Novel Measurement and Assessment Tools for Monitoring and Management of Land and Water Resources in Agricultural Landscapes of Central Asia
Abstract
The book aims to initiate a sustainable use of land and water resources in Central Asia by the transfer of scientific methods. It deals with the most advanced methods worldwide for better monitoring and management of water and land resources. We offer an array of methods of measuring, assessing, forecasting, utilizing and controling processes in agricultural landscapes. These are laboratory and field measurement methods, methods of resource evaluation, functional mapping and risk assessment, and remote sensing methods for monitoring and modeling large areas. The book contains methods and results of data analysis and ecosystem modeling, of bioremediation of soil and water, field monitoring of soils, and methods and technologies for optimizing land use systems as well. The chapter authors are inventors and advocators of novel transferrable methods. The book starts with an analysis of the current state of water and land resources. Finally concrete proposals for the applicability of novel methods are given.
Chapters (43)
Central Asia is the global hotspot of a nexus of resources. Land, water and food are key issues in this nexus. We analysed the status of land and water resources and their potential and limitations for agriculture in the five Central Asian Transition States. Agricultural productivity and its impacts on land and water quality were also studied. The ecological status of open waters and soils as dependent on the kind of water and land use was shown. The main sources were information and data from the scientific literature, recent research reports, the statistical databases of the FAO and UNECE, and the results of our own field work. Agriculture is crucial for the economy of all Central Asian countries and responsible for about 90 % of their water use. We found that land and water resources may provide their function of food supply, but the agricultural productivity of grassland and cropland is relatively low. Irrigation agriculture is sometimes inefficient and may cause serious detrimental side effects involving soil and water salinisation. Dryland farming, as currently practiced, includes a high risk of wind and water erosion. Water bodies and aquatic, arable and grassland ecosystems are in a critical state with tendencies to accelerated degradation and landscape desertification. Despite all these limitations, agricultural landscapes in Central Asia have great potential for multi-functional use as a source of income for the rural population, tourism and eco-tourism included. The precondition for this is a peaceful environment in which they can be developed. All major rivers and their reservoirs cross borders and involve potential conflict between upstream and downstream riparians. The nexus of resources requires more detailed research, both in the extent of individual elements and processes, and their interactions and cycles. Processes in nature and societies are autocorrelated and intercorrelated, but external disturbances or inputs may also trigger future developments. We emphasise the role of knowledge and technology transfer in recognising and controlling processes. There has been a lot of progress in science and technology over the past ten years, but agri-environmental research and education in Central Asia are still in a crisis. Overcoming this crisis and applying advanced methods in science and technology are key issues for further development. Science and technology may provide an overall knowledge shift when it comes to recognising processes and initiating sustainable development. The following chapters introduce the results of further, more detailed and regional analyses of the status of soil and water. Novel measurement and assessment tools for researching into, monitoring and managing land and water resources will be presented. We will inform future elites, scientists and decision makers on how to deal with them and encourage them to take action.
This chapter includes information on the current status of the soil landscape of Kazakhstan and an analysis of materials based on our own research published during the last two decades, as well as literature on land degradation, salinisation, soil contamination and land resource use. It has been found that a current tendency can be observed towards intensive land degradation and desertification, salinisation (including secondary salinisation and soil contamination by oil, petroleum products, chemicals and radioactive substances), de-humification, decreasing soil fertility and deterioration of the ecological status of soil resources. In Kazakhstan this problem is complex because of the vast territory and variety of both natural conditions and anthropogenic impacts on soil. The sustainable development of agriculture in Kazakhstan and ensuring food and environmental safety are closely related to the rational and efficient use of soil. In this regard, it is necessary to develop appropriate laws and regulations, programmes and related activities and to take measures to prevent rapid land degradation, desertification and deterioration of the environmental situation, and to start to restore soil fertility.
This chapter highlights current issues regarding long-term monitoring and water resource management in the Republic of Kazakhstan. It includes basic information about water resource monitoring systems, features and characteristics of water use in Kazakhstan, and the average costs of water for production. The most urgent water management problems have been outlined, for example that of water distribution from trans-boundary rivers such as the Ertis, Ile, Syrdarya and others, and ensuring the security of water facilities in Kazakhstan. The results of a catastrophic flood in the village of Kyzylagash are shown along with data from operative space imaging of the reservoir. Space-based information is described with a proposal for how it could be applied for the complex assessment of emergency risks in flood-endangered parts of river basins. A technological scheme is developed for Remote Sensing of Earth (RSE) data processing using GIS technology, and an outline is provided of the stages of digital data processing and GIS analysis technology and data interpretation. The proposed methodology is most promising and offers a new approach to evaluating water resources and identifying emergency situations and their consequences.
During the first years of independence all Central Asian countries focused their policies on a maximum increase of wheat grain production. In Kazakhstan this strengthened farm economies, while in other countries it was a step towards self-sufficiency in wheat grain production. However, this single-crop production strategy had an obvious negative impact on crop diversification, including the production of feed and forage crops, as well as oilseeds, pulses and sugar beets. The governments of most Central Asian countries seemed to be concerned with wheat and cotton production while the livestock industry long remained a neglected sector, left to household plots. In recent years, the livestock industry has gained more support from the governments, but livestock productivity may only be improved when measures to improve rangeland management and increase forage production are undertaken. In this respect it is the right time to change policies towards supporting rangeland improvement and integrated crop and livestock production. This will also improve long-term soil conservation.
Currently the world hosts seven billion people that require food. About one third of the earth’s land area is now intensively used by agriculture, and another third extensively. Agriculture inevitably depends on soil quality as well as on water resources. More than 70 % of human water use is due to irrigation. In addition, transpiration from rainfed agriculture comprises a substantial part of the earth’s water cycle. Thus, land use both highly depends and affects water availability and is intimately intertwined with water resources management. The term “landscape” is used here to account for a variety of feedback effects between natural resources, human land use, economy and demography. The world population continues to increase. In addition, growth of economic wealth in many countries increased demand for upmarket agricultural products, and there is increasing demand for biofuel production as well which increases pressure on soil and water at a global scale. During the last 50 years cultivated area per capita decreased by half and likely will continue to decrease. Thus there is urgent need for advanced concepts of sustainable use of water and soil resources. Already today groundwater and river water over-exploitation due to increasing irrigation is a matter of concern. In some regions groundwater levels have been decreasing by 1 m per year during the last decades. Even large rivers fell increasingly dry. This has severe implications for water resources further downstream, not to mention biodiversity aspects. For example, the Aral Sea has been shrinking by more than 90 % within a few decades, giving place to a hostile salt desert. Thus, inefficient water management and land degradation are closely connected to each other. Climate change is now considered an increasing threat on water resources. Increasing air temperature is often associated with increasing evapotranspiration and thus increasing utilization of rare water resources. However, this is an oversimplification. On the one hand, warmer air masses can transport more water vapour, and increasing temperature comes along with increasing energy for mass transport which could even increase precipitation. In addition, higher CO2 partial pressure likely will increase water use efficiency of plants and thus reduce water consumption. On the other hand, large scale atmospheric circulation patterns most probably will be affected by climate change and thus change spatial patterns of precipitation which is not trivial to predict. Correspondingly, climate change models are fraught with large uncertainties with respect to precipitation. However, experts agree that in general frequency and intensity of extreme events like floods and drought likely will increase which poses agricultural management and soil resources at increasing risk. Besides, melting of glaciers in mountainous regions currently increases water availability in the lowlands downstream, whereas the opposite is true in the long-term. Thus there is urgent need for an “Integrated Water Resources Management” (IWRM) which has to include soil quality management as well. Various ideas, concepts and methods exist. However, local conditions have to be considered. Thus, experience from different parts of the world needs to be exchanged. This book is intended to contribute to that.
The chapter gives an overview of global land potentials, crop yields and their limiting factors, and of methods to evaluate the productivity potential of land. Maintaining the capacity of the global land resource to produce plant biomass which can be used for humans is one of the most challenging issues of the 21st century. We need methodologies to observe and control the status of the potential productivity of agricultural and other lands. Methods of overall soil quality assessment which include the most significant factors and indicators relevant to soil productivity potentials can be useful tools for monitoring and managing the global soil resource sustainably. The aim was to find a common basis for soil productivity evaluation, as required by a global community of land users to allow achievement of high productivity in the context of a sustainable multifunctional use of landscapes. Results showed that soil types or reference groups in most existing soil classifications are largely defined on pedogenetic criteria and provide insufficient information to assess soil functionality. Traditional specific soil and land evaluation schemes already exist at national levels. They are based on different concepts of soil fertility or quality, local soil properties and the types of land use and management that prevail in the region or country. Their soil data inputs differ, ratings are not transferable and not applicable in transnational studies. At a transnational level, methods like agro-ecological zoning or ecosystem and crop models provide reliable assessments of land productivity potentials. Such methods are not intended for a field scale application to detect main soil constraints or to derive soil management recommendations in situ. A comparative analysis of several soil and land evaluation methods revealed the usefulness of indicator-based approaches applicable reliably, simply and consistently over different scales, from field level to large regions (aided by soil maps). Basic soil survey methods, including visual tactile soil structure assessment, are useful diagnostic tools for the recognition of productivity limiting soil attributes and estimation of indicator values. We advocate a straightforward indicator-based soil functional assessment system supplementing the current WRB (2006) classification or the coming Universal Soil Classification. It operates as a useful tool for monitoring, planning and management decisions based on soil quality (SQ) by detecting properties and limitation of soils for cropping and grazing and by providing estimates of attainable crop yields over different scales. The Muencheberg Soil Quality Rating (M-SQR), described in a chapter of Part II, has the potential to serve as a global reference assessment method of soil productivity potentials consistently over different scales. It combines visual methods of soil assessment (methods of soil survey, visual assessment of soil structure) with climate data in expert-based evaluation, classification and ranking schemes. M-SQR has been successfully tested in most agricultural regions worldwide. It provides concrete results about soil quality but also a frame for further research towards sustainable agricultural practices.
A knowledge of soil hydraulic properties—the water retention curve and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity—is required for soil water modelling and for various studies of soil hydrology. Taking measurements using traditional techniques is time consuming, the equipment is costly and the results can be uncertain. The evaporation method is frequently used for the simultaneous determination of hydraulic functions of unsaturated soil samples, i.e. the water retention curve and hydraulic conductivity function. Due to the limited range of common tensiometers, all the methodological variations of the evaporation method suffer from the limitation that the hydraulic functions can only be determined to a maximum of 70 kPa. The extended evaporation method (EEM) overcomes this restriction. Using new cavitation tensiometers and setting the air-entry pressure of the tensiometer’s porous ceramic cup as a final tension value allow both hydraulic functions to be quantified close to the wilting point. Additionally, soil shrinkage dynamics as well as soil water hysteresis can be quantified. Here, the HYPROP system was selected, a commercial device with vertically aligned tensiometers optimised to perform evaporation measurements. The HYPROP software was developed for recording, calculating, evaluating, fitting and exporting hydrological data. A good match between the results of soil hydraulic functions was shown when those obtained from traditional methods and the extended evaporation method were compared. Systematic deviations were not found.
The ability to quantify soil water flow is a prerequisite for the accurate prediction of solute transfer within the unsaturated zone. Monitoring these fluxes is a challenge because the results are required for answering not only scientific but also practical questions regarding the protection of groundwater, the sustainable management of agricultural, forestry, mining or set aside industrial areas, the reduction of leachate loss from landfills, and for explaining the fate of environmentally harmful substances. Both direct and indirect methods exist for estimating water flux rates; these have been applied with varying success. In Europe, the use of direct lysimetry methods for measuring water and solute fluxes in soils has increased significantly in recent years. Although this technique generates reliable drainage data, it involves relatively high investment and maintenance costs. New lysimeter techniques have been developed to tackle this problem. It is now possible to collect large monolithic soil columns and to measure the soil water balance of these monoliths (surface area 0.03–2 m2 and depth to 3 m) with a high degree of precision (±20 g). Furthermore, progress in lysimetry enables us to ascertain experimentally the mass input of dew and to calculate actual evapotranspiration, precipitation and seepage rates. Weighable groundwater lysimeters have been developed in addition to gravitation lysimeters. Different lysimeter types and their usage will be presented and explained using practical examples.
Third-generation lysimeters meet the needs of 21st century environmental research and monitoring. High-resolution sensors, field-replicating hydraulic and thermal conditions and an excavation method showing the soil inside the lysimeter cylinder are important features in their quality process chain. Older lysimeter systems are unable to provide such detailed information about the soil water budget and all linked processes. Due to an increasing awareness of climate change, water management, agronomy and soil science issues, it was essential to upgrade lysimeter systems in order to gather more detailed information about processes and fluxes. Different lysimeter station layouts were developed for specific requirements and to increase their fields of application for particular tasks such as fertilisation treatments or irrigation and reproducing identical climatic conditions. Additionally, highly engineered third-generation bespoke lysimeter types are available to support particular projects. As an example, the meteorological lysimeter precisely measures precipitation, evapotranspiration and leachate. For this, the lysimeter weighs to the nearest gramme range a surface of 1 m2 and supplies results to an accuracy of 0.01 mm for water input such as rain, dew, frost or snow and water output by evapotranspiration and leachate as well as reporting the change of soil water content. Combined with additionally measured meteorological data, this enables water balance models to be developed and potential evapotranspiration can be determined.
Quantifying groundwater recharge to aquifers is necessary for agricultural and environmental research. Lysimeters are the main devices for monitoring and quantifying soil water and solute balances and transport processes. However, certain characteristics of lysimeters, high costs and limited flexibility act as restricting arguments. There is a lack of effective and reliable methods for quantifying deep seepage under undisturbed soil and for managing conditions in the field. Soil hydrology measurements provide an alternative way of analysing the soil water and matter status in situ. The method presented here aims to estimate deep seepage and solute leaching in the field based on soil hydrological measurements below the zero flux plane and a calibrated hydraulic conductivity function. This method offers simple handling, flexibility, and costs less than lysimeters. The required soil hydraulic properties are only derived from tension and water content field recordings within the measurement depth. After calibration, no further information about soil properties, weather, management and land use data is required, nor is any other data. Since 1994, the method has been successfully applied at many sites in northeast Germany. A comparison between lysimeter discharge measurements and discharge calculations has confirmed the validity of this method.
