Underemployment: Psychological, Economic, and Social Challenges
Abstract
Underemployment:
Psychological, Economic, and Social Challenges
Douglas C. Maynard and Daniel C. Feldman, Editors
While joblessness is a signature problem during times of economic stress, underemployment —the lack of adequate, meaningful work—affects large numbers of workers even during relative prosperity. Historically overshadowed by unemployment, the pervasive and serious social problem of underemployment warrants
greater attention from scholars in a variety of disciplines.
Recognizing underemployment as a series of related phenomena (e.g., fewer hours of work, poor pay, jobs for which workers are overqualified), Underemployment: Psychological, Economic, and Social Challenges is the first book to provide an in-depth examination of the causes, dynamics, and consequences of underemployment and how the problem might be addressed. Experts from management, economics, psychology, and sociology present their unique approaches to understanding underemployment in terms of theory development, empirical findings, and implications for policy and practice. Some of the major topics covered include:
• Effects of underemployment on short-run and long-run earnings
• Underemployment among youth, women, older workers, immigrants, and minorities
• Effects of underemployment on mental health and physical health
• Impact of underemployment on family members, friends, and communities
• Measurement and tracking of underemployment over time
• Effects of underemployment on work attitudes and job performance
• Directions for future theoretical and empirical research on underemployment
A comprehensive look at a most timely issue, Underemployment: Psychological, Economic, and Social Challenges will inform the work of researchers, scholars, managers, and policy makers dealing with underemployment issues for years to come.
Chapters (12)
Labor economists have long been interested in why it is that markets for labor do not behave like markets for many other goods and services. In particular, many labor markets are characterized by the imbalance between demand and supply, meaning that the available labor resources are not fully utilized, and these imbalances are often persistent. For economists, such outcomes are inefficient; labor services cannot be stored and hence if at any time they are not being used, the output that could have resulted is lost forever. The underutilization of labor also imposes significant costs on affected individuals and their families, and not just in terms of foregone income.
As with economic approaches (see Wilkins & Wooden, this volume), there is a lack of agreement as to what constitutes underemployment (i.e., a broad term referring to inadequate employment relative to some standard; Feldman, 1996) among behavioral scientists. In this chapter, we attempt to shed some light into this issue. In structuring our chapter, we use Feldman’s (1996) Journal of Management review of underemployment as a springboard to examine how measurement of underemployment has progressed since its publication. Specifically, Feldman detailed the conceptual and methodological state of the underemployment construct and outlined specific recommendations to improve its measurement. Feldman sketched several methodological avenues for future scholars striving to better understand the underemployment phenomenon.
Overall population shifts in developed countries show that the proportion of aged individuals has been steadily increasing. Accordingly, their participation in the labor force has also been on the rise. This chapter discusses these trends and outlines factors that influence such participation in older individuals. The proposed conceptual framework suggests that underemployment among older workers can arise in three different forms: re-employment after a job loss, re-employment after retirement in a bridge job, and within the course of regular employment. Furthermore, the chapter emphasizes the differences between objective and subjective underemployment, proposing that several factors may moderate the relationship between objective and subjective underemployment among older workers. Future research should examine these factors since the increase in the supply of older workers creates both potential benefits and challenges for organizations.
Concerns about the prevalence of underemployment have grown with rising educational attainments and economic slowdowns in most industrialized countries. However, women have been facing underemployment for some time. Familiar terms abound to describe the experiences unique to women in the paid labor market (e.g., glass ceiling, sticky floor, old boys club, pay equity, occupational ghetto, pink collar, double day, and second shift). These denote the reasons for women being more at risk of underemployment. Systemic discrimination, occupational and job segregation, wage inequality, the sexual division of unpaid labor, and more limited returns to education and experience all challenge a woman’s ability to achieve labor market equity with her male counterparts because they prevent the full usage and recognition of her knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs).
The share of the U.S. population comprised of non-white racial/ethnic minorities has increased dramatically in recent decades, and will continue to do so for decades to come. Due in large part to the impact of immigration, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that non-whites will represent the numeric majority in the United States starting sometime between 2040 and 2050, an event that has been dubbed the “majority-minority crossover” (Ortman & Guarneri, 2008). These trends strongly suggest that the economic well-being of racial/ethnic minorities and immigrant populations will be an increasingly salient question in the twenty-first century, not just for the members of such groups, but for American society as a whole. Indeed, with the overwhelmingly white baby boomers now beginning to reach retirement age, it will increasingly be non-white workers who will support the entitlement programs (i.e., Social Security and Medicare) upon which older Americans have come to depend after leaving the labor force.
Contingent workers, who do not have ongoing employment with a single organization, are an increasingly important component of the workforce in many countries (e.g., Batt, Holman, & Holtgrewe, 2009; De Cuyper et al., 2008; Mauno, Kinnunen, Mäkikangas, & Nätti, 2005). The proportion of workers with contingent work arrangements, alternatively known as fixed-term contracts, precarious work arrangements, or nonstandard employment contracts, are likely to increase, because these types of contracts present several advantages to employers.
For many individuals, work plays a significant role not only in satisfying their economic needs but also in improving their self-esteem, enhancing their involvement in the community, and developing their identity (Erikson, ; Jahoda, , ). Given the importance of work in people’s lives, researchers have shown a great deal of interest in improving our understanding of the impact of employment status on psychological well-being, health, and work attitudes. This is reflected in the abundance of literature in work psychology that has investigated this topic (Dooley & Prause, , ; Feather, ; Fryer & Ullah, ; Warr & Jackson, 1987; Winefield, Tiggemann, & Winefield, ).
The issue of underemployment is one of increasing concern for countries across the globe. For example, in the USA estimates have put the number of underemployed as high as 20.3%, while in Europe the number of overqualified workers (just one dimension of underemployment) has been estimated at 21.5% (Groot & Maassen van den Brink, 2000). Unfortunately, given the current global economic crisis, this situation can only be expected to worsen in the near future. The international labor pool is becoming more educated and qualified (Peiró, Agut, & Grau, 2010) while organizations worldwide are seeking the minimum effective level of human capitol in an effort to cut costs. As such fewer jobs demanding high levels of qualification are becoming available on the labor market while the supply of employees with just such a profile continues to grow.
How does underemployment affect employee tenure within an organization? Are underemployed employees a flight risk for the organization? Furthermore, how does the career of an underemployed individual evolve? Is underemployment a barrier for career advancement of employees, or is it possible in the long run for employees to reap benefits from staying in a position in which they are underemployed? The answers to these questions have significant practical implications. Operating under the assumption that underemployed employees have increased chances of leaving their jobs, hiring managers often shy away from hiring job candidates who are or might later become underemployed (Bewley, 1999). If underemployed individuals indeed stay in an organization for only a brief period of time, it may be difficult for the organization to recoup expenses associated with recruitment, selection, training, and premature replacement of these candidates.
The consequences of underemployment do not end with the individual. Families are affected when a parent is forced into reduced working hours. Marital strain, difficulties with children, changing relationships with extended family and friends, and material hardship can all follow from underemployment. Communities also suffer when a plant closing forces an entire group of residents into jobs well below their education level. Accordingly, underemployment may impact crime rates and political participation, and put a drain on both material and social resources at the community level.
The last decade has seen noticeable growth in research on the underemployment phenomenon – when an individual is employed in some way that is insufficient relative to some standard – and the problems associated with it. This research comes from a variety of areas, most notably economics, sociology, and the organizational sciences (i.e., industrial-organizational psychology and management). For example, the academic database PsycINFO returned 97 sources with the underemployment keyword between the years 2000 and 2009, up 76% from the previous 10-year span. Very recently, economic woes in most developed nations and across the globe have also brought underemployment into public consciousness. Various media outlets continue to give attention to overqualification and related problems of insufficient employment (e.g., Hemming, 2010; Korkki, 2010; Luo, March 2010; Reingold, February 2009; Schieffer & Besner, 2009). This increased interest from both scholars and the popular press is notable in that, until recently, the underemployment problem has been overshadowed by the unemployment problem (Dooley, Prause, & Ham-Rowbottom, 2000; Feldman, 1996), especially in the media.
As the chapters in this volume highlight, a great deal of important theoretical research has been conducted on underemployment in a wide variety of disciplines: industrial-organizational psychology, labor economics, social psychology, sociology, organizational behavior, human resource management, macroeconomics, industrial and labor relations, community psychology, and public policy. Each, in its own way, has contributed to the substantial body of knowledge we currently possess about underemployment. In this chapter, we identify three directions for theory development which we believe are the most important for future research and that have the greatest potential to integrate research from these numerous disciplines.
... It is related to the inadequacy in work opportunities which can be in terms of hours, income, rank or use of expertise [15,16]. The underemployed workers are engaged in jobs which are substandard as compared to their goals and expectations [17]. ...
... This is also referred to as visible underemployment or time-related underemployment, in which an employee works fewer hours compared to the normal working hours determined for the job. The broader perspective includes several other inadequate or invisible employment situations which prevent worker's full potential from being realized i.e. insufficient use of skills and experience [14], over education, employment outside one's area of enquiry, overqualification for the present position and income significantly lower than which was paid in the previous job [17]. It includes all the persons who want to shift from their current job to another one and those who want to modify their activities through improving the quality of equipment they use, reorganizing their work etc. in their self-employed or paid jobs. ...
... It was found that underemployment can affect relationship with spouse/partner, children, and friends and hence affects family and friendship networks. It can also lead to high turnover among employees, low standard of living, poor social status and greater marital discord [17]. Inadequate employment situations like long hours of work harm the relationships in home specifically marital relationship and child development because it reduces the time spent with their partner and children which is very important for the quality of life [51]. ...
Background:
COVID-19 has caused economic slowdown all across the globe. It results in job loss on the one hand and less wages, increased working hours, overqualified employees and part time jobs on the other hand. Low demand of labour and a huge availability of work force will put many in a disadvantageous position, where they will have to compromise with the circumstances by being underemployed. Cabinet decisions, by some Indian states like Uttar Pradesh, to suspend the labour laws related to minimum wage, bonus, working hours and other employee benefits will put workers in a highly disadvantageous position of being underemployed. This may lead to many socio-economic, psychological and health-related implications.
Objective:
The aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review on the concept of underemployment, its types and consequences.
Methodology:
A critical and constructive analysis of the literature was performed.
Results:
The findings reveal that if employment does not provide workers with proper opportunities to use their education, time, skills and expertise, it can create stressful situations in workers' lives.
Conclusion:
The problem needs both a diagnosis and robust treatment in order to have better outcomes at the individual, organisational and national levels.
... While other fields have shown increasing concern about underemployment (e.g., ILO, 2015), the lack of research from vocational scholars has not served to resolve key measurement problems, including categorization of continuous variables, labeling of different constructs as underemployment, overuse of single-item scales, and confusion between subjective and objective variables (Maynard, Joseph, & Maynard, 2006;Jensen & Slack, 2003;McKee-Ryan & Harvey, 2011). In particular, the widespread use of categorical, objective measures of underemployment may obscure its psychological impact, especially because subjective measures are often better predictors of psychological outcomes than their objective counterparts (Maynard & Feldman, 2011). Moreover, underemployment often requires an evaluation by the worker of their needs, qualifications, and abilities. ...
... Second, all scales were developed as subjective perceptions of underemployment. Subjective measures have repeatedly shown higher correlations to psychological outcomes than objective indicators (Maynard & Feldman, 2011). For example, subjective measures of social class predict psychological well-being beyond objective indicators, like income, level of education, and occupational prestige (Adler et al., 2008). ...
... Finally, given that the primarily role of vocational psychologists in studying underemployment may be to identify its psychological consequences, we included a range of job attitudes: meaningful work, career commitment, co-worker satisfaction, job satisfaction, work in general satisfaction, promotion opportunities, and supervision satisfaction. Consistent with reviews of the underemployment literature (Feldman, 1996;Maynard & Feldman, 2011;McKee-Ryan & Harvey, 2011), we predicted that each dimension of underemployment would negatively relate to each job attitude. ...
Underemployment refers to work that is inferior to certain standards, such as sufficient pay or adequate use of people's abilities. Current measurement of underemployment has a number of problems, including categorization of continuous variables, lack of conceptual clarity, and overreliance on objective and single-item scales. To address these issues, the goal of the current research was to develop and refine scales assessing the six major domains underemployment identified by Feldman (1996): pay, status, field, hours, involuntary temporary work, and poverty wage employment. In two studies with different samples of diverse, working adults, we provide evidence for the internal consistency, factor structure, and the validity of the Subjective Underemployment Scales (SUS). The SUS demonstrated convergent validity by relating to similar constructs, work-related outcomes, and job attitudes. In addition, we tested different factor structures and incremental validity for the six dimensions, along with overqualification, and we found evidence for the use of a total SUS score and subscale SUS scores. The current research represents improvements in underemployment measurement and continued conceptual clarification in this area. Limitations, implications, and directions for future research are discussed.
... During the pandemic, people are forced to pursue such options, merely to earn a living and sustain a standard of living. Decreasing demand for labor during the pandemic has caused many employees to be underutilized and undervalued (Maynard & Feldman, 2011). Thus, apart from people being unemployed, underemployment has prevented the full potential of individuals from being realized due to inadequate job opportunities during COVID-19. ...
... For example, unemployment and underemployment affect the social life, mental health and lifestyle of individuals and their families. Maynard and Feldman (2011) claimed that unattractive job opportunities or unemployment positively correlated with mentally unhealthy individuals showing symptoms of stress, depression and insecurities. In support, Kaur et al. (2020) argued that inadequate or no employment situations may lead to lower standards of living, poor family relationships and negatively affected social networks and interpersonal relations. ...
This chapter conceptualizes the primacy of adherence to governance principles in the management of the public sector. The chapter discusses the major principles of governance such as public participation, accountability, rule of law, effective leadership, and effective state response to societal demands. These principles revolve around the roles of three major components: the state, private citizens, and civil society. Thus, effective governance practices require the functionality of these components. This chapter conceptualizes the roles of these components concerning the governance principles and the necessity in the management of affairs in the public sector.KeywordsGovernancePublic sectorCorruptionAccountabilityLeadershipBureaucracyElite
... Though empirical research has validated this association, there has been a limited examination of the underlying psychological mechanisms through which it works (Liu and Wang, 2012). There is scarce empirical research examining the mediators of the association between POQ and unfavorable employee outcomes (Erdogan et al., 2011;Maynard and Feldman, 2011). ...
... Some of the mediators explaining the process of POQ in the current literature involve emotional responses like boredom and anger (Liu and Wang, 2012) and other mediators like cynicism, person-job fit and psychological contract breach (Luksyte et al., 2011). Exploring new theory-based moderating and mediating variables and discovering how, when and why of the overqualification phenomenon is vital and has been rarely researched (Erdogan et al., 2011;Wang et al., 2019;Maynard and Feldman, 2011). Additional investigation is required with regards to how overqualification psychologically alters the cognitive disposition of an employee, thus resulting in behavioral changes (Alfes et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2019). ...
Purpose
The study is aimed at developing and testing a theoretical model where psychological capital acts as the intervening mechanism explicating the relationship between perceived overqualification (POQ) and turnover intention. It also explores how perceived supervisor support (PSS) influences the mediating role of psychological capital in the perceived overqualification and turnover intention association.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors test the model through a sample data of 314 workers employed in the Indian IT service sector. IBM SPSS and SPSS AMOS software were utilized for conducting analysis and testing the model involving first-stage moderated mediation.
Findings
The study confirms that perceptions of overqualification have a positive relationship with turnover intentions. Further, it finds that the positive association between POQ and turnover intention will be mediated by psychological capital. The results reflected that perceived supervisor support shall weaken the relationship between perceptions of overqualification and psychological capital.
Originality/value
The research is amongst the limited researches which look at the influence of psychological capital and perceived supervisor support with regards to POQ. It attempts to lay down the underlying psychological mechanism of POQ and highlight the role played by perceived supervisor support.
... Our study is innovative as it focusses on both (in)voluntary part-and full-time workers, and it formally tests the interaction between working hour categories and different types of family-and work-related resources. Primarily, combining COR theory and a gender perspective with the concept of working hours mismatch advances the literature, as these approaches are rarely used to explain the relation of working hours mismatch with health [33]. ...
... Type of job was grouped into four categories (based on the Erikson-Goldthorpe-Portocarero (EGP) scheme): "upper service class" (EGP I), "lower service class" (EGP II), "routine non-manual workers" (EGP III, IVab), and "skilled and unskilled manual workers" (EGP IVc, V, VI, VII). Age was grouped into four categories: "job starters" (20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29), "early midlife" (30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39), "late midlife" (40)(41)(42)(43)(44)(45)(46)(47)(48)(49), and "older working life" (50-60). Job starters have better mental health than older workers [40]. ...
Resources related to a good work-life balance may play an important role for the mental health of workers with involuntary working hours. This study investigates whether involuntary part-time (i.e., working part-time, but preferring full-time work) and involuntary full-time work (i.e., working full-time, but preferring part-time work) are associated with a deterioration of mental health and whether family- and work-related resources buffer this association. Data were obtained from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) with baseline information on involuntary working hours and resources. This information was linked to changes in mental health two years later. We found impaired mental health for involuntary full-time male workers and increased mental health for regular part-time female workers. The mental health of involuntary full-time male workers is more vulnerable, compared to regular full-time workers, when having high non-standard work hours and when being a partner (with or without children). Involuntary part-time work is detrimental to men’s mental health when doing a high amount of household work. This study is one of the first to emphasize the mental health consequences of involuntary full-time work. Avoiding role and time conflicts between family and work roles are important for the mental health of men too.
... Applied to the context of expatriate assignments demands-abilities fit refers to the alignment of expatriates' skills with the requirements of the particular overseas assignment. In contrast, supplies-values fit refers to the extent to which individuals' expectations are met by opportunities in the work environment (Caplan, 1983;Maynard & Feldman, 2011). The employer usually attempts to provide such 'supplies'/opportunities by offering rewards, novel tasks, training investment, and promotion opportunities (Cable & DeRue, 2002;Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). ...
... The findings of this study advance the literature on underemployment (Bolino & Feldman, 2000a;Feldman, 1996;Maynard & Feldman, 2011) in two meaningful ways. First, we find that the expatriate underemployment phenomenon leads indirectly to decreased job performance and increased withdrawal intentions by intensifying expatriates' work maladjustment during international assignments. ...
Although research has investigated the consequences of underemployment in domestic settings, research on the effects of underemployment among expatriates remains limited and has yielded inconsistent results. From a theoretical perspective, there is a need for a better understanding of the mechanisms through which underemployment affects various work-related outcomes and to account for potential contingencies. Drawing on the person-job fit literature and research on organizational identification, we theorise and empirically examine how and under what conditions underemployment influences expatriate performance. Using an original primary data-set of 103 Japanese expatriate managers in the UK, we find that underemployment affects expatriate work outcomes by increasing expatriates’ maladjustment and that this effect is moderated by the level to which expatriates identify with their organization.
... This aligns with prior research indicating that individuals who regard their present employment seek tasks that align with their long-term career objectives, viewing their current roles as stepping stones towards more advanced positions (Lee et al., 2021). Maynard and Feldman (2011) explained how overqualification can lead to proactive career behaviors. Overqualified individuals are likely to seek additional responsibilities and professional development opportunities to prepare for their future roles. ...
Grounding on career mobility theory, this scholarship tested a moderated mediated model to examine the relationship between perceived overqualification, occupational instrumentality and career growth. Further, this study examined how occupational instrumentality—acts as a stepping stone towards career growth and will act as a mediator and supervisor support as a moderator. We tested our hypotheses with a diverse sample in Pakistan. Data was collected from 437 employees working in the corporate sector at Islamabad Capital Territory, Pakistan. Results show a positive and significant relationship between perceived overqualification, occupational instrumentality and career growth. Moreover, occupational instrumentality mediates the relationship between perceived overqualification and career growth. Supervisor support strengthens the direct path between perceived overqualification and occupational instrumentality and indirectly affects career growth via occupational instrumentality. This study contribute to the perceived overqualification literature by identifying perceived overqualification–“the flip side of the coin” and occupational instrumentality play a key role as a stepping stone in individual career growth.
... Third, research shows that underemployment often entails roles that do not fully harness an individual's skills or provide the discretion they would experience in roles commensurate with their qualifications. This mismatch between abilities and job demands can create a sense of underachievement and dissatisfaction, which in turn negatively impacts overall wellbeing (Maynard and Feldman, 2011). By contrast, social environment and work-life balance might play a less pronounced mediating role. ...
Despite the well-documented negative impact of working time mismatch on employee subjective well-being, little is known about the extent to which this association can be explained by job quality and how these patterns may differ across institutional contexts. Utilizing panel data from the UK and cross-country data from Europe, the decomposition analyses show that for underemployment, more than half of the negative effects are explained by low job quality, especially poor career prospects. For overemployment, more than a third of its negative effect is explained by low job quality, with poor prospects, social environment and work–life balance being significant contributing factors. This interplay between job quality and working time mismatch on subjective well-being varies notably across different welfare and employment regimes. These findings reveal how job quality dimensions differentially contribute to the well-being of overemployed and underemployed individuals, highlighting the distinctive role of institutional context.
... The mismatch at the root of underemployment can have several sources, such as working time, education, skills, experience or income, which makes it complex to establish a single theoretical framework (Maynard and Feldman, 2011;Feldman, 1996). The ILO (2013) recommends focusing on three specific forms of inadequate employment. ...
This paper analyzes disparities in visible and invisible underemployment between men and women in Cameroon using data from the Employment and Informal Sector Survey conducted in 2010. The results indicate that a single woman is less likely to be visibly underemployed than a woman living in a couple; a high endowment of human capital, on the other hand, tends to increase this type of underemployment. Similarly, for women working in the informal sector, there is a lower probability of being invisibly underemployed than for women working in the formal public sector. We suggest: introducing positive discrimination in favor of women by, for example, imposing quotas when recruiting for formal public and private jobs; creating formal jobs in rural areas; and insisting on a school enrollment policy geared towards increasing female attendance.
Jel: J13, J16, J22, J24, J78.
... Overqualified employees are found dissatisfied with their wages, responsibilities, challenges, career advancements and other aspects of their job. Basically the job search behavior and turnover intention observed among overqualified employees are partly driven by the urge to find an employment worth enough to utilize their skills better (Feldman C. , 2011) Johnson and Johnson (2002) studied two components of perceived overqualification. They were perceived lack of growth and opportunity and perceived mismatch of individual qualifications and job requirements. ...
This study discusses the significance of studying over qualification and attempts to measure and explore the sub dimensions of perceived over qualification. Over qualification is a phenomenon resulting in the possession of higher educational qualifications by employees than what their job demands. The conduct of this study is found relevant because over qualification results in negative work attitudes among employees. The impact of over qualification is seemed to be more dismal when it is subjective. The primary reason behind over qualification is reported to be labor market imperfections resulting in oversupply of graduates and concentration of certain skills in the labor market. Perceived over qualification is the subjective aspect of over qualification and explores the individual's interpretations of their employment situations, focusing on their perceptions regarding use of their skills and abilities. The study reviews various existing measures for measuring perceived over qualification. The construct is measured by adapting statements from different existing scales of perceived over qualification. An exploratory factor analysis has been performed and three dimensions were explored namely excess education, excess skills and excess experience explaining 73% of variance.
... In contrast, overqualified workers are more likely to have negative work attitudes and may not be willing to exert additional effort. This is why the overqualification problem has drawn the attention of academics, practitioners, and business leaders (Maynard and Feldman, 2011). According to previous studies, individuals and their employers may suffer from overqualified employees. ...
Grounding on person–job fit theory, we examined perceived overqualification relation with counterproductive work behavior (CWB) by identifying job boredom as a mediator and job crafting as a moderator. Hierarchical linear regression and Hayes’ PROCESS macro-method were used to assess hypotheses in a three-wave survey of 317 textile sector employees. The findings show that perceived overqualification is positively related with CWBs. This study further examined the mediating function of job boredom and the moderating impact of job crafting in the association between perceived overqualification and CWB. The findings suggest that job crafting moderates the positive relation between perceived overqualification and job boredom and the indirect connection between perceived overqualification and CWB via job boredom. The model was tested using 3-wave data; however, since the data were attained from a single source, questions of common method bias cannot be ruled out. Managers should look for changes in employee attitudes and promptly modify employees’ positions when they indicate that they have more experience, abilities, and talents required for their roles in their organizations.
... A recent research has confirmed that underemployment is more common among women in the health workforce [10]. Relegating women to outpatient activities after years of surgical training or limiting their space in the OR has negative repercussions on surgeons' psychological health, career trajectories, job turnover, individual and team performance [11]. The study by Leschber et al. [12] also found that the distribution of workload in clinical practice differed quite substantially: whereas "minor" tasks (taking medical history, talking to relatives, etc.) were performed mostly by women, male colleagues dominated in "prestigious" activities (publications, working in committees, etc.). ...
Many studies documented the "glass ceiling" effect for women in surgery: achievements in academic and leadership positions are not consistent with the percentage of female surgeons in practice. A solid surgical case volume and expertise in high-complexity cases are required to pursue leadership positions. The aim of the study was to determine whether part of the difficulties encountered by female surgeons may lie in reduced surgical opportunities. This is the first study to investigate this issue in Italy. An online survey, conceived and promoted by Women in Surgery Italia, was administered through the RedCap platform, between November and December 2020, and female surgeons actively working in Italian academic and non-academic hospitals were invited to answer anonymously. A multivariate analysis was performed to evaluate the role of different factors on two main variables: overall procedures done and a sub-analysis of complex cases performed as first surgeon. 1810 respondents were included; the women who responded participated in 3% fewer cases on average, when compared to the mean staff case volume, and were significantly more often listed as the assistant surgeon and as primary surgeons in low-complexity cases. 36.5% of the respondents declared that at least one female physician on staff had to abandon the operatory room (OR) and does not regularly perform any surgical procedure. 73% female surgeons would like to spend more hours in the OR. While acquiring skills and surgical autonomy, many obstacles still exist for female surgeons. A portion of women are relegated to non-surgical activities, irrespective of their specialty, and these results confirm the theory that gender-biased underemployment still exists in surgical fields.
... From a broader perspective, underemployment fundamentally reflects a gap between an individual's longings and their surroundings (Maynard and Feldman 2011;Luksyte and Spitzmueller 2011;Allan et al. 2017), particularly in their employment. Underemployment is multi-dimensional, and as reasoned by Feldman (1996), its scope encompasses being overqualified for a job, being involuntarily employed in a job that is not related to one's field, having more skills and experience than needed, being forced to accept non-standard employment on a part-time or temporary basis, or being in a job that pays less income than the last job or relative to one's peers. ...
Labour markets have undergone vast transformations over the last few years. There are arguments that employment and unemployment measures have not been adequate in understanding the complexities of labour markets. Research on labour underutilisation has focused on one side of the spectrum, which is just about the scarcity of jobs. However, there is more to the labour market than just scarcity of jobs, and many researchers believe unemployment is not a complete measurement of unused labour capacity, which is why this study aimed to investigate the existence of underemployment from the perceptions of young graduates themselves. In this regard, the definition of young people entailed those younger than 35 years as officially defined in South Africa. The study employed a primary data method of data collection in which an online survey was used to collect the necessary data from the alumni database of a South African university. The study used binary logistic regression to determine factors that contributed to or influenced underemployment status. The main findings indicated that underemployment was rife according to age, where younger graduates (20–29 years) were more likely to be underemployed compared to their more mature counterparts; that is, those in the 30–34 age category, with non-White graduates most likely to encounter underemployment compared to their counterparts. This study resulted in important findings that carry significant policy implications and recommendations that may be crucial in correcting the current employment mismatches in the South African graduate labour market.
... "Underemployment" is defined as paid employment in which workers perceive themselves to be less or inferior based on certain subjective standards (Feldman, 1996). While numerous researchers in various fields have examined unemployment from various perspectives, research on underemployment is relatively underexplored (Allan et al., 2017;Maynard and Feldman, 2011). According to scholars (e.g. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate how degree-holding secondary school teachers cope in a recessive economy by embracing hybrid entrepreneurship (HE). Specifically, we investigated how comparison with referent others, underemployment and relative deprivation led to HE.
Design/methodology/approach
The study adopted a cross-sectional research design. We used snowball and purposive sampling techniques to recruit 303 bachelor’s degree holders teaching in Nigerian public secondary schools in two states of the federation (Ondo and Ekiti states). We analyzed the data with regression path analysis and controlled for age and gender.
Findings
The results of this study showed the following. First, teachers were high in the feeling of pay underemployment and relative deprivation. Second, pay underemployment and relative deprivation directly led to HE. Third, teachers were indirectly high in HE through either pay underemployment or relative deprivation. Finally, underemployment and relative deprivation serially mediate the relationship between referent others and HE.
Research limitations/implications
Overall, the results suggest that teachers’ involvement in HE is necessity-driven to cope with the recessive Nigerian economy. However, future research should focus on a more experimental approach to determine the cause-effect relationship.
Originality/value
This is the first study to investigate how workers embrace HE to cope with the consequences of a recessive economy.
... Overqualification refers to a state wherein employees have higher levels of competencies, such as skills, knowledge, abilities, education, and experience, than what is required to perform their jobs [4,12]. Overqualification is a special type of underemployment, which refers to the state of being employed but in an improper manner [26,27]. Along with overqualification, underemployment also includes situations in which individuals are paid less than what they were paid before, as well as having unstable employment, such as holding a temporary position [28]. ...
Developments in direct and indirect educational systems have increased the number of individuals with competencies that are higher than the required expectations of their current jobs. This concept of overqualification is drawing interest today, while underqualification was the focus in the past. Currently, research on perceived overqualification (POQ) has focused on its negative influences; however, this study aimed to explore the positive and nonlinear influence of POQ on job crafting and the moderating effect of career adaptability on these functions. Data were collected from 257 individuals in three Korean telecom companies. The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicate that POQ had a reverse U-shaped nonlinear influence on job crafting, indicating that an appropriate level of POQ can drive job crafting, leading to performance improvements in organizations and individuals. Moreover, career adaptability moderated the relationship between POQ and job crafting. When career adaptability was at an average or high level, the reverse U-shaped nonlinear influence of POQ on job crafting strengthened. These results are expected to assist in creating both an environment to reduce the negative influence of POQ and healthy sustainability in human resources development.
... Despite this multifaceted measure of underemployment, it mostly measures objective underemployment, which proposes theoretical and statistical limitations. For instance, objective indicators do not capture different experiences of people with the same income or educational levels (McGuinness, 2006), and subjective measures of underemployment are more likely to predict psychological outcomes than objective ones (Maynard & Feldman, 2011;McGoldrick & Robst, 1996). In summary, no appropriate measures assessing subjective underemployment exist in Korea, making it critical to develop an appropriate scale to understand the subjective underemployment of Korean workers. ...
Underemployment is a multidimensional construct that captures various suboptimal work statuses. Although recent economic depressions and insecure job markets in Korea have increased underemployment, no appropriate scale exists to measure underemployment in a Korean context. Therefore, the aim of this study was to translate the Subjective Underemployment Scales (SUS) into Korean and validate the Korean SUS (K-SUS) with a sample of 427 Korean employees. We found that a bifactor model fit the data best, suggesting a different internal structure from the English version. Scores from the K-SUS were also invariant across gender, age, income, and employment status. In addition, we found evidence for construct validity by relating scores from the K-SUS to similar constructs and indicators of well-being. Findings from the current study help describe Korean employees’ experiences of subjective underemployment and suggest how psychologists, employers, and policy makers can address structural and psychological issues related to underemployment.
... It has negative effects on employees and organizations, such as lower job satisfaction (Maynard et al. 2006;Alfes et al. 2016;Harari et al. 2017), lower organizational commitment (Bolino and Feldman 2000;Harari et al. 2017), higher psychological distress (Johnson and Johnson 1996), higher turnover intention (Maynard and Parfyonova 2013;Harari et al. 2017), higher anti-production behavior , and higher withdrawal behavior (Maynard and Parfyonova 2013). Therefore, perceived overqualification has attracted extensive attention from theoretical and practical fields (Erdogan et al. 2011;Maynard and Feldman 2011;Harari et al. 2017). ...
The current study investigated the interaction effect of perceived overqualification and LMX on employee emotional exhaustion, and examined the mediating role of work alienation from the perspective of relative deprivation theory. Using a sample of 297 employees in 12 companies collected in China, we found that perceived overqualification was more positively related to work alienation and emotional exhaustion when LMX was high than when LMX was low. The results of the mediated moderation analysis revealed that work alienation mediated the interaction of perceived overqualification and LMX on emotional exhaustion.
... According to Maynard and Feldman (2011), underemployment may lead to more careerist attitudes toward work and an increased reliance on non-performance based tactics (such as networking and impression management. The hope of employees developing their skills with on -the -job training looks or becomes impossible because they have taken up low skilled jobs. ...
The study examined underemployment and the socio-economic well-being of employees in the hospitality firms in Calabar Metropolis, Cross River State Nigeria. Specifically the study examined the relationship between job underpayment and the over-education of workers and the socioeconomic well-being of workers. It was hypothesized that none of them had any significant relationship with the socioeconomic well-being of employees. Related literature was reviewed and the theory of Relative deprivation theory was used for the study. Survey research design was adopted and the multi stage sampling technique was applied to obtain data from the 400 respondents selected using the Taro Yamene"s sampling size determination technique, although the final analysis was based on 356. The instruments for data collection were a 25-item questionnaire and focus group discussion. Generated data were tested using Chi-square. Results of analyses indicated that job underpayment, and the over-education of workers were significantly related to the socioeconomic well-beingworkers. It was recommended among others that business owners in the hospitality industry should introduce incentives and welfare packages to encourage and motivate workers and also contribute in positively influencing their socio-economic well-being. The government and the stakeholders in the hospitality business should collectively develop ideas, plans, and programs to make the hospitality business strive. It was concluded that, underemployment negatively affects the socio-economic well-being of employees. This result has caused an increase in the need to urgently examine the quality of the jobs that the hospitality industry provides and how it impacts on the overall quality of life of the employees in the hospitality industry
... Specifically, studies either investigate part-time employment (Nylén et al. 2001;Bartoll et al. 2014) or long working hours (Virtanen et al. 2011;Artazcoz et al. 2013) and their links to different health outcomes. A more recent approach, though, uses the concept of 'volition' and compares the discrepancy between actual and preferred working hours (Maynard and Feldman 2011;Otterbach et al. 2016), instead of the number of working hours as such. From this perspective, a person can be underemployed (working less than preferred), overemployed (working more than preferred) or correctly matched (Pagan 2016). ...
Objectives:
Working more (overemployment) or less (underemployment) than preferred has been associated with poor mental health in cross-sectional studies, but longitudinal evidence is scarce. We investigate whether under- and overemployment is associated with 2-year changes of mental health and whether associations vary by job rewards (i.e. high earnings, job security, promotion prospects and occupational prestige).
Methods:
We used two waves of the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP), with information on mental health collected in 2006 and 2008. Workers in paid employment (3266 men and 3139 women) who did not change jobs between 2006 and 2008, aged 20-60 years were selected. Under- and overemployment was assessed using the discrepancy between the actual and preferred working hours. Mental health was assessed using the Mental Component Summary (MCS) score, a subscale from the Short Form 12 Health Survey. Questions on rewards at work were added and divided into tertiles. Conditional change models were estimated to predict change in MCS.
Results:
Findings indicate that overemployment and low reward at work (for men and women) were linked to a reduction in mental health. Underemployment was not related to a reduction in mental health. Albeit associations between under-/overemployment and mental health slightly differed across levels of reward, interactions did not reach statistical significance.
Conclusions:
Our findings demonstrate that overemployment was related to negative mental health change, and that this relationship held true both for people with high and with low reward at work.
... Även individers inkomst påverkas, och forskning visar på en ihållande negativ löneeffekt även i tillsvidareeller tidsbegränsade anställningar. (Maynard & Feldman 2011). ...
Alternative employment forms such as on-call and part-time contracts have become more common in the retail sector. These alternative types of employment can be combined in several ways and are often difficult to distinguish. The present study identifies typical employment situations in the retail sector, and explores differences in individual characteristics between the employees who hold these jobs. The study furthermore examines whether experiences of financial concern, job insecurity and self-rated health differ depending on employment situation. Data was collected via an online questionnaire. Cluster analysis identified six distinct employment situations in the sample (N = 138). Analyzes of intergroup differences indicated that employees in zero contract- and part-time work had the greatest vulnerability, compared with permanent employees and hourly employed students who seemed least at risk.
... Notwithstanding that some persons may value labour flexibility and the opportunity to learn skills in temporary jobs (Chen & Corcoran, 2010;Morris & Vekker, 2001), and that temporary employment may for some function as a stepping stone to long-term employment (Cockx & Picchio, 2012;Reichelt, 2015), temporary or non-standard work may be less paid and temporary workers may have less access to fringe benefits and on-the-job training than other workers (OECD, 2002). Furthermore, temporary work may have negative effects on well-being and health (Burgard, Brand, & House, 2009;Friedland & Price, 2003;Virtanen et al., 2005), impede for some valued life transitions (such as buying a house or having children), and negatively affect work attitudes and work identity (Maynard & Feldman, 2011). Therefore, it is of relevance to know to which extent beneficiaries with varying migration background differ in their exit rates to long-term employment. ...
The Belgian social assistance scheme, the final safety net of the welfare state, aims at the labour market integration of benefit claimants, as benefit episodes can be scarring and lead to benefit dependence. Moreover, work is valued as a source of self-sufficiency and economic security, facilitating well-being and social inclusion. However, in post-industrial labour markets stable career patterns are not obvious for some groups. In particular persons with a migration background, highly represented in the social assistance scheme, have difficulties securing stable employment. This dissertation investigates how long social assistance beneficiaries stay on social assistance; how successful their labour market integration is; which other subsequent socio-economic states than employment they have; and how individual characteristics (sociodemographic characteristics, benefit and work history, and migration history) and the local policy and socio-economic context of the welfare agency affect the socio-economic trajectories. The analyses demonstrate that for persons who took up social assistance in 2004/2005, their trajectories display substantial variety and are volatile. The median duration of the first social assistance spell is 8 months, and beneficiaries have on average four socio-economic states over four years. About half of the beneficiaries have a first exit to work or to an active labour market programme, but only 12 per cent obtain long-term employment. One third of the beneficiaries re-enter into social assistance within four years. Beneficiaries re-enter into social assistance in particular after short work exits. Furthermore, substantial shares of the beneficiaries exiting the social assistance scheme are no longer known in the labour market or the welfare state. In particular non-European born persons have longer social assistance spells relative to natives, but social assistance does not function as a trap for them. They do not exit less to work, but need to search longer for a job, and have less other exit options. The variation in