Thus, the need to rehabilitate abandoned aquaculture ponds is a must to offset the ecological losses over the economic gains derived from these mangrove land-use changes. Thus, we chose a reforestation site of a once heavily utilized fishpond devastated by a tsunami in the late 1970s in Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines. We then established a similar study plot in a nearby natural mangrove forest as a point of reference. We determined the heterogeneity in vegetation and estimated the aboveground and soil carbon storage capacities. We also examined the distinct changes in species composition and zonation from the seaward towards the landward zones. About 30 years after the abandoned fishpond rehabilitation, we found the tree density of the Rhizopora mucronata Lamk. and Avicenia marina (Forsk.) Vierh-dominated reforestation site was higher (271 trees ha⁻¹) compared to that of the Rhizophora apiculata Blume-dominated natural stand (211 trees ha⁻¹) (p < 0.05). The total aboveground biomass at the natural mangrove forest was 202.02 Mg ha⁻¹, which was close to that of the reforestation site (195.19 Mg ha⁻¹) (p > 0.05). The total aboveground C in the natural mangrove forest was 90.52 Mg C ha⁻¹, while that of the reforestation site was 87.84 Mg C ha⁻¹ (p > 0.05). Surprisingly, the overall soil C content at the natural forest of 249.85 Mg C ha⁻¹ was not significantly different from that of the reforestation site with 299.75 Mg C ha⁻¹ (p > 0.05). There was an increasing soil C content trend as the soil got deeper from 0–100 cm (p < 0.05). The zonation patterns established across the landward to seaward zones did not affect the aboveground and soil carbon estimates (p > 0.05). Our study highlights the effectiveness of abandoned fishpond rehabilitation and calls for continuous restoration of the remaining abandoned aquaculture ponds in the country because of their ability to sequester and store carbon. Lastly, their potential to store huge amounts of carbon that will counterbalance anthropogenic CO2 emissions is likewise highlighted.
This chapter on Mangroves of Malaysia begins with a brief introduction on the geography of Malaysia, consisting of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak separated by the South China Sea. Information on the population, land area, and area of mangroves in Malaysia is presented. The largest area of mangroves is in Sabah, followed by Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia. Globally, Malaysia’s mangroves rank sixth in country area after Indonesia, Brazil, Australia, Mexico, and Nigeria. In Malaysia, mangroves are classified into permanent forest reserves (PFRs) which consist of protection forest reserves, domestic forest reserves, mangrove forest reserves (MFRs), virgin jungle reserves (VJRs), and wildlife reserves. The other categories are state land mangroves and gazetted conservation areas. The other main sections of the chapter are Biodiversity; Livelihoods; Threats to Mangrove Ecosystems; and Restoration, Conservation, and Management. These sections are strengthened by six case studies. They include proboscis monkeys of Labuk Bay, Sabah; new genus and species of mangrove crab; mangrove wood carvings by the Mah Meri tribe; charcoal production in Matang, Peninsular Malaysia; wood vinegar production in Matang, Peninsular Malaysia; and long-term ecological research at Sepilok Laut, Sabah. These case studies highlight the sound management of mangroves in Malaysia. The section on Restoration, Conservation, and Management includes a success story of mangrove rehabilitation at Sungai ISME (International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems), a collaboration between the Sabah Forestry Department (SFD) and the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME). Compared to mangrove rehabilitation projects in Kiribati and Gujarat implemented by ISME, the project in Sabah scores strongly in accessibility, collaboration, objectives, publicity, capacity building, voluntary participation, and sustainability. Learning from these examples can help in the development of a mangrove action plan (MAP) for Malaysia where a policy of integrated coastal management ensures the sustainability of mangrove ecosystems and their ecological services.
Indonesia has the second-largest biodiversity of any country in the world. Deforestation and forest degradation have caused a range of environmental issues, including habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity, deterioration of water quality and quantity, air pollution, and increased greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change. Forest restoration at the landscape level has been conducted to balance ecological integrity and human well-being. Forest restoration efforts are also aimed at reducing CO2 emissions and are closely related to Indonesia’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) from the forestry sector. The purpose of this paper is to examine the regulatory, institutional, and policy aspects of forest restoration in Indonesia, as well as the implementation of forest restoration activities in the country. The article was written using a synoptic review approach to Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR)-related articles and national experiences. Failures, success stories, and criteria and indicators for forest restoration success are all discussed. We also discuss the latest silvicultural techniques for the success of the forest restoration program. Restoration governance in Indonesia has focused on the wetland ecosystem such as peatlands and mangroves, but due to the severely degraded condition of many forests, the government has by necessity opted for active restoration involving the planting and establishment of livelihood options. The government has adapted its restoration approach from the early focus on ecological restoration to more forest landscape restoration, which recognizes that involving the local community in restoration activities is critical for the success of forest restoration.
Mangrove mapping at the species level enables the creation of a detailed inventory of mangrove forest biodiversity and supports coastal ecosystem management. The Karimunjawa National Park in Central Java Province is one of Indonesia’s mangrove habitats with high biodiversity, namely, 44 species representing 25 true mangroves and 19 mangrove associates. This study aims to (1) classify and group mangrove species by their spectral reflectance characteristics, (2) map mangrove species by applying their spectral reflectance to WorldView-2 satellite imagery with the spectral angle mapper (SAM), spectral information divergence (SID), and spectral feature fitting (SFF) algorithms, and (3) assess the accuracy of the produced mangrove species mapping of the Karimunjawa and Kemujan Islands. The collected field data included (1) mangrove species identification, (2) coordinate locations of targeted mangrove species, and (3) the spectral reflectance of mangrove species measured with a field spectrometer. Dendrogram analysis was conducted with the Ward linkage method to classify mangrove species based on the distance between the closest clusters of spectral reflectance patterns. The dendrogram showed that the 24 mangrove species found in the field could be grouped into four levels. They consisted of two, four, and five species groups for Levels 1 to 3, respectively, and individual species for Level 4. The mapping results indicated that the SID algorithm had the highest overall accuracy (OA) at 49.72%, 22.60%, and 15.20% for Levels 1 to 3, respectively, while SFF produced the most accurate results for individual species mapping (Level 4) with an OA of 5.08%. The results suggest that the greater the number of classes to be mapped, the lower the mapping accuracy. The results can be used to model the spatial distribution of mangrove species or the composition of mangrove forests and update databases related to coastal management.
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