Grasslands and rangelands are very important ecosystems influencing natural cycles and human existence and well-being. Their functional status can be greatly affected by soil and water management. Grasslands are prone to degradation, but comprehensive frameworks and objective criteria for their monitoring are largely absent. Simple field methods of measurement and visual rating may help to detect properties and processes limiting the function of grasslands, and the results used to develop criteria and thresholds of soil and vegetation quality. Methods characterising aspects of the physical, chemical and biological status of grasslands in conjunction with soil survey data are presented here. Soil strength measured with penetrometers, sink cones and shear testers may characterise spatio-temporal alterations of soil resistance conditions best. Important attributes of the soil water status can be measured by TDR probes, field tensiometers and simplified infiltration equipment. Experience and care are necessary when interpreting field measurement data. A number of expert-based approaches for estimating site properties by visual-tactile methods and by bio-indicative vegetation analyses are available and should be utilized more. Some of these methods can be applied solely to study particular aspects of grassland quality like trampling effects under different animals, machinery and grazing systems or trafficability of meadows and measure the compaction status of soil, the quality of soil structure and pasture quality. In many cases a set of methods in combination with an overall assessment of soil quality (Visual Soil Assessment, VSA, and Muencheberg Soil Quality Rating, M-SQR) will provide a reliable assessment of the status of grasslands and rangelands. Methods presented here should be considered and proposed to be used as possible standard components of frameworks for assessing the functional status of grasslands by uniform methodologies over Eurasia.
Land is a scarce resource that has to fulfill many functions in addition to the production of food and fiber. Functions include water regulation, carbon sequestration, biodiversity pool, area for settlement and infrastructure, human health and recreation, employment and space for economic activities. In many regions of the world these functions have to be fulfilled simultaneously in space and time. This paper outlines the role of multifunctional land use for sustainable development and how ex-ante impact assessment can support decision making and management on land use towards a balanced performance of the land use functions portfolio. Latest scientific concepts are presented and a case examples given.
Sustainable use of soils is a vital issue in the 21st century to meet global challenges of food security, demands for energy and water, climate change and biodiversity. Eurasia has reasons to tackle and solve these problems soon. It covers the largest landmass and has the highest population density of the earth. Tools for reliable, simple and consistent evaluation of the status of the soil over a wide range of scales can help to assess suitability for crop growth and yield potentials. We explain the Muencheberg Soil Quality Rating (M-SQR) for analysing soil properties that limit crop yields and crop productivity potentials consistently over large regions. The approach is based on 8 Basic Indicators and at least 12 Hazard indicators. Ratings of soil quality are made during normal soil survey mainly by applying visual methods of soil evaluation. A field manual provides rating tables based on response curves and thresholds for different hazard indicators (such as risk of drought). Finally, overall soil quality rating scores ranging from 0 (worst) to 100 (best) characterise crop yield potentials. The current approach is valid for grassland and cropland. Field tests in Eurasia confirmed the practicability and reliability of this approach. We conclude that the Muencheberg SQR has the potential to serve as a global functional reference framework for agricultural soil quality of cropland and grassland. We anticipate the creation of comparable soil functional maps of the whole of Eurasia by the use of this method.
The methodology developed for the new Hydrological Atlas of Germany was applied to derive (hydro-) pedotransfer functions to estimate annual percolation rates from available information on climate, soil characteristics and land use in the Arab region. For this purpose the FAO56 concept was applied and the CLIMWAT database and the CROPWAT model were used, based on the single crop coefficient approach. The first step was to carry out simulations for eight countries, three kinds of land use and varying soil hydrological properties. The second step was to use meteorological data from Syria to carry out simulations for six land use scenarios and varying soil hydrological properties. The resulting country-specific regression equations and nomograms are presented as well as the general magnitude of groundwater recharge under typical crops of the Eastern Mediterranean environment. Prediction results are compared with simulation results for the dual crop coefficient approach and practical information is provided about the accuracy of these types of estimation method.
In nutrient balances, additions and removals of nutrients are assessed to identify the remaining concentrations of nutrients in soil. Balances can be performed using operational records of nutrients applications and other agronomic information (crops, yields, weather, etc.) at farm or even field level. The aim of performing nutrient balances is to obtain an overview of nutrient levels, in particular to prevent surpluses that could lead to environmental problems such as groundwater contamination, water eutrophication, air pollution and an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter will provide an overview of methods used to assess soil nutrient levels at farm and field level. The methods described here can be used by farmers, landscape planners, environmentalists, politicians and other stakeholders as a basis for taking agricultural groundwater conservation measures. The procedures and recommendations specified in this chapter are in accordance with the guidelines of the DWA—German association for water, wastewater and waste: “Efficiency of measures to control land use for groundwater conservation—the example of nitrogen” (DWA-M 911 (2013): Effizienzkontrolle von Maßnahmen zur grundwasserschonenden Bodennutzung am Beispiel des Stickstoffs).
Against the background of the paramount importance of fresh water resources for human well-being in Europe’s industrialised societies, the protection of groundwater bodies is one of the top themes of the environmental ambitions of the European Union. This holds true especially for areas under predominantly agricultural use against nitrates from plant production. A catalogue of agricultural measures of groundwater conservation is available in general. It is to be supplemented by a methodology for in situ monitoring of the groundwater quality as the basis for surveying the efficiency of those measures. General characteristics, the benefits, and the disadvantages of recent monitoring methods are presented, summarised and rated under the term “appropriateness for efficiency survey”.
Groundwater protection starts with soil protection. When soils are contaminated there is always a chance that the groundwater is or will be affected by this contamination as well. Analytical risk assessment is often very time-consuming and expensive. The goal of exploratory investigations is to investigate the risk of groundwater contamination with the minimum possible effort. Exploratory investigations concerning trace elements can be carried out by analyzing soil material, percolation water or groundwater (LABO 2003). While percolation water and groundwater analysis can only confirm a contamination, information gathered by soil analysis permits the current and future contamination risk for the groundwater to be estimated and additionally allows precautionary measures to be planned in order to protect the groundwater. The risk of contamination can only be judged when standards are available for a good quality of soil or percolation water. Local or regional background values of trace elements in the soil or percolation water can serve as adequate standards. This chapter will present and compare the analytical methods applied in exploratory investigations for assessing risks to the soil-groundwater pathway. We start with a little material science regarding trace element analysis in soil science and continue by listing some common methods used to analyze the total content of trace elements in the soil, presenting the conversion functions which allow results from different digestion agents to be translated. Subsequently an aqueous batch extraction method is presented which is routinely used to estimate the soluble fraction of trace elements in the soil for exploratory purposes, and its results are compared with results gained from direct percolation water sampling and a method which adjusts one parameter to in situ conditions.
Wind erosion has become an important soil degradation process in the steppe regions around the world caused predominantly by overgrazing and by transforming steppe into arable land. Soils, formed by aeolian processes over centuries, are now at risk of being destroyed by the same processes within a short space of time. The main problem with wind erosion is how it is perceived. Although heavy sand and dust storms occasionally attract attention, erosive processes usually go unnoticed. Annual average soil losses up to 40 t ha−1 are possible without any visible sign of erosion or deposition. The following chapter introduces common methods for assessing wind erosion and for quantifying the soil losses involved. Consideration of the special characteristics of steppe regions is discussed to enable methods to be applied successfully. Quantification of wind erosion is based on measurements of horizontal fluxes, which can additionally be used to derive soil losses/dust emissions or the deposition of transported particles. The thickness and extent of depositions can be measured to calculate the relocated volume or mass. Losses of fine particles and organic matter can be derived by comparing the grain size distribution and organic matter content of the original soil and depositions. The fallout radionuclide method (FRN, especially 137Cs) is suitable for identifying wind erosion and dust deposition patterns at larger spatial and temporal scales. Remote sensing and GIS procedures are finally used to present wind erosion and dust deposition areas for large landscape units.
Human activity and climate variability has always changed the Earth’s
surface and both will mainly contribute to future alteration in land cover and land
use changes. In this chapter we demonstrate a land cover and land use classification
approach for Central Asia addressing regional characteristics of the study
area. With the aim of regional classification map for Central Asia a specific
classification scheme based on the Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) of
the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Environment Programme
(FAO-UNEP) was developed. The classification was performed by using
a supervised classification method applied on metrics, which were derived from
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data with 250 m spatial
resolution. The metrics were derived from annual time-series of red and nearinfrared
reflectance as well as from Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI) and thus reflect the temporal behavior of different land cover types.
Reference data required for a supervised classification approach were collected
from several high resolution satellite imagery distributed all over the study area.
The overall accuracy results for performed classification of the year 2001 and 2009
are 91.2 and 91.3 %. The comparison of both classification maps shows significant
alterations for different classes. Water bodies such as Shardara Water Reservoir
and Aral Sea have changed in their extent. Whereby, the size of the Shardara
Water Reservoir is very dynamic from year to year due to water management and
the eastern lobe of southern Aral Sea has decreased because of the lack of inflow from Amu Darja. Furthermore, some large scale changes were detected in sparsely
vegetated areas in Turkmenistan, where spring precipitation mainly affects the
vegetation density. In the north of Kazakhstan significant forest losses caused by
forest fires and logging were detected. The presented classification approach is a
suitable tool for monitoring land cover and land use in Central Asia. Such independent
information is important for accurate assessment of water and land
recourses.
High sensitivity of the Arctic region to short-lived climate forcers, including black carbon (BC), makes crop residue burning an important source of emissions. A high to moderate uncertainty in cropland burning emission estimates from remote sensing-based analyses currently exists and is problematic for establishing baseline estimates of black carbon emissions from global remote sensing products. Straw burning and possible BC emissions were estimated at the oblast level for Russia for years 2003 through 2010. A study was based on 1 km Moderate Resolution Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Active Fire Product, oblast level agricultural statistics, 1:25,000–1:50,000 scale GIS vector field maps and developing algorithms for calculating the size and intensity of fires as well as testing the accuracy of the predictions in areas with contrast land use. Both Active Fire Product and statistics methods demonstrated consistent results, including increasing fire activity in the years with additional straw surplus and the highest absolute values for vast territories with quite intensive grain production, mainly in European Russia. Straw burning can be a source of at least 1/3 total BC emissions from agriculture and grassland fires and does not appear to be the main source of total BC emissions for the Russian Federation. For regions with small number of cropland fires, the accuracy of existing remote sensing-based land cover products is insufficient for reliable classification of agricultural fires from satellite products. Incorrect classification of agricultural fires may exceed 25 %, increasing for the northern part of the country where forests are the predominant land cover. An improved method would be to calculate BC emissions from burned area using high resolution field masks and ground validation of fire sources in cropland areas.
Systematic monitoring is indispensable for a thorough water and soil management. However, large data sets with many variables, natural heterogeneities, and a variety of (possible) influencing factors require new approaches for processing and visualization of the data. A variety of advanced techniques has been developed recently in different disciplines. Some of them have been tested for application in water and soil resources management and exhibited very promising results. Two out of these approaches are presented here by application to a data set of shallow groundwater quality that has been complied during a five years period in a small catchment in Northeast Germany. Measured variables of soil or water quality usually reflect effects of various processes. On the other hand, single processes usually affect more than one variable and thus generate a characteristic “fingerprint” that can be used in an inverse approach to identify this process based on observed measured variables. Other processes differ with respect to their “fingerprints” and thus can be differentiated in a large data set. This is the basic idea of applying dimensionality reduction approaches. Every single sample can be ascribed a score of a component that is a quantitative measure for the impact of the respective process on the given sample. Usually, a small number of components (or processes, respectively) accounts for a large fraction of the variance in a data set with many variables. This “dimensionality reduction” helps a lot to gain better understanding of the prevailing processes, of spatial and temporal patterns, and of the reasons for conspicuous data. The larger a given data set, and the larger the number of variables, the more advanced methods of data visualization are required. Modern visualization techniques pave the way for efficient use of the most powerful interface between data stored on a computer and the human brain. A single non-linear projection of high-dimensional data on a two-dimensional graph provides comprehensive information about outliers, clusters, linear and non-linear relationships, spatial patterns, multivariate trends, etc. in the data. This approach could usefully be combined with other dimensionality reduction techniques. This chapter can serve only as an appetizer. A variety of sophisticated new methods exist. These techniques still are not part of textbooks of hydrology or soil science. They require an open mind and some initial training. Then a wealth of powerful tools are at hand as a base for thorough water and soil resources management.
Crop irrigation is just as essential to agriculture in Central Asia as it is in parts of Eastern and Central Europe. Model-based tools for computerised irrigation scheduling have been under development for several decades in northeast Germany. Having been tested, they are now operational as part of the on-site farm irrigation management process. One of these, the ZEPHYR soil–water–plant model, is presented here and is evaluated against the practical requirements for improving irrigation water use efficiency, meeting crop demand for water and preventing soil salinisation in the context of an irrigated barley crop in southern Kazakhstan.
Process-based simulation models that predict crop growth, evapotranspiration, nitrate leaching or other environmental variables are commonly applied for impact assessment on agricultural crop production or the environment. Algorithms of the dynamic, process-based simulation model MONICA are presented, which was developed for demonstrating the climate and management impact on crop yields and environmental variables on the plot scale and in smaller regions in Central Europe. A legal successor of the HERMES model, it maintains the simple and robust philosophy of its progenitor and adds a full carbon cycle model to it, including the feedback relations between atmospheric CO2 concentration and other environmental variables on crop growth and water use efficiency. MONICA is the central part of a web-based decision support system that helps farmers and other stakeholders in Germany identifying management options to mitigate the impact of the expected climate change on their business. MONICA has the potential to assess the impacts of climate change and land management on crop yields, carbon balance and nitrogen efficiency in Central Asia.
Land use and crop production in the Khorezm region in western Uzbekistan, exemplarily for the irrigated lowlands of Central Asia, are challenged by the excessive, non-sustainable use of irrigation water and repeated water shortages on one hand, and soil degradation by secondary salinization on the other hand. One of the research objectives of the German-Uzbek Khorezm project, funded by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) and led by Center of Development Research (ZEF) of Bonn University, was to better understand options for land use and choice of technology at the farm level in order to evaluate and propose technological alternatives and agricultural policy options for sustainable land use. To address these issues, a Farm-Level Economic Ecological Optimization Model (FLEOM) was developed as an integrated decision-support tool capable of optimizing land and resource use at the level of large farms and water user associations, while at the same time assessing the respective economic and environmental impacts at the micro-scale. This chapter provides a brief introduction to characteristics of FLEOM and the necessary steps and studies related to the generation of its database. Based on a comprehensive system-understanding composed by a range of agronomic and socioeconomic studies carried out in the project, the model captures the basic features of the regional agriculture and the interrelations of production activities most prevalent to the local farmers. It comprises regionally specified input–output parameters and conditions of land and water use. The flexibility of the model allows the addition of new crops, the modification of socio-economic parameters in a user-friendly way, such as to simulate changes in socio-economic and production environments, securing a wide range of its possible uses in the future. FLEOM builds on linear programming optimization routine and a comprehensive agronomic database established with the cropping system simulation model (CropSyst) using field experience and knowledge of a range of agronomic and hydrological studies of the project. A graphical user-interface programmed in Java provides the model’s easy usability, by which settings and results are visualized in tables and figures or as maps via a GIS-environment. The model works in three steps: first, the model sets and imports an agronomic database. Next, the agronomic database together with socio-economic information goes through an optimization process in the General Algebraic Modeling Software (GAMS). Finally, the model transfers the results into easily understandable tables, figures and maps.
Objective of this manuscript is to present a methodology of No-Till studies in multifactorial trials. It includes comparison of No-Till and traditional tillage in various crop rotations, under various sowing dates and varieties. This allowed to make comprehensive assessment of No-Till influence on soil moisture and plant nutrients availability as well as on crop yields. On heavy textured black soil No-Till has advantage over traditional tillage on organic matter conservation and moisture conservation in dry weather conditions. Traditional tillage had advantage in infiltration of snowmelt water into the soil in early spring as well as in nitrates availability to plants. No-Till had advantage in grain yields in drier conditions thanks to better moisture conservation. Major advantage of No-Till is conservation of organic matter for long-term soil productivity.
Crop production in the agricultural steppe regions of southwest Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan is mostly focused on cropping spring cultures. Extreme temperature amplitudes, few, unevenly appearing precipitation events and high annual evapotranspiration are the major natural limiting factors. These regions mainly feature crop rotation systems with a high amount of cereals. The low effort required to apply mineral granular fertilizer and high tilling intensity in the meaning of weed protection rather than soil-protecting chemical treatment, are the main reasons for low average yields and a high risk of soil damage due to nutrient losses and wind erosion. The major goal has to be to reduce process inputs while stabilising and raising average yields. To achieve this, the priority has to be placed on minimising labour costs. Crop rotation systems have to become more diverse. Oscillating market situations might be dealt with more easily. Wider crop rotations would lead to a better soil structure and nutrient supply. Additionally, plant protection can be achieved in an easier, faster and cheaper way. Using no-till systems, yield can be stabilized and soils can be protected from wind erosion in an effective way. Seeding machines with wide row spacings and narrow single depth adjusted hoe opener systems are able to carry out shallow tillage only in the seeding furrow. They are also able to place the seed exactly to the adjusted depth. The old stubble is conserved for reasons of minimizing over-ground wind speed and evaporation. The extensive tillage during seeding with a narrow hoe opener system cleans the furrow from organic material and creates fine textured, loose soil and optimal contact between the seed and soil. The faster warming of the furrow after seeding accelerates emergence in cool temperate steppe climates. The additional placement of granular mineral fertilizers into the furrow in dry continental regions is almost the only effective means of fertilization and gives the young crops better growing conditions. The no-till seeding machines Citan Z and Condor, produced by Amazone, are developed for and well tested under high continental steppe conditions. In many trials on a farm scale it has been shown that these machines used in no-till cropping systems are able to save more fuel, time and seeding material than conventional seeding machines with chisel-opener systems. Furthermore a stabilization of the yields was observed due to the better water and nutrient supply.
High-magnesium soils and waters are emerging environmental and agricultural productivity constraints. Excess levels of magnesium (Mg2+) in irrigation waters and/or in soils negatively affect soil infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity and ultimately crop growth and yield. Although the levels of Mg2+ in irrigation waters and soils are increasing in several irrigation schemes globally, southern Kazakhstan has become a hotspot of such natural resource degradation. The productivity of magnesium-affected soils can be enhanced by increasing the levels of calcium (Ca2+) in the soil to counteract the negative impacts of Mg2+.
Studies undertaken on the soil application of phosphogypsum, a major waste product of phosphoric acid factories and a source of Ca2+, have demonstrated beneficial effects of this soil amendment in terms of (1) improved soil quality through a reduction in exchangeable magnesium percentage (EMP) levels; (2)
enhanced water movement into and through the soil vis-à-vis increased moisture storage in the soil for use by the plant roots; (3) increased cotton yield and water productivity; and (4) greater financial benefits. In addition to improving crop productivity, these studies demonstrated the beneficial use of an industrial waste
material in agriculture. With the aim of addressing the challenge of achieving sustainable agriculture production from magnesium-affected environments, there would be a need for appropriate supportive policies and functional institutions along with capacity building of farmers, researchers, and agricultural extension workers.
Available supplies of water for irrigation and other uses are becoming more limited around the world, and this trend is accelerating. Emerging computerized precision irrigation technologies will enable growers to apply water and agrochemicals more precisely and site-specifically to match the status and needs of soil and plants as determined by the analysis of data from a variety of sensor networks, wireless communications systems and decision support systems. Speed control and zone control options for site-specific variable rate irritation (SS-VRI) system are currently available, with speed control the most common. Site-specific variable rate sprinkler irrigation systems are wonderful research tools that can provide maximum amounts of information from relatively small areas. A self-propelled SS-VRI sprinkler system has been developed for agricultural research applications and 5 of these systems are now in use. This fully functional research machine has been used from 2005 to 2012 and has been very reliable. These SS-VRI systems offer many benefits for research and they have tremendous potential for a greater use in sprinkler irrigation systems worldwide for both in research and general practice to conserve water, fertilizer and energy.
We developed and tested a specific approach for multi-species grazing on deer farms by combining some principles of contemporary livestock husbandry: the fenced farming of domestic ruminants, deer farming and multi-species grazing. Our approach was designed to optimize the use of extensively managed grasslands. Even in temperate sub-humid climates it is important to prevent grassland degradation due to selective overgrazing and eradication of valuable species. Experimental investigations have focused on determining which processes are self-regulating, and specifically on recognizing which processes are relevant in the interactions between different species of grazing farm animals and wild animals, grassland vegetation and landscapes. The focus of this specific research initiative, run by the Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF) and the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW), is on comparative studies involving fallow deer (Dama dama), wild sheep (Mouflon, Ovis aries), and sheep, or red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Dexter cattle, as well as their specific effects on extensively managed grassland sites. Grazing experiments have shown clear effects and distinct differences in the grazing success between single-species and mixed-group grazing. The initial separation of the individual species in the multi-species groups disappeared over a time period lasting from several days to weeks. The animals grazed peacefully in mixed groups and even rested together in shelters. One particularly positive result was that several species grazed plants that were avoided by other animals. Moreover, weeds and invaders can be controlled by this means. Our experiment was on a wetland site, but the principle of multi-species grazing on deer farms should have potential for other locations as well. We observed clear benefits for the grassland vegetation and ecosystem which are also expected to appear for grasslands in dryland regions. Due to economic constraints (there is a limited market for meat from deer and other animals in this grazing system), the approach remains limited to some innovative farms. It cannot resolve the problems of basic food security and grassland degradation in Central Asia or elsewhere, but a site-specific adaption of this multi-species grazing system could be an interesting option for improving the micro-economy, ecology and cultural lifestyle in some areas.
The aim of this paper was to quantify soil quality in agricultural landscapes over large regions. For this purpose, representative soil catenas and single soil pits were dug, analysed and classified on test sites in Russia, Kazakhstan and Germany. Soil quality and crop yield potentials were assessed using the Muencheberg Soil Quality Rating (M-SQR) method. This method is based on the rating of indicators relevant to crop yield. The results show that the estimation of all components of the site-specific water balance and drought risk assessment is key for the evaluation of soil functions in agricultural landscapes. We found close correlations between the overall soil quality rating score and grain yields of cereals. The suitability of the M-SQR approach to assess soil quality and crop yield potentials consistently over spatial scales of Eurasia has been confirmed.
The territory of Kazakhstan is situated in the centre of the Eurasian continent and extends from 41o to 55o N and from 46o to 87o E. Its landscapes are diverse, with a great variety of climates and forms of relief (from high mountains to desert plains). The soil formation is based on the principles of latitudinal (horizontal) and vertical zonalities. The geographic soil zones in Kazakhstan from north to south are: forest-steppe, steppe, desert-steppe, and desert, where zones are classified according to the types of soil. This article characterises the natural zonality of Kazakhstan’s soils and orographic-climatic regions with a spectrum of zones and belts (Altay, North Tien-Shan, West Tien-Shan). For this characteristic of the regions and belts, including the basic climatic indexes, the type of vegetation can be used as a classification criterion. The resulting vertical distribution of soil types and subtypes will be shown. Soil mapping forms a basis for research work in various directions of soil science. Soil maps can be used to ascertain the genesis of soils and create new taxonomic classification approaches. They can also be applied for agro-industrial suitability planning, land reclamation, the estimation of soil degradation etc. Our chapter shows what methods are used to create modern soil maps, based on the application of GIS technologies, field and laboratory analytical work and the utilization of space images for the classification and delineation of soil units. Examples of applied thematic maps are shown, along with the approaches used to create them. Those maps allow terrain and land resources to be estimated and the state of the soil mantle to be monitored as a result of natural and human impacts. They are useful for the quantification of soil functions, such as productivity potential, or for the allocation of protected areas. All these maps allow measures for the restoration and sustainable development of landscapes to be developed.
As the result of a discussion that started with a debate about the indicators of land degradation and desertification in Central Asia in the context of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), it was realised that the winter cold steppe regions are seldom investigated from a multi-factorial perspective. This article reviews investigations into a framework of indicators developed to assess desertification and land degradation problems as applied to the Kulunda Steppe in the south of West Siberia by focusing on deflation morphodynamics. This article describes preliminary indicators and investigations into problems and indicators of land degradation in the Northern Kulunda at the regional level. An assessment of the deflation problem is illustrated by using the local example of the Ivanovskoe farm in the Bagan district of the Novosibirsk region. Results are presented about (a) the formulation of indicators for land degradation problems; (b) a regional morphodynamics assessment using soil maps and statistics; (c) local soil types and the dominant landscape processes and (d) a deflation assessment example based on the soil degradation indicators. The conclusion presents unresolved research questions about the vegetation-soil–water steppe system in the context of land use and protective measures in a heterogeneous steppe environment.
The surface runoff erosion of dark and light chestnut soils (Kastanozems) in the Ile Alatau foothills in the Zhambyl/Karasai administrative area and in the western part of Chemolgan near Almaty/Kazakhstan was analysed for use in devising adaptive landscape agricultural systems. 1:25,000 scale maps were modelled by combining geo-information techniques, field work and laboratory analytics. Rain and snowmelt activity depending on exposure on southern and northern slopes of agricultural land was differentiated. Single parameters were measured as snowmelt erosion and water erosion; a runoff coefficient was then calculated to determine the level of soil erosion from the intensity of the erosion processes. The results reveal that dark and light chestnut soils on northern slopes are more resistant to water erosion than those on southern slopes. It was also found that soil erosion processes induced by erosive rain are more intensive than snowmelt erosion. For chestnut soils, water erosion rates ranged from 1.4 to 30.8 t/ha induced by rainfall and from 0.7 to 3.5 t/ha induced by snowmelt, depending on slope inclination and exposure. Greater erosion was detected on southern slopes. No clear differentiation was found when comparing the erosion rates of dark and light chestnut soils.
The article highlights the methodology of evaluating the changing processes and water resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan with the help of geo-information technologies, determining their dynamic parameters based on thematic satellite data processing methods and techniques for theoretical and applied purposes. A review of space imaging systems with different technical characteristics was carried out. A technological scheme for making precision mosaics using high-resolution optical electronic space imagery is proposed; this is supplied with mosaics composed of LANDSAT space imagery of the Ertis river basin. A schematic map has been developed showing the water basins of transboundary rivers in Kazakhstan and neighbouring countries with a list of cartographic layers, objects and information, including administrative territorial divisions and terrain (contours, heights, forms of relief), as well as the structure of the GIS database.
Changes in the water balance in landscapes can be easily observed by measuring water levels, runoff, etc. Determining the causes of changes in the water balance is much more difficult, because of the complex interrelations between the interacting hydrological processes. However, revealing the causes and processes is necessary to understand the source of changes and to evaluate management options. With the help of modelling and scenario analyses, it is possible to differentiate between the effects of, for example, land use/land cover and climate on the water balance, taking the underlying hydrological processes into consideration. Two case studies are presented: the Ngerengere river catchment in Tanzania, Africa and a forested area in North-East Germany. In these areas the observed water balance has changed considerably in the last few decades. The influence of climate conditions and land use change are analysed and determined with the help of the SWAT model, the WaSiM-ETH model and statistical analyses. Both the suitability and the limitations of this methodology of model-based impact analysis are demonstrated.
This article includes materials on the environmental status of soils as a result of disturbances to the soil surface by resource-extracting industries, and the degradation and desertification of the soil surface in the Aral Sea area. It highlights the methods of field study used in technologically disturbed lands and biotechnological methods of remediating soils which are disturbed and transformed by oil production and aridity. Comprehensive biogeocenologic studies of the initial processes of soil formation in technogenically disturbed ecosystems have been conducted. Integrated approaches have made it possible to develop biotechnological remediation methods. The main aim was to initiate humus formation and soil development by introducing site-adapted vegetation. This was supported by specific biological soil ameliorants and occasionally also by chemical soil ameliorants. Haloxylon aphyllum proved a most promising drought-resistant plant for land restoration on many sites. Fencing was very important for the natural restoration of the soil and vegetation.
This chapter presents the research material gained during implementation of the international project led by the International Center for Agricultural Research in Arid Areas (ICARDA) entitled “Sustainable management of land resources in arid regions of Central Asia and Caucasus”. This project focused primarily on irrigation and degraded pastures in south and southeast Kazakhstan. Soils and forage crops were studied using conventional, proven methodological approaches and agro-chemical methods. The subjects of the study were: terrains, soil, water, cultivated and pasture plants (rice, triticale and winter wheat, wormwood-ephemeral, grass-shrub and cereal-grass communities). The following aspects were studied and evaluated: soil reclamation and the environmental condition of the soil surface of Shiely irrigation area, fertility levels, soil salinity chemistry and soil degradation under irrigation in the Kyzylorda region, as well as the degradation of pastures in the Sarysu district of the Zhambyl region. The current status of the soil surface of each study object was described. In addition, methods were devised to improve soil reclamation and environmental conditions and conservation, and to increase soil fertility and crop productivity in irrigated saline soils and pastures of the arid zone.
Applying microbiofertilisers can be a sustainable alternative to the wide use of chemical fertilisers. They have the potential to reduce the amount of chemical fertilisers applied and thus to minimise environmental pollution, such as nitrogen leaching and gaseous emissions. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of applying the microbiofertiliser ''MERS'' to the soil microbial com-munity, the yield and quality of winter wheat and soil chemical properties. Over a three-year period (from 2006 to 2009), experiments were conducted at the experimental station of Kazakh Research Institute of Water Resources in the Taraz Zhambyl region. Applying the microbiofertiliser ''MERS'' to meadow grey soils had an impact on soil properties in all three experimental years. The humus content and content of plant-available N, P and Na were higher in the treated plots than in the control variant. The abundance of the microbial community, in particular heterotrophic bacteria, actinomycetes, yeasts and microscopic fungi, increased for all application rates. The highest increase was found with an application rate of 500 ml/ha. The same application rate had the greatest impact on the yield of the winter wheat cultivar ''Almaly'' (5.27 t/ha compared to 4.27 t/ha for the control variant).
Review of the main water treatment methods recommended for application in water supply processes at rural settlements with a daily water consumption of less than 1,000 m3, and types of plants where these methods are in current use. One of the factors influencing the productive activities and social development of rural settlements is the water supply. A lot of attention is paid to problems related to the drinking water supply. In Kazakhstan, most water pipes and water treatment plants began operation or were overhauled more than 30 years ago. Outdated water treatment systems do not provide a high-quality water supply. More than 25 % of operational water pipelines do not meet the sanitary requirements. More than 90 % of rural settlements in Kazakhstan are supplied from underground sources (wells, percolation wells, tapping of springs); only the remaining 10 % are from surface sources. The conditions of rural water use (less than 1,000 m3 a day), the lack of skilled repair personnel and the intermittent electricity supply necessitate the use of compact, energy-saving and nonchemical means of water treatment. Looking through patents and the literature for recent years shows that the basic methods of domestic water improvement are still clearing, decolouration, softening, fluoridation, defluoridation, desalination and disinfection. Thus, taking into account the above review of the main water treatment methods and the types of plants at which reverse osmosis treatment can be applied the following methods are recommended in the water supply systems of rural settlements with a daily water consumption of less than 1,000 m3. For water clearing and decolouration, low-rate filters should be applied. Local close-burning shungites and zeolite (“Koksu” deposit) can be used as a percolation bed. For hard water with a high fluoride and iron content use the “Struya” water treatment unit. For softening, apply liming, soda lime and the sodium cycle (equipment produced by LLC “Membrane technologies C.A.”); for deferrisation and permanganating, filter with preliminary aeration using equipment produced by “Aikos”; for defluoridation, apply an ion-exchange pressure filter with an alumina filter bed (Al2O3); for disinfection, apply a UV sterilizer (LLC, “Membrane technologies C.A.”); for desalination/deionization, apply reverse osmosis modules arranged in the internal chamber of the well casing (LLC “Kazakh Water Economy Research Institute”).
Currently, one major negative factor in the reduction of soil fertility is contamination with heavy metals, pesticides and other pollutants. In this regard, the main purpose of this work is to study and evaluate soil pollution with heavy metals in irrigated areas of Southern Kazakhstan and to determine the key geochemical parameters of heavy metals. One research object was the soils of large rice farms in the Shiely area of irrigation. The study was conducted using the method of large-scale soil analysis and mapping. Among the environmentally hazardous mobile forms of metals in the soils of the Shiely irrigation area, Pb has the largest share (54 %), then Ni (22 %). Zn and Cu have 12 and 10 % respectively. The share of Cd is only 2 %. Based on the analysis of cartographic material, it has been determined that on the territory investigated, Cu is found in 5 groups of soil which contain more than 3.15 mg Cu per 1 kg of soil. A high concentration of Pb is found in the group of soils, at 9.0–15 mg per 1 kg of soil. Ni is found in high concentration in soils: 4.6–6.0 mg/kg. Thus, based on analysis of the data obtained, we can conclude that for all the mobile forms of the elements studied, one major aspect is the predominance of the accumulative character of distribution in the soil profile is observed, and gross forms are characterized by eluvial-illuvial processes. Environmentally hazardous mobile metal forms available for the plants are subjected to the influence of irrigation to a greater degree than their gross forms.
This concept defines the goals, objectives and areas of work aimed at implementing the public monitoring of agricultural lands and lands used or rented for agricultural purposes within lands of other categories, the data on which are the basis for establishing public information resources on the status and use of these lands. This paper includes the methods for conducting studies monitoring the soils of Northern Kazakhstan, their current status and ways of improving soil fertility in terms of the ordinary and southern black soils of Northern Kazakhstan. It shows the climatic conditions of subzones of ordinary and southern black soils where the studies were conducted, their morphological indices, physical–chemical properties and significant changes in the soil properties due to long-term agricultural use. Use of the results from monitoring studies will allow scientists to forecast the development of negative soil processes, prevent the shrinking of agricultural land, and justify the need for programmes of soil fertility conservation and restoration.
The phosphorus fertilization of crops is a most important issue because of the limited resources of phosphate rock on the one hand and the possible negative impacts on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems on the other hand. This chapter deals with the results of long-term field experiments to diagnose and optimize the phosphorus nutrition of cereal crops in Northern Kazakhstan. The efficiency of the phosphorus fertilization was most dependent on the plant-available P content in the soil as analyzed using Machigin’s extraction method. We present an approach to evaluate the phosphate status in the soil and to determine the particular requirements of grain crops. The inputs used to calculate fertilizer demand are the optimum content of plant-available phosphorus, its current concentration in the topsoil and the quantity of phosphorus to be fertilized in order to raise the plant-available P2O5 by 1 mg kg−1 soil. The approach is based on the Machigin method and is currently not transferrable to other regions, where other analytical methods are common. In order to compare this approach with other methods worldwide, methodical comparisons of different analytical methods for assessing the plant available P content in soils are necessary in future. We also require a better understanding and quantification of phosphorus cycling in ecosystems, based on internationally acknowledged analytical methods, models and long-term experiments.
This book deals with methods which could gain importance for better monitoring and management of water and land resources in Central Asia. Knowledge about the existence, principles and potential benefit of these methods could improve the work of researchers, the authorities, managers, and decision makers. Science teachers at universities have a particular responsibility and interest regarding innovation in the international scientific arena. They have to educate a new generation of academics who will make tomorrow’s decisions. This must include profound knowledge about the most crucial resources for the prosperity and welfare of their nations: water and land. Ways of sustainably handling these resources must be initiated very soon.
... In contrast to other natural zones, these vast areas are occupied by sand (17.5 mln ha), saline soils (2.6 mln ha) and takyr plains (0.3 mln ha). The total are of saline soils in the desert zone with brown and grey-brown soils exceeds 60 mln ha, and alkaline complexes are present in 22 mln ha [10]. On the vast territory of Kazakhstan, there are a number of regions where the combination of various forms of environmentally damaged soils has resulted in a crisis situation. ...
... Irrational use of the natural resources leads to ecological violation. The total area of Kazakhstan is 272 million hectares, at present day 180 million hectares is under the danger of degradation, or 60 % of the total territory [10,22]. ...
... As a result, sources of soil deflation appeared in these regions that lead to high concentration salts in the atmospheric flows. These salts provoke deterioration of pastures, reduction of biodiversity, salinization and desertification of soils [10]. Protection against to soil erosion and destruction requires erosion reclamation (agrotechnical, biological, chemical). ...
Desertification and land degradation are common processes in arid and semi-arid regions of Kazakhstan, especially southern parts, where areas are covered by a great variety of desert types. In deserts, soil-forming processes take place in conditions of severe water shortage, and high level of soil degradation and desertification. The main natural factors for these processes are a flat terrain, a high degree of arid climate, soil salinity, carbonate content, a lack of structure and low natural soil fertility. However, the anthropogenic factors of desertification and soil degradation became dominant last decades. The study considers the actual problems of natural and anthropogenic factors of desertification and land degradation within Kazakhstan. The desertification of huge territories is accompanied by soil contamination, waterlogging by surface water and groundwater, soil salinization, erosion (water, wind), degradation of vegetation cover, dehumidification and a decrease in general regional biological capacity. Analysis of the current status of the soil cover has shown intensive land degradation 43 % of the territory of Kazakhstan is subjected to degradation in significant degree; over 14 % of pastures have reached an extreme degree of degradation or are completely degradated. The Aral Sea region, Northern Caspian Sea and Southern Balkhash deserts can be observed as areas of intensive soil desertification, salinization and deflation processes. As well as the desertification process are progressing in the irrigated soils of the deltas of Syrdarya, Shu, Ile and Karatal rivers.
... Countries in post-Soviet Central Asia (CA) have experienced drastic socioeconomic and environmental changes after the collapse of Soviet Union in 1991. This has led to extensive changes in land use and land cover (LULC) due to ongoing various transformations within the region (Mueller et al. 2014). For example, extensive irrigated areas established within CA, particularly in the downstream areas of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya rivers, are reported to have almost disappeared specifically the marginal lands due to land degradation, poorly maintained irrigation and drainage infrastructure, and frequent droughts (Karthe et al. 2014). ...
... Such policies have ended up with a lack of incentives for sustainable land practices in such areas as well as lack of maintenance of irrigation and drainage under the conditions of market economy (Dietz et al. 2015). Among other driving factors of vegetation trends in the region, the land tenure insecurity, breakdown of land/water management-related institutions, poverty, migration, and population growth (Mueller et al. 2014;de Jong et al. 2011;Kerlinger 1964;Kariyeva and van Leeuwen 2012) are adding to the preexisting problems. These suggest that in parallel to environmental factors that have a direct effect on the vegetation trends in the region, a special attention should be given to the analysis of socioeconomic and political factors. ...
The regional resilience of a landscape to climate change in water-scarce areas is one of the core environmental problems nowadays for Central Asian countries. Responses to increasing temperature and high evapotranspiration (ET0) regimes have contributed to biodiversity loss and altered vegetation dynamics and changed the land use and management in these landscapes. Extremely dry conditions and droughts are recognized as an important factor that triggers land degradation in Central Asia. The aim of this study is to conduct attribution analysis to assess drought trends that are quantified using the Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) and effects of other biophysical factors on the region and at a country level. The kriging (geostatistics) method was utilized to predict the status of vegetation change trends and generalize additive smoothed parameters to provide response factors for changes of land cover status. Specific objectives of the study were (a) to assess drought trends and their effects on climate–vegetation trends at the regional and local level; (b) identify the main affected regions among five countries (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) and characterize their patterns for monitoring land tenures; and (c) define appropriate ecological risk zones, especially trends of spatial changes over time with drought trends. The simulated and predicted maps with kriging dependence terms indicated that the climate–vegetation-driven dataset will suffer substantial losses of vegetation health [normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)] in precipitation-driven regions of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, and that these areas, especially, Ahal and Lebap Provinces in Turkmenistan, Kyzylorda in Kazakhstan, Karakalpakstan Autonomous Republic in Uzbekistan, and Gorno-Badakhsan Autonomous Region (GBAR) in Tajikistan, are very sensitive to droughts, which might alert us to the fragility of this ecosystem.
... Extending and combining visual methods with other simple quantitative or qualitative field methods will give a more general soil quality indicator, such as in VSA and SOILpak (Mueller et al., 2014;Munkholm and Holden, 2015). Govaerts et al. (2006) proposed a minimum data set to assess soil quality that should take into account soil and climatic conditions for the specific agroecological zone and their interaction with land use. ...
... Govaerts et al. (2006) proposed a minimum data set to assess soil quality that should take into account soil and climatic conditions for the specific agroecological zone and their interaction with land use. Mueller et al. (2014) also proposed the combination of quantitative and qualitative field based methods with visual evaluation of soil methods. Combination of VSE methods with visual crop evaluation may also extend the agronomic relevance of VSE for identifying limiting soil conditions. ...
As the use of visual soil evaluation (VSE) methods has spread globally, they have been exposed to different climatic and pedological scenarios, resulting in the need to elucidate limitations, encourage refinements and open up new avenues of research. The main objective of this paper is to outline the potential of VSE methods to develop novel soil structure research and how this potential could be developed and integrated within existing research. We provide a brief overview of VSE methods in order to summarize the soil information that is obtained by VSE. More detailed VSE methods could be developed to provide spatial information for soil process models, e.g. compaction models. VSE could be combined with sensing techniques at the field or landscape scale for better management of fields in the context of precision farming. Further work should be done to integrate plant vigour, roots and soil fauna into VSE methods to provide general indicators of soil quality and for estimation of environmental risk factors related to soil C storage, GHG emissions and nutrient leaching, with particular reference to temporal changes. There is a great potential in combining (rather than comparing) VSE with measurements of soil structure, i.e. integrating VSE in soil structure and compaction research, as these methods provide spatial information that is difficult to obtain with other methods.
... Within Kazakhstan, emissions largely originate from industrial centers, including Almaty, Nur-Sultan, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Temirtau, Atyrau, Aktau, Zhezkazgan, Aktobe, Balkhash, Pavlodar, and Taldykorgan (Kazgidromet, 2021). In this region, approximately 3-4 million tonnes of polluting chemicals are released into the air annually (Saparov, 2014). Today, 73% of electricity in Kazakhstan is generated by coal-fired thermal power plants, which are sources of many metal emissions. ...
The determination of potentially toxic element concentrations in fish is an important topic from the point of view of both nature conservation and human consumption. The aim of this study was to assess the concentrations of S, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Zn, Rb, Sr, Mo, and P in benthic and pelagic fish species in the Karatal river, which is fed by melting glaciers from the Dzungarian Alatau in Kazakhstan. In September 2022, 48 fish samples were collected. It has been demonstrated that the accumulation of chemical elements in fish species can be explained by both the physiological parameters of the fish species and the influence of glaciers that feed river habitats. The data presented in this study provide a synergistic view of pollutants affecting fish populations. Benthic fish contained more manganese and strontium than pelagic species, while the mutual accumulation of potassium, chromium, rubidium, and molybdenum was higher in pelagic fish. The synergistic concentration of calcium and phosphorus in pelagic fish was higher than that in benthic species, while the amount of zinc and sulfur was higher in benthic animals. Relatively elevated levels of mercury in fish were found. The study contributes to the discussion about the role of glacial environments in loading pollutants to aquatic systems.
... The topography in CA is high in the southeast and low in the northwest, transitioning from vast plains to rugged mountains. Ice-covered peaks are concentrated in KGZ and TJK, and lowlands appear mainly in UZB (Mueller et al., 2014). This type of landscape effectively blocks warm and humid air currents from the Indian and Pacific Oceans to some extent . ...
... P i has a low plant availability due to sorption or occlusion with aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) oxides in acidic soils, or calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) cations in alkaline soils (Sharpley 1995;Balemi & Negisho, 2012). In agriculture practice exogenous P o and P i input can be rapidly immobilized by soil microorganism (Frossard et al. 2000;Bünemann et al. 2012), especially in semi-arid Kazakhstan steppe alkaline P-limited soil (Palpurina et al. 2019;Chernenok and Barkusky 2014), influencing microbial P nutrient mining fixed by Ca and Mg, and of soil organic matter (SOM) (Harrison 1989;Johnston et al. 2014;Wei et al. 2017;Yuan et al. 2019). ...
Background and aimsThe stoichiometric ratio of carbon (C): phosphorus (P) acquisition is strongly correlated with soil available C:P ratio. However how the stoichiometric relationship between acquiring C and P through microbial metabolism affects bioavailable P is poorly understood in semi-arid agricultural ecosystems.Methods
Our objective was to investigate the underlying mechanisms of the P availability in typical P-limited steppe soil from Kazakhstan in response to mineral nutrient (Na2HPO4) with and without Dactylis glomerata L. leaves addition in a 38-day incubation experiment.ResultsFour bioavailable P fractions content (CaCl2-P, Citrate-P, Enzyme-P, and HCl-P) were improved. Sole application of P fertilizer decreased the maximal velocity (Vmax) of P acquisition enzyme (phosphomonoesterase) but increased microbial C limitation, resulting in increasing the ratio of C to P acquisition but decreasing the ratio of available dissolved organic C: Olsen-P. In contrast, plant residues returning (the application of sole D. glomerata leaves and the combined application of D.glomerata and mineral P) increased Vmax of C (β-1, 4-glucosidase, β-D-cellobiosidase, β-1, 4-xylosidase) and P acquisition enzymes, however decreasing microbial C and P limitation through improving microbial metabolism. Furthermore, the spearman correlation and piecewiseSEM analysis suggested that microbial C limitation and EEAC:P had a negative effect on P availability, illustrating that the decreasing of microbial C limitation can improve soil bioavailable P.Conclusion
The decomposition of organic residues eliminated microbial P limitation and increased P availability by allocating C and P acquisition enzymes to balance the stoichiometric ratio of microbial C and P demand.Graphical Abstract
... Mountain forests provide critical ecosystem services, primarily provisioning, regulating, and supporting services (Postel & Thompson, 2005). All of the major rivers in Central Asia originate in the mountains and all are transboundary, in that they fl ow between two or more countries (Mueller et al., 2014). Paramount is the role of forests in protecting watersheds. ...
Diverse environmental gradients in Central Asia and Mongolia, from high mountain forests to semi-desert lowlands salinized by past agriculture and water withdrawals, pose challenges to restoring degraded forests and landscapes. Technical approaches in dryland forestry and agroforestry methods are available to overcome these challenges, but to be fully eff ective, require policy and institutional changes. Climate variability and natural hazards are features of the region and the future is projected to become more arid with more intense rainfall. Closed forests, open woodlands, and shrublands are features of the dryland landscape, and provide a variety of ecosystem functions and services to be restored. In this work, steps in the restoration process are discussed, including halting degradation, conserving and rehabilitating existing forests, restoring dryland forests and agroforestry where trees are lacking, and adapting to climate change. Stanturf, J. A., Botman, E., Kalachev, A., Borissova, Y., Kleine, M., Rajapbaev, M., Chyngozhoev, N. & Nyam-Osor, B. 2020. Dryland forest restoration under a changing climate in Central Asia and Mongolia. Mong. J. Biol. Sci., 18(2): 3 ̶ ̶ 18.
... Several research papers have addressed and discussed environmental problems in Kazakhstan in detail in their research articles. Over the many years since Kazakhstan had gained its independence, numerous local Kazakhstani and international scholars have analyzed environmental problems in Kazakhstan from various angles, such as in relation to water pollution aspects [20][21][22][23][24][25]; waste management issues [26][27][28][29][30][31][32]; air pollution [33][34][35][36][37][38][39]; Aral Sea issue [40][41][42][43][44][45][46]; health effects by radioactive waste [47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54]; soil and land degradation issues [55][56][57][58][59][60][61]; and issues related to ecosystem and biodiversity [62][63][64][65][66][67]. Thus, plenty of research has been done in terms of analysis of different ecological problems in the country. ...
Environmental awareness issues in Kazakhstan are one of the most undermined topics both among
the public community and in terms of state rhetoric. In the context of official state documents, so far only
two official environmental codes and national program called Zhasyl Kazakhstan were introduced in the
country in 2021. While on the one hand the Environmental Code was introduced with the purpose to
modernize, frame and enlist main legislative aspects on various sectors of environmental law in Kazakhstan, on the other hand the Zhasyl Kazakhstan Program has been implemented as a state program to
address with numerous environmental projects various environmental issues ranging from air pollution
to waste management as well as aspects related to ecological education and low environmental awareness matters. In this regard, the main goal of this paper is to analyze critically the main content of both of
these documents with a particular focus on sections related to environmental awareness raising aspects.
For that, this paper applied a subjective-based content analysis in order to identify interesting insights on
regulatory legal aspects, future research streams, and uncovering of improved legislative frameworks in
the context of environmental awareness issue. Apart from that, five open-ended questions were send out
to the Ministry of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources to obtain primary data on the state’s view in
regards to current previous, recent and future aspects of environmental awareness issue in the country
... Each is a close catchment with a large lake, i.e., Caspian Lowland with the Caspian Sea, Turan Lowland with the Aral Balkhash, and Alakul Lowland with the Balkhash Lake. They cover 93.4 Mln ha, and with increased groundwater and soil salinity, comprise 70% of Kazakhstani salinated areas [6]. However, the lowlands mentioned above differ in geological structure and the presence of rocks rich in soluble salts; thus, they are characterized by different types of soil salinity. ...
Abstract: Most irrigated lands in the Republic of Kazakhstan are in its southern part, in the large deltas and ancient alluvial plains in the basins of the rivers Syr Darya and Ili. The combination of climatic features and anthropogenic pressures leads to increased salinity and contamination of cultivated soils in this region, resulting in a qualitative and quantitative decline in crop production.
The study’s primary goal was to assess soil secondary salinity and selected heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cd,Ni and Cu) contamination in irrigated arable soils. To identify the potential source of soil pollution,we compared the concentration of salt and heavy metals (both total and mobile forms) in different soil types in three depths of soil profiles obtained from irrigated cultivated and non-cultivated (abounded) territory in the Shauldara massif in the southern part of Kazakhstan. All studied soils are prone to secondary salinization with either a medium or high content of sum of salts with domination by Na+ among cations and by SO42− among anions. The soil contamination with heavy metals was
low, and, in most cases, except for cadmium, it was below the limits developed for arable soils in most countries. Soil contamination with cadmium results from contamination of the water used for irrigation of farmland.
Keywords: arid regions; Kazakhstan; irrigated soils; soil salinity; heavy metals
... Our research was conducted in the Golodnaya Steppe geological formation that is a vast intermountain drainage basin, bounded on the south by Turkestan range, and on the northeast by Kuramin and Chat Kal ranges (Bekbayev et al. 2015;Micklin et al. 2014;Mueller et al. 2014). ...
Soil salinity of the irrigated soils in a cotton farm of Kazakhstan was studied aimed to provide background for reconstruction of collection-drainage system of whole region and preventing soil deterioration. The experimental data obtained for 2012-2014 were plotted for the development of the map of soil salinity (1:10000) seasonally and vertically. In spring 2014 the area under medium saline soil in 0-20 cm layer decreased from 79.5 to 57.7%; the area of weakly saline soils increased from 20.5 to 34.6%. In autumn and winter periods the area of strongly saline soils decreased from 25.6 to 14.1%. The area of non-saline soils was 7.7%. The changes in the ions amount, both vertically and seasonally, occur with transport of salts along soil profile driven by temperature gradients and the level of ground water, i.e., in spring from up to down, and in autumn and winter, contrary from down to up.
... At the same time there is likely to be less rainfall in mid-continental areas, leading to a greater likelihood of droughts. Climate change is expected to limit agronomic productivity, mainly through erosion, compaction and loss of organic matter (Mueller et al., 2014). Erosion is expected to increase in many areas under climate change because of the widespread reduction in rainfall and increased evaporation which reduces the potential for ground cover, and increases in rainfall erosivity due to a greater frequency of more intense storms. ...
This book with nine chapters describes the main methods for visual soil evaluation (VSE) of soil structure and soil-related properties. It includes clear visual images of the variation of soil quality and how these relate to soil productivity and environmental sustainability. Such images raise awareness and provide a measure of the soil degradation that is a looming threat to the viability of world agriculture. Emphasis is given to recognizing, protecting and restoring soil quality as these are of vital importance for tackling problems of food insecurity, global change and environmental degradation. The book shows how these aims can be achieved with VSE by describing tools that can readily be used by land users and environmental authorities to assess crop performance, soil improvement and soil productivity. VSE is also placed in the context of future sustainable intensification of agriculture including factors of soil loss, resilience, climate change, scarcity of water and other resources, nutrient retention and increased risk of degradation. This book is relevant not only to students, lecturers, scientists and advisors working directly with soils but also to policy makers, food security experts, environmentalists and engineers who have an interest in soils and sustainable agricultural production. Last, but not least, it is hoped that these simple VSE techniques will be used extensively in years to come as a tool to link soil specialists and non-specialists together with the mutual aim of developing sustainable soil management to advance global food security and improve the environment.
... Soil distribution and formation of climate features in the region are subject to the law of vertical zonality (Saparov, 2014). The research area (FSAR, 2005) is characterized by a sharply continental climate, low air humidity, abundance of sunlight, short but moderately cold winters. ...
... During the first years of independence, all the Central Asian countries focused their agrarian policies on maximizing wheat production. Due to dryland cropping possibilities on fertile Loess soils in the North, Kazakhstan became a grain exporter within a few years (Suleimenov 2014). In all the Central Asian countries, crop diversification and livestock production suffered from low productivity and limited sustainability. ...
Agricultural landscapes (rural landscapes, agrolandscapes) are territories shaped by agricultural production. They have enabled the development of human civilizations and are a cultural achievement. Peasants, farmers and agricultural enterprises feed society. They have created agricultural landscapes for their business and habitats for their life. To understand transformation processes in agricultural landscapes, we analyse the history of agriculture with a special focus on Europe and Eurasia. Current agricultural landscapes in a crowded, globalized world are multifunctional, highly complex systems. They not only serve to produce food commodities and energy for the increasing and expanding urban population but also provide diverse ecosystem services and need to cater for the demands of the rural population. Current agriculture is highly productive in wealthy countries, but due to high inputs it is also responsible for environmental problems such as water pollution and loss of biodiversity. Industrial-style agriculture in large fields has resulted in increased productivity but simplified the structure of landscapes and eliminated elements of nature and rural culture. Major problems that urgently need to be addressed include trends towards disrupting natural cycles in agricultural production, soil and water degradation, ageing populations in villages and the breakdown of rural infrastructure. Agricultural landscape research provides analyses to understand these processes and helps elaborate sustainable scientific, technical and cultural solutions.
... During the first years of independence, all the Central Asian countries focused their agrarian policies on maximizing wheat production. Due to dryland cropping possibilities on fertile Loess soils in the North, Kazakhstan became a grain exporter within a few years (Suleimenov 2014). In all the Central Asian countries, crop diversification and livestock production suffered from low productivity and limited sustainability. ...
The slurry strip-till (STR) technique combines reduced tillage (strip tillage) with the precise injection of slurry below the plant seed position. This technique is designed to improve the nitrogen (N) use efficiency of organic fertilizers. The present study aimed at evaluating how efficiently the strip-till technique uses N compared to the conventional broadcast slurry application (CONV) in the case of maize (Zea mays L.). Field trials with five treatments (unfertilized control, slurry strip-till with and without nitrification inhibitors (NIs), conventional surface broadcast slurry incorporation with and without NI) were conducted on loamy sandy soils in northern and central Germany for three study years (2014–2016). The soil mineral N (SMN) contents were analyzed at three depths (0–30, 30–60, 60–90 cm) to ascertain the N displacement out of the topsoil. Furthermore, maize dry matter (DM) yields and N uptakes were determined to calculate the N recovery efficiency (NRE) of the studied application systems.
... Because of the mountain ranges in the east and southeast, winters are harsh and prolonged with a temperature range of −25 • C to 10 • C with a snow-covered landscape for more than half of the year. The summers across the Central Asian regions are generally warm to hot, with mean temperatures ranging from 10 • C to 40 • C [32]. ...
The northern part of the globe is dominated by industrialisation and is well-developed. For many years, the southern part of the world (South Asia, Africa etc.) has been a target of research concentrating on access to energy (mainly electricity) in rural regions. However, the Central Asian region has not been a focus of energy research compared to South East Asia and Africa. Despite plentiful domestically available energy resources, the energy supply in Central Asia is very unevenly distributed between urban and rural areas. Almost half of the total population of Central Asia lives in rural areas and there is a lack of access to modern energy services to meet primary needs. To analyse the energy situation (i.e., electricity, heating, hot water consumption, cooking, etc.) in rural Central Asia, this paper reviews residential energy consumption trends in rural Central Asian regions as compared to urban areas. Furthermore, the paper illustrates the potential of renewable energies in Central Asia. To perform the study, a qualitative comparative analysis was conducted based on a literature review, data, and statistical information. In summary, the presented article discusses the rural energy situation analytically and provides in-depth insights of Central Asian energy infrastructure.
... The region has an arid to semiarid climate with cold winters and dry, hot summers. There is a marked south to north precipitation gradient, ranging from an annual rainfall of ∼575 mm in Shymkent to less than 200 mm at Otr ar (19). Most precipitation falls between October and May as snow, whose thaw, in combination with rainfall in early spring and glacier runoff, generates peak flow. ...
Significance
Our paper challenges the long-held view that the fall of Central Asia’s river civilizations was determined by warfare and the destruction of irrigation infrastructure during the Mongol invasion. An integration of radiometric dating of long-term river dynamics in the region with irrigation canal abandonment shows that periods of cultural decline correlate with drier conditions during multicentennial length periods when the North Atlantic Oscillation had mostly positive index values. There is no evidence that large-scale destruction of irrigation systems occurred during the Arab or Mongol invasion specifically. A more nuanced interpretation identifies chronic environmental challenges to floodwater farming over the last two millennia, punctuated by multicentennial-length periods with favorable hydromorphic and hydroclimatological conditions that enabled irrigation agriculturists to flourish.
... The study area includes several transboundary river basins, and the development and utilization of transboundary river basins are mainly Ili River and Irtysh River [21]. Ili River is 1236 km long with a watershed area of 1.51 × 10 5 km 2 , and it has about 22.8 billion m 3 of water resources. ...
With the rapid development of social economy and global climate warming, scarce transboundary water resources, as one of the basic resources for socio-economic development, have increasingly become the focus of basin countries. To investigate the socio-economic impacts of different water diversion quantity from transboundary river basins, we used a system dynamics (SD) model to reflect interactions between population, water resources, and socio-economic development, and applied it to a case study in Xinjiang to simulate its change tendency from 2011 to 2030 from the temporal dimension. Then, four water diversion quantity of transboundary river basins and four alternative socio-economic development patterns were designed to comprehensively evaluate these impacts of water diversion quantity change on the socio-economy of the region along the river under different socio-economic development patterns. The results indicate that (1) there was a positive correlation between water diversion quantity and the economic output value of the region along transboundary river basins, and the marginal benefit of transboundary water resources would decrease gradually; (2) considering the difficulty of water diversion from transboundary river basins and the protection of downstream water use and ecological health of transboundary river basins, we believe that increasing the transboundary water resources by 20% was more conducive to the sustainable development of Xinjiang’s socio-economy; (3) through the comparison of dynamic evolutions of socio-economic development and water impacts under four socio-economic development patterns, it is best for Xinjiang to plan its future development in the coordinated development of economic-resource scenario. Following this scenario, not only would the total output value of the socio-economy be better than other scenarios, but this also helps to alleviate the contradiction between the water supply and demand, which expected there would be a water shortage of 1.04 billion m3 in 2029 under 20% increase in water diversion quantity. Therefore, appropriate water diversion quantity, reasonable adjustment of industrial production growth rate, reduction of water consumption quotas of different industries and domestic water quota, and improvement of collection and treatment rate for sewage should be given priority in water resources management decision-making in Xinjiang or other arid regions along transboundary river basins.
... In our study, during the scoring phase prejudice and conditionality were minimized, through the independent application of VSA by observers characterized by the absence of preexisting bias on ZT or CA practices (students at different educational degrees and scientists with different skills). The observers' background did not influence the visual observations of the quantitative indicators (Table 1), nor of the qualitative ones, as previously stated in other studies (Mueller and Saparov 2014;Moncada et al. 2014;Leeuwen et al. 2018). Also, the reproducibility of the VSA results has been ensured avoiding too wet or too dry field conditions as highlighted by other authors (Leeuwen et al. 2018) and following the indications of the VSA field guide manual (Shepherd et al. 2008). ...
Conservation Agriculture approach could be strategic for Soil Quality (SQ) conservation under the Mediterranean conditions of Southern Europe’s environments. In this study, we reported the results obtained during a 2-year field experiment (split-plot design) of a 7-year experiment started in 2010–2011, combining two tillage practices (Conventional Tillage (CT) and Zero Tillage (ZT)) with two crop sequences (Wheat monocropping (WW) and Wheat-Faba bean (WF)). SQ was monitored through the selection of some chemical, physical, and biological indicators measured by both visual – Visual Soil Assessment (VSA) – and standard field or laboratory measurements. ZT produced higher values for some VSA indicators, i.e., ‘soil structure and consistence’ and ‘earthworms counts’, as well as for soil organic carbon content (0.84 vs. 0.75% in ZT and CT, respectively). CT+WW and CT+WF treatments released significantly higher CO2 fluxes of 35% and 41% than ZT+WW and ZT+WF, respectively. No clear effect of soil tillage practices on community-level physiological profiles was observed; conversely, WF induced higher values of well-color development, richness (R), and Shannon–Weaver index (H) than WW. Under dry Mediterranean areas, ZT practices, especially when combined with the other conservation principles (i.e., crop rotation), seem to ameliorate several SQ indicators already after 7-year period of adoption, allowing a positive trend for soil preservation.
... A limited number of localized studies have investigated environmental problems in different regions of the country, some also focusing on the potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in soils: Mueller et al. (2014) investigated the level of heavy metals in oil-polluted soils in Atyrau region, the reported concentrations of measured Pb, Co, Ni, Cd, Cu, Zn, V, and Mo were 2-12 times higher than the maximum permissible concentrations (MPCs) stated in legislation. The researchers state that the oil-polluted soil became an accumulator and a storage for hazardous forms of the heavy metals which could migrate to the Caspian Sea and thus could cause problems of larger scale. ...
The present study aims to investigate the distribution of selected potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in Kazakhstan's topsoils. Soil samples collected across a north-south gradient (n = 40) near main highways connecting major residential/industrial areas were characterized for their As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn content as well as for soil physio-chemical properties. The majority of the soils had neutral pH (no significant relationship between pH and PTE concentrations). The soil organic carbon was higher at the northern and farther southern parts of the transect (along with higher concentrations of PTEs in soils). As, Mn, and Ni concentrations in soils were elevated in comparison to relevant background concentrations. Critical concentrations of As, Cd, Co, Mn, and Ni (with respect to regulatory limits) were found at multiple locations, with As being particularly of potential concern (range: 8.7–42 mg × kg⁻¹). The distance from the nearest settlement seems to influence the soil PTE concentrations, however the relationship is not statistically significant. In total, eight locations had statistically outlier PTE concentrations for Cd, Mn, Ni, and Zn. The overall results were comparable to similar studies across the world except that the Pb content of the study soils was less elevated. Studies on site characterization and human health risk assessment covering identified hotspots and PTEs are recommended.
... Mountain forests provide critical ecosystem services, primarily provisioning, regulating, and supporting services (Postel & Thompson, 2005). All of the major rivers in Central Asia originate in the mountains and all are transboundary, in that they fl ow between two or more countries (Mueller et al., 2014). Paramount is the role of forests in protecting watersheds. ...
Diverse environmental gradients in Central Asia and Mongolia, from high mountain forests to semi-desert lowlands salinized by past agriculture and water withdrawals, pose challenges to restoring degraded forests and landscapes. Technical approaches in dryland forestry and agroforestry methods are available to overcome these challenges, but to be fully eff ective, require policy and institutional changes. Climate variability and natural hazards are features of the region and the future is projected to become more arid with more intense rainfall. Closed forests, open woodlands, and shrublands are features of the dryland landscape, and provide a variety of ecosystem functions and services to be restored. In this work, steps in the restoration process are discussed, including halting degradation, conserving and rehabilitating existing forests, restoring dryland forests and agroforestry where trees are lacking, and adapting to climate change.
... About 0.65 Mha of arable land were prone to soil erosion by wind (Mavlyanova et al. 2017). Soil erosion is widespread in rainfed and irrigated areas in Kazakhstan (Saparov 2014). About 5 Mha of rainfed croplands were subject to high levels of soil erosion (Pender et al. 2009). ...
... The LS-factor in the RUSLE model considers the topographic features of slopes, which ultimately determines the total sediment yields from the site. Equation (8) is applied to find the combined LS-factor by means of spatial analyst extension in ArcGIS using DEM, as proposed by Morgan (2009). Factors such as slope steepness and flow accumulation are also taken into consideration to calculate the LSfactor using the ArcGIS spatial analyst tool and the arc hydro extension using DEM: ...
The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) has enormous potential for integrating remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) technologies for producing accurate and inexpensive assessments of soil erosion. In this study, the RUSLE method was applied to the Esil (Ishim) River basin (ERB), which is situated in Northern and Central Kazakhstan. The northern part of the ERB extends through the Tyumen and Omsk regions of the Russian Federation to the confluence of the Irtysh River. This article may be of interest to experts and specialists in the field of agriculture, as the findings can assist agricultural producers and government entities in making decisions that prevent soil degradation and promote optimal cropping systems for land and crop cultivation. The objective of this research is to detect, estimate and map areas of land plots most vulnerable to potential soil erosion within the ERB, using the RUSLE model under Arc GIS 10.2. The results reveal that average annual soil loss during the study period ranges from 0 to 32 (t y⁻¹) and that 108,007.5 km² (48%) of the ERB has no erosion. The remainder of the basin is prone to soil erosion ranging from 1 to 32 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, which comprises 117,216.9 km² (52%), and total soil erosion is 565,368.7 (t y⁻¹). Soil erosion in the ERB is relatively moderate due to low hill steepness and low annual precipitation (198–397 mm). Exceptions occur in plots which feature high slope length steepness, which are scattered throughout the region.
... Several indicators are used for soil quality (Karlen et al., 1997;European Commission, 2014b), soil fertility (e.g., Burkhard et al., 2014;Mueller et al., 2014;Tóth et al., 2013), and for soil's ability to naturally attenuate contaminants (e.g., Makó et al., 2017;Stone et al., 2016;Van Wijnen et al., 2012). Soil organic carbon content, a widely used and frequently available indicator of soil quality (Lorenz & Lal, 2016) is used here. . ...
Chapter 2 of the Regional Assessment Report of IPBES Europe and Central Asia
... The negligent use of the terms "total" or "pseudototal" sometimes leads to the direct comparison of aqua regia results with total contents. Therefore, the term "real total", which was proposed earlier by Lewandowski et al. (1997), specifies the meaning of the term "total" and is purposefully used in the practice of geochemical investigations, especially for comparison of chemical composition results (Mueller et al., 2013). To avoid incorrect direct comparison, there are three groups of analytical contents in WEPAL ISE program (Van Dijk, 2002): aqua regia, the so-called total and real total. ...
Topsoil and lichen Phaeophyscia orbicularis were sampled from the grounds of kindergartens (Vilnius, Lithuania) using a side-by-side design and analysed for the total contents of Al, As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, S, Si, Sr, Ti, V and Zn. Only Si, Mn and Zn were found to retain their positions in sequences arranged in descending order of their mean contents (>90mgkg⁻¹) in topsoil (Si>Al>Ca>K>Fe>Mg>Na>Ti>P>S>Mn>Cl>Zn) and in lichens (Si>Ca>K>S>Al>Fe>P>Mg>Na>Cl>Mn>Ti>Zn). In lichen thalli, unlike in topsoil, nutrients and lithogenic elements formed separate clusters. Results proved that by origin, the elements captured by lichens were not only from the immediate environs, but also from more distant city districts with different soil lithology. However, both in topsoil and in lichens, As, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, V and Zn form together with S and Br clusters of closely related elements indicating that Phaeophyscia orbicularis is a good urban indicator of polluting elements using which total contamination indices of topsoil Z T and of lichens Z L can be calculated. Higher Z T values were detected in the former industrial-residential areas, while Z L values were higher in new residential-commercial areas. The ratio Z T/Z L was found to be useful in revealing areas where pollution is on the increase.The contents of Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, V and Zn in topsoil from the same sites which had been sampled five years ago significantly (p. <. 0.05) decreased. Locations of Cr, Mn, Ni, V and Zn anomalies were found to have considerably changed, meanwhile Pb, Cu and Mo anomalies were found to be shifting least of all.
Environmentally sound insect pest management strategies require continuous isolation and identification of effective biocontrol agents from different ecosystems. The quest for fungal isolates that are adapted to high temperatures is particularly significant, as they hold the potential to produce mycoinsecticides that are highly effective in semiarid and arid areas. This study aimed to collect new virulent isolates of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) from Kazakhstan that show promise for controlling Colorado potato beetle (CPB) populations under arid conditions. Local isolates could be adapted to abiotic and biotic factors in the environment in which they survive. The findings of this study should provide insights into the species of EPF that inhabit a specific arid region of Kazakhstan, examining their traits in the regional climate, soil composition, and biological diversity. Throughout 2023–2024, a series of soil samples was collected from diverse locations within the Turkestan region of southern Kazakhstan for the isolation of EPF. The isolation of EPF was conducted using susceptible larvae of Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), a host that does not have specificity for particular species of EPF. Using this insect bait, 41 pure cultures of EPF were isolated from soils in the arid zone of Kazakhstan. Polymerase chain reaction analysis based on the TEF1-α locus showed that all the isolates were indistinguishable from Beauveria bassiana ARSEF 2860 species. However, analysis of the ITS locus revealed two cryptic species: B. bassiana and B. pseudobassiana. For laboratory evaluation of biological activity EPF, the second and third instars of CPB were collected from potato fields in southern Kazakhstan and placed in plastic containers. Test CPB larvae were treated with conidia suspensions at 1 × 107 spores/mL and survival was recorded daily for 3 weeks. The results of the bioassays revealed that all the new Kazakhstan isolates were pathogenic to larvae CPB and caused complete mortality by the end of the 11-day. These results showed that new isolates of EPF were highly virulent against larvae CPB.
p> The Wanagama 1 Forest, owned by Universitas Gadjah Mada in Playen, is an educational and research forest that is home to different species of trees that are managed and treated differently. Finding the quality index values for different cropping strategies in plot 17 of Wanagama Educational Forest 1 was the aim of this study. The soil quality index was determined using three methods: simple addition, scoring and weighting, and summation. The results show that in plot 17 of the Wanagama forest, the highest soil quality index values were found for ebony species and the lowest soil quality index values were found for mahogany and Eucalyptus species. The results showed that all land uses with different types of forest plants had lower soil quality indices. The stepwise analysis results showed that porosity, organic C, cation exchange capacity (CEC), P availability, K availability, and C biomass influenced the soil quality index. Measuring soil quality can help you learn more about soil properties and how to improve it through effective management. </p
Rivers in arid regions serve as crucial freshwater resources for local communities and play an essential role in global hydrological and biogeochemical cycles. The Aral Sea Basin (ASB) in Central Asia is characterized by an arid climate and river dynamics that are sensitive to climate change and human activities. Monitoring the spatiotemporal variations in river water extent in the ASB is essential to maintain an ecological balance and ensure water security. In this study, we extracted data regarding monthly river water bodies in the ASB from 2017 to 2022 by synthesizing monthly Sentinel-2 images. The water extents on the Sentinel images were automatically mapped using the Otsu method, and the river widths for all river channels were calculated using the RivWidth algorithm. We investigated the relationships between the river dynamics and the geomorphology, climatic change, human activities, and the annual and interannual variations in the river width in different reaches of the basin. The results show a seasonal variability in the river width, with most rivers reaching the largest width in the warm season and a few rivers in the middle and lower areas reaching the valley value in the warm season. Compared to their tributaries, the mainstem in the middle/lower regions showed less seasonal variability. According to interannual analysis, most of the rivers in the ASB significantly narrowed between 2017 and 2022, a phenomenon which is generally impacted by temperature and evapotranspiration variations. Comparisons show that our results provide improved information about the narrow river reaches and denser river networks compared to the previous global dataset, demonstrating the advantageous properties of high spatial resolution in Sentinel-2 imagery.
Tugai wetlands, including the forests of Populus euphratica Oliv. and P. pruinosa Schrenk, are major biodiversity hotspots within semi-arid and arid ecozones. However, for over a century, Central Asian river systems have been severely affected by dam regulation, water withdrawals for large-scale irrigated agriculture, and deforestation. To support sustainable use and protection of this threatened forest type, we provide information on the distribution and degradation status of Tugai wetlands in the Syr Darya floodplain using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series from Landsat 7 and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). An accuracy assessment confirmed the validity of the MODIS-based wetland map, with an overall accuracy of 78.6%. This was considerably better than the Landsat product, mainly due to the greater temporal frequency of the MODIS time series. We further calculated trends and breakpoints between 2001 and 2016 using the BFAST algorithm. We found negative trends for nearly a third of the wetlands. Breakpoint detection showed major stress events in the years 2001, 2009, and 2016. Our study revealed the temporal and spatial distribution and vitality of an endangered forest ecosystem that has rarely been studied thus far. Climate change may accelerate the destabilization of the Tugai forests at the Syr Darya floodplain.
Natural conditions in North and Central Kazakhstan and the energy potential of chestnut soil testify to the efficiency of agriculture, especially on irrigated lands. The humus horizon of chestnut soils is 35–50 cm, and the humus content is 3.0–3.5%. The majority of the humus (75%) is contained in a half-meter layer, which emphasizes the short humus level. The phosphorus content, both gross and mobile, is very low at 0.98–0.031%. Potassium is in elevated amounts. Soils are most susceptible to the application of nitrogen–phosphorus fertilizers. According to the mechanical composition, chestnut soils are predominantly lightly loamy, light clays with substrates of souses. Salinization is low, with a salt content in the 0–100 cm soil layer of 0.10–0.20%. The mass of the arable soil layer is 1.3–1.4 g/cm3. Deep plowing and loosening of soils improve the water and nutrition regime, creating good conditions for arid agriculture. With deep autumn plowing up to 30 cm, the accumulation of sediment and spring meltwater reaches 1200–1500 m3/ha more than in spring disposal. Deep plowing ensures absorption of irrigation water, eliminates run-off during irrigation, and reduces the number of crops requiring extra irrigation. In an average dry year, at 50% water availability and 70% soil moisture content (MC), the number of irrigations is 4, and the irrigation rate is 300–470 m3/ha; at 60% MC, 2 irrigations are performed, and the irrigation rate is 600–650 m3/ha. On irrigated land, the yield of cereals is 2.8–2.6 t/ha; perennial grasses, 3.0–4.5 t/ha; potatoes, 23.2–24.1 t/ha; carrots, 35.0–40.0 t/ha; and cabbage, 50.0–75.0 t/ha.
Aim of the study:
The aim of the study is to present environmental problems related to the intensive cultivation of cotton in the climatic conditions of Central Asia. This problem was and is related to the pressure to increase yields by systematically increasing the used irrigations rates. At the same time, other problems arise, such as ownership changes, water charges, and other problems.
Material and methods:
The "case study" method was used in the work. The materials were collected by co-authors from Kazakhstan as part of many years of experimental and monitoring work.
Results and conclusions:
The results of field studies concerning the analysis of the state of irrigated land on the flagships Makhtaaral facility showed a systematic deterioration of soil physical indicators and: - reduction of the drainage efficiency of irrigated land, - an increase in the groundwater level above the critical depth, - increase level of soils salinity, - effect of washing on soil alkalisation
Intense human activities have led to profound changes in landscape patterns and ecological processes, generating certain ecological risks that seriously threaten human wellbeing. Ecological risk assessment from a landscape perspective has become an important tool for macroecosystem landscape management. This research improves the framework and indices of the ecological risk assessment from a landscape perspective, evaluates the land use pattern and landscape ecological risk dynamics in the Yellow River Ecological Economic Belt (YREEB), analyzes the spatiotemporal variation, and identifies key areas for ecological risk management. The results indicate the following: The main land use types in the region are grassland and cropland, but the area of cropland and grassland decreased during the study period, and with the accelerated urbanization, urban land is the only land use type that continued to increase over the 20-year period. The ecological risk in the YREEB tended to decrease, the area of low ecological risk zones increased, while the area of high ecological risk zones gradually decreased. Most areas are at medium risk level, but the risk in central Qinghai and Gansu is obviously higher, and there is a dispersed distribution of local high- and low-risk zones. A total of 37.7% of the study area is identified as critical area for future risk management, and the potential for increased risk in these areas is high. These results can provide a basis for sustainable development and planning of the landscape and the construction of ecological civilization in ecologically fragile areas.
The problem of saving soil resources and their reclamation measures under current climate change conditions attracts the world community’s close attention. It is relevant in the Syr Darya River’s lowlands, where the secondary soil salinization processes have intensified. The demand for robust methods to assess soil salinity is high, and the primary purpose of this study was to develop a quantitative analysis method for soil salinity estimation. We found a correspondence between the sum of salts in a topsoil layer to the Landsat 8 data in the Tasseled cap transformation of the image values. After testing several methods, we built a prediction model. The K-nearest neighborhood (KNN) model with a coefficient of determination equal to 0.96 using selected predictors proved to be the most appropriate for soil salinity assessment. We also performed a quantitative assessment of soil salinity. A significant increase in a salt-affected area and the mean soil sum expressing an intensification of secondary soil salinization from 2018 to 2021 was found. The increasing temperature values, decreasing soil moisture, and agricultural use affect the extension of salt-affected ground areas in the study area. Thus, the soil moisture trend in the Qazaly irrigation zone is negative and declining, with the highest peaks in early spring. The maximum temperature has a mean value of 15.6 °C (minimum = −15.1 °C, maximum = 37.4 °C) with an increasing trend. These parameters are evidence of climate change that also affects soil salinization. PCA transformation of the Landsat-8 satellite images helped to remove redundant spectral information from multiband datasets and map soil salinity more precisely. This approach simultaneously extends mapping opportunities involving visible and invisible bands and results in a smaller dataset.
Central Asia (CA) is one of the most fragile regions worldwide owing to arid climate and accumulated human activities, and is a global hotspot due to gradually deteriorating ecological environment. The Amu Darya Basin (ADB), as the most economically and demographically important region in CA, is of particular concern. To determine the concentration, source and pollution status of heavy metals (HMs) in surface sediments of the ADB, 154 samples were collected and analyzed for metals across the basin. Correlation and cluster analysis, and positive matrix factorization model were implemented to understand metals’ association and apportion their possible sources. Cumulative frequency distribution and normalization methods were used to determine the geochemical baseline values (GBVs). Then, various pollution indices and ecological risk index were employed to characterize and evaluate the pollution levels and associated risks based on the GBVs. Results indicated that the mean concentrations of HMs showed the following descending order in the surface sediments of ADB: Zn > Cr > Ni > Cu > Pb > Co > Cd. The spatial distribution maps showed that Cr, Ni, and Cu had relatively high enrichment in the irrigated agricultural area; high abundances of Zn, Pb, and Cd were mainly found in the urban areas. Four source factors were identified for these metals, namely natural sources, industrial discharge, agricultural activities, and mixed source of traffic and mining activities, accounting for 33.5%, 11.4%, 34.2%, and 20.9% of the total contribution, respectively. The GBVs of Cd, Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni, Cr, and Co in the ADB were 0.27, 58.9, 14.6, 20.3, 25.8, 53.4, and 9.80 mg/kg, respectively, which were similar to the regional background values obtained from lake sediments in the bottom. In general, the assessment results revealed that surface sediments of the ADB were moderately polluted and low ecological risk by HMs.
In the view of increasing water demands in agriculture, efficient water use is a key factor in potato production. The aim of this study was to compare two deficit (80% and 90%) and one abundant (120%) gun sprinkler irrigation levels with the longtime used irrigation level of a farmer (100%). Irrigation was supplied during the 2021 growing season on a loamy sand site in Mecklenburg–Western Pomerania, Germany. Yield and tuber quality of the high-amylopectin potato (HAPP) variety “Waxy/Henriette” were assessed in a three-grade tuber size distribution. Five economic indicators were used to assess the suitability of the investigated irrigation levels to secure economic responses. Yield and starch yield did not significantly differ between the 90% (561.1 dt ha−1 and 102.0 dt ha−1) and the 100% irrigation levels (559.1 dt ha−1 and 102.3 dt ha−1), with total production increasing by 2.0 dt ha−1 and starch production decreasing by 0.4 dt ha−1 at the 90% irrigation level. Tuber lesions decreased the economic responses at all irrigation levels. Potentially, 87,469 m3 of irrigation water (125.8 m3 ha−1) could have been saved on the loamy sand starch potato sites of the local farm (695.3 ha) in 2021.
With rapid urbanization, the interactions between human and land are becoming more and more intense, which leads to increasingly diversified land use and intensifies the conflicts among land use functions (LUFs). However, land use multi-functionality (LUMF) of densely populated areas (DPAs) in less developed regions has not been studied in depth. The objective of our study is to build a multi-functional conceptual framework for land use, and establish a comprehensive evaluation indicator system to assess LUMF. We took the Lanzhou–Xining Region (LXR) as a case area, which is a DPA in the upper reaches of the Yellow River. We established 36 indicators from the dimensions of status and trend of agricultural, economic, social, and ecological functions, to perform analysis on the LUMF using the entropy weight method (EWM) and the coupling degree method (CDM). The results show that land use in the LXR is multi-functional, that LUFs are developing in an uneven manner, and that the spatial distribution of LUFs differs greatly. We find that the multi-functional level of land use in the LXR is low. There are no dominant functions in 12 counties and districts. There are spatial conflicts among LUFs. To maintain sustainable land use, we proposed a functional zoning scheme and put forward corresponding governance strategies.
A single paragraph of about 200 words maximum. For research articles, abstracts should give a pertinent overview of the work. We strongly encourage authors to use the following style of structured abstracts, but without headings: (1) Background: Place the question addressed in a broad context and highlight the purpose of the study; (2) Methods: briefly describe the main methods or treatments applied; (3) Results: summarize the article's main findings; (4) Conclusions: indicate the main conclusions or interpretations. The abstract should be an objective representation of the article and it must not contain results that are not presented and substantiated in the main text and should not exaggerate the main conclusions.
Research into pyrogenic carbon emissions in the temperate belt of the Russian Federation
has traditionally focused on the impact of forest fires. Nevertheless, ecosystems in which wildfires also make a significant contribution to anthropogenic CO 2 emissions are poorly studied. We evaluated the carbon emissions of fires in the non-forest ecosystems of the Middle Amur Lowland, in the Khabarovsk Territory of the Russian Federation. Our study is based on long-term Earth remote sensing data of medium spatial resolution (Landsat 5, 7, and 8) and expeditionary studies (2018–2021). The assessment of carbon directly emitted from wildfires in meadow and meadow–mire temperate ecosystems in the Middle Amur lowland shows that specific emissions from such ecosystems vary, from 1.09 t/ha in dwarf shrub–sphagnum and sphagnum–ledum and sedge–reed
fens to 6.01 t/ha in reed–forb, forb, reed, and sedge meadows. Meanwhile, carbon emissions specifically from fires in meadow and meadow–mire ecosystems are less significant—often an order of magnitude less than carbon emissions from forest fires (which reach 37 tC/ha). However, due to their high frequency and the large areas of land burned annually, the total carbon emissions from such fires are comparable to annual emissions from fires in forested areas. The results obtained show that the inadequacy of the methods used in the automatic mapping of burns leads to a significant underestimation of the area of grassland fires and carbon emissions from non-forest fires.
Given that farmland serves as a strategic resource to ensure national food security, blind emphasis on the improvement of food production capacity can lead to soil overutilization and impair other soil functions. Hence, the evaluation of soil health (SH) should comprehensively take soil productivity and ecological environmental effects into account. In this study, five functions from the perspective of functional soil management were summarized, including primary productivity, provision and cycling of nutrients, the provision of functional and intrinsic biodiversity, water purification and regulation, and carbon sequestration and regulation. For each soil function, in view of the natural and ameliorable conditions affecting SH, basic indicators were selected from the two aspects of inherent and dynamic properties, and restrictive indicators were chosen considering the external properties or environmental elements, with the minimum limiting factor method coupled with weighted linear model. The new evaluation system was tested and verified in Yixing City, China. The healthy and optimally functional soils were concentrated in the northeast and mid-west of Yixing City, whereas unhealthy soils were predominant in the south and around Taihu Lake. The main limitations to SH improvement included cation exchange capacity, nutrient elements, and soluble carbon. The SH evaluation method was verified using the crop performance validation method, and a positive correlation was noted between food production stability index and soil health index, indicating that the evaluation system is reasonable.
In the course of agricultural activity, agrolandscapes and a certain type of anthropogenic loading are formed. Special methodological approaches of integrally analyzing the ecological consequences of agricultural development, component by component, in the regions of Russia and Kazakhstan are necessary to consider these aspects. Those countries have large areas, contrasting landscapes and a large number of territories where the agricultural impact is a significant factor for the state of the environment. The agricultural impact on the environment in the regions of Russia and Kazakhstan is defined, first of all, by the agrarian specialization and intensity of agricultural production, though the regions of Kazakhstan are more polarized since most of them have been developed extensively. The territorial structure of agrarian land changed considerably between 1990 and 2016, and the role of the southern regions of both countries was amplified. With increasing intensity of agricultural production, the degree of dependence of agricultural impact on the dynamics of production due to its localization decreases.
Glaciers are the wealth of CA countries, and particularly of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, where they are mostly located. Research on glacier mass balance confirms that most glaciers in the region are either receding or standing still. According to the researchers’ forecast, by 2025 the territories of glaciers in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan will be reduced by 30–40%, and this will accelerate and make more frequent landslides, local floods, avalanches or mud flows, in the mountain and close to them areas. The rational use and development of water and hydro-energy resources in Amu Darya and Syr Darya basins with transboundary aspects and tasks have been and still are the most complex regional challenges before all CA countries. The climate warming which is primarily depended on the global atmosphere circulation changes brings new challenges for the natural and anthropogenic systems to understand their changes and find the most appropriate adaptation measures. The recent level of Caspian Sea rise seems to be caused by the combination of higher Volga discharges and lower evaporation from the Caspian Sea surface, in relation with the dominated atmosphere circulation patterns. The Aral Sea’s Southern and Eastern parts, contrary, continue to desiccate with remained basin in the west and the recovering the Small Aral in the north. Concerning the future fate of this sea, different scenarios are discussed, from realistic to very pessimistic. Some regions like the Aral and Semipalatinsk regions of Kazakhstan are considered as the territories of ecological crisis, where the balance between natural processes and living components of ecosystems, including flora, fauna and the humans was affected mostly. In Kyrgyzstan, about 61% of all ecological accidents and disasters occur due to the natural processes, caused mainly by global climate. The CA countries are opened to the international partnership, while searching their paths towards higher region eco-sustainability.
A number of tools and models have been developed to assess farm-level sustainability. However, it is unclear how well they potentially incorporate ecosystem services (ES), or how they may contribute to attaining the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Understanding how farm-level assessment tools and models converge on these new paradigms of sustainability is important for drawing comparison on sustainability performances of farming systems, conducting meta-analyses and upscaling local responses to global driving forces. In this study, a coverage analysis was performed for several farm-level sustainability assessment (SA) tools (SAFA, RISE, KSNL, DLG) and models (MODAM, MONICA, APSIM), in regard to their potential for incorporating ES and contribution to attaining the SDGs. Lists of agricultural-relevant CICES classes and SDG targets were compiled and matched against the indicators of the tools and models. The results showed that SAFA possessed the most comprehensive coverage of ES and SDGs, followed by RISE and KSNL. In comparison to models, SA tools were observed to have a higher degree of potential for covering ES and SDGs, which was attributed to larger and broader indicators sets. However, this study also suggested that, overall, current tools and models do not sufficiently articulate the concept of ecosystem services.
More stable value chains in agriculture allow countries to take the best advantage of their factor endowments and thus achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goal on ending hunger. It is, however, difficult to interpret such advantages properly due to the multivariate effects of natural, technological, and economic variables on agricultural output and food supply. The authors attempt to tackle this challenge by developing the approach to the identification of competitive advantages and matching them with the production capabilities of agricultural sectors in Central Asia. The application of Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA), Relative Trade Advantage (RTA), Lafay Competitive Advantage (LI), and Domestic Resource Costs (DRC) indexes to the array of 37 products results in the revealing of comparative, trade, competitive, and production advantages of five Central Asian economies for labor-intensive horticultural products and grains. Capital and technology-intensive sectors of animal husbandry and food processing are recognized as low competitive. Taking Central Asia-China collaboration as a model, the authors elaborate policy measures aimed at support, promotion, or establishment of competitive advantages. The application of the measures facilitates the concentration of the resources toward competitive and conditionally competitive products, allows to protect fragile advantages in marginally competitive sectors, and contributes to the overall improvement of stakeholders' performance across agricultural value chains in the region.
The thinly populated Balkhash District of Kazakhstan’s Almaty Region lies in the lower reaches of the Ili-Balkhash basin, which is shared by China and Kazakhstan. The district is arid and heavily dependent on inflows of surface water, which are threatened by the effects of upstream population growth, economic development, and climate change. The quality of drinking water from centralized water systems and tube wells in nine villages of the district was analyzed, and the organoleptic properties of water from these sources was also assessed by an expert and via surveys of local residents. Although most samples met governmental standards for the absence of chemical impurities, high concentrations of mineralization, chlorides, boron, iron, and/or uranium were present in some well water samples. Levels of these pollutants were as much as 4-fold higher than governmental maxima and as much as 16-fold higher than concentrations reported previously in surface water. All centralized water samples met standards for absence of microbial contamination, but total microbial counts in some well water samples exceeded standards. Organoleptic standards were met by all the water from five villages, but centralized water from one village and well water from four villages failed to meet standards based on expert judgment. Residents were, for the most part, more satisfied with centralized rather than well water, but there was no obvious relationship between the failure of water to meet standards and the locations or populations of the settlements. This is the first comprehensive assessment of groundwater used for drinking in the lower Ili-Balkhash basin, and although it relies on a limited number of samples, it nevertheless provides evidence of potentially serious groundwater contamination in the Balkhash District. It is thus imperative that additional and more detailed studies be undertaken.
Possible scenarios of the Aral Sea crisis solution are discussed, and a new scenario is proposed. Previous scenarios have provided for the transfer of water from Siberian Rivers to Central Asia and the restriction of unsustainable expansion of irrigation in this region. The scenario proposed in this paper is partly based on the use of Caspian water evaporators located on the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. Engineering realization of this scenario needs only the construction of the drainage system for the runoff of Caspian waters to the natural evaporators, between which Kara-Bogaz-Gol is the functioning evaporator. This paper shows that realization of this scenario allows the rescue of the Aral Sea and normalization of the water balance in Central Asia. Under this, as the simulation modeling results show, there exist different versions of the scenario depending on the area of evaporators and restrictions for the runoff of Amu Darya and Syr Darya waters to the irrigation systems. Calculation results show that the Aral Sea could be restored within 90–240 years depending on the scenario versions. With only Kara-Bogaz-Gol as the evaporator, the Aral Sea cannot be restored within a century. Additionally, if the anthropogenic runoff of river waters was decreased by 10 percent, the Aral Sea would be restored over about 90 years. Possible versions of the recovery scenario are discussed and assessed.
Central Asia’s Ili River is fed by mountain streams that flow down into an isolated and arid basin that today is shared by Kazakhstan and China. Agriculture in the basin is dependent upon irrigation, which was practiced as long ago as the Iron Age, when early pastoralists constructed ditches to channel water from streams onto nearby fields. Irrigation had become much more common by the 18th century, when the region was controlled by the Dzungarian Khanate. The khanate was toppled by the Qing Chinese in the 1750s in the first of a series of confrontations that destroyed and then rebuilt the basin’s agricultural economy. The region has since been dominated by a succession of Chinese and Russian (and later Soviet and independent Kazakh) governments, each of which recognized the essential role of irrigated agriculture in maintaining control. Thus every cycle of destruction led to reclamation of new lands, resettlement of farmers and upgrading of infrastructure to expand irrigation. This allowed an impressive diversity of fruits, vegetables and field crops to be grown, especially on loess soils of the more fertile upper basin, where tributaries could be easily tapped by gravity flow. Many of these tributaries were entirely diverted by the 19th century, so that they no longer reached the Ili. Large scale irrigation commenced in the 1960s, when the Soviets built Kapchagai dam and reservoir in the lower part of the basin and installed pumps to raise water from the Ili River onto nearby reclaimed sierozem soils, mostly for cultivation of rice. China later constructed a cluster of small- and medium-sized dams that enabled expansion of agriculture in the upper part of the basin. Many irrigated areas along the lower reaches of the Ili in Kazakhstan have been abandoned, but irrigation in the upper basin continues to expand. Declining soil fertility, salinization, pollution, insufficient inflows and adverse economic conditions currently challenge irrigation across the entire basin. Investments are being made in new technologies as a means to sustain irrigated agriculture in the basin, but it remains to be seen if these strategies will be successful.
The Western Siberian grain belt is of global significance in terms of agricultural production as well as carbon sequestration and biodiversity preservation. Regional downscaling of general circulation models predict increasing drought risks and water scarcity for this area. Additionally, significant land-use changes took place in this region after the dissolution of the USSR and collapse of the state farm system: Land-use intensity in Western Siberia (Russian Federation) continuously decreased on grassland, whilst on cropland the intensity increased through recultivation of abandoned cropland and rising fertilizer inputs since 2003. Together, these changing conditions have led to challenges for sustainable agriculture in this semi-arid environment. For sustainable land management, strategies for adapted crop production systems are needed. In agronomic field trials, the potential of enhanced water use efficiency as contribution to a resilient agricultural system under changing climate conditions was evaluated and related to the common practice and regional research. In participatory on-farm trials, higher average soil water content (+40%) in the top soil layer led to higher grain yield (+0.4 t ha⁻¹) and protein yield (+0.05 t ha⁻¹) under no-till compared to the common practice of conventional tillage. Despite this, regional research still promotes bare fallowing with beneficial effects only in the first harvest after fallow, whereas the potential of no-till was visible each year, even under above-average wet and cool growing conditions. In this case study from the Western Siberian grain belt, we depict a possible pathway to make cereal production in Western Siberia more sustainable. However, the approach of applied sustainable intensification by promoting no-till is related to the negative concomitant effect of increased herbicide applications. Due to the strict rejection of GMOs in Russian agriculture by the federal government, this is a great opportunity to maintain a large, pristine area of over 17 million km² with a lower risk of glyphosate-dependent cropping systems.
The Ili River originates in the mountains of Xinjiang, China, and flows across an increasingly arid landscape before terminating in Kazakhstan’s Lake Balkhash, which has no outlet to the ocean. The river has been extensively impounded and diverted over the past half century to produce hydroelectric power and food on irrigated land. Water withdrawals are increasing to the extent that they are beginning to threaten the ecosystem, just as it is becoming stressed by altered inflows as glaciers retreat and disappear. If the Ili River ecosystem is to be preserved, it is crucial that we thoroughly understand the spatial and temporal nuances of the interrelationships between water, energy, and food—and the vulnerability of these components to climate change. The ecosystem has all of the characteristics of a classically-defined “wicked problem”, and so it warrants treatment as a complex and dynamic challenge subject to changing assumptions, unexpected consequences, and strong social and economic overtones. Research should thus focus not just on new knowledge about the water, energy, or food component, but on advancing our understanding of the ecosystem as a whole. This will require the participation of interdisciplinary teams of researchers with both tacit and specialized knowledge.
The main objective of orientation towards organic farming is to improve crop production and soil fertility. Organic farming using an Ampullaria tischbeini (Dohrn) snail in a saline paddy field not only limits the use of chemicals such as chemical fertilizers and herbicides but also improves the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. The snail can survive in both non-saline and saline paddy fields. The results of the laboratory and field experiments show that the snail can survive in paddy fields with Cl⁻ concentrations of 0.15% or less (hereafter referred to as salinity). At the end of June (40–45 days after sowing), 2600–3300 snails per hectare are released to a saline paddy field. Artificially released snails not only remove almost all weeds but also improve the chemical, physical, and biological properties of the paddy soil. In the paddy soil, lots of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) are produced by the decomposition of dead snail shells. Calcium is required for saline soil remediation, as it will displace sodium and reduce the exchangeable sodium percentage. In the paddy field, the snail movements lead to an improvement in soil physical properties such as texture, water infiltration rate, and porosity. Furthermore, the snail excretions lead to significant increase in soil organic matter content and nutrients. In the saline paddy field with snails, rice yield was higher than that in the control plot (with no snail).
Dust and sand storms are common events in the arid and semi-arid regions of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. In the Central Asian countries the main scientific observations on dust and sand storms were performed mainly before 1980 during the former Soviet Union. Regular monitoring of dust and sand storms began 1930s at a large number of observation sites located over the entire territory of Central Asia. The first studies and results of research regarding the analysis of dust and sand storm in terms of observations were published during the 1960s.
As with any other crop, maize yield is a response to environmental factors such as soil, weather, and management. In a context of climate change, understanding responses is crucial to determine mitigation and adaptation strategies. Crop models are an effective tool to address this. The objective was to present a procedure to assess the impacts of climate scenarios on maize N use efficiency and yield, with the effect of cultivar (n = 2) and planting date (n = 5) as adaptation strategies. The study region was Santa Catarina, Brazil, where maize is cultivated on more than 800,000 ha (average yield: 4.63 t·ha−1). Surveying and mapping of crop land was done using satellite data, allowing the coupling of weather and 253 complete soil profiles in single polygons (n = 4135). A Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) crop model was calibrated and validated using field data (2004–2010 observations). Weather scenarios generated by Regional Climatic Models (RCMs) were selected according their capability of reproducing observed weather. Simulations for the 2012–2040 period (437 ppm CO2) showed that without adaptation strategies maize production could be reduced by 12.5%. By only using the best cultivar for each polygon (combination of soil + weather), the total production was increased by 6%; when using both adaptation strategies—cultivar and best planting date—the total production was increase by 15%. The modelling process indicated that the N use efficiency increment ranged from 1%–3% (mostly due to CO2 increment, but also due to intrinsic soil properties and leaching occurrence). This analysis showed that N use efficiency rises in high CO2 scenarios, so that crop cultivar and planting date are effective tools to mitigate deleterious effects of climate change, supporting energy crops in the study region.
Limited data on the pollution status of spatially extensive water systems constrain health-risk assessments at basin-scales. Using a recipient measurement approach in a terminal water body, we show that agricultural and industrial pollutants in groundwater-surface water systems of the Aral Sea Drainage Basin (covering the main part of Central Asia) yield cumulative health hazards above guideline values in downstream surface waters, due to high concentrations of copper, arsenic, nitrite, and to certain extent dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Considering these high-impact contaminants, we furthermore perform trend analyses of their upstream spatial-temporal distribution, investigating dominant large-scale spreading mechanisms. The ratio between parent DDT and its degradation products showed that discharges into or depositions onto surface waters are likely to be recent or ongoing. In river water, copper concentrations peak during the spring season, after thawing and snow melt. High spatial variability of arsenic concentrations in river water could reflect its local presence in the top soil of nearby agricultural fields. Overall, groundwaters were associated with much higher health risks than surface waters. Health risks can therefore increase considerably, if the downstream population must switch to groundwater-based drinking water supplies during surface water shortage. Arid regions are generally vulnerable to this problem due to ongoing irrigation expansion and climate changes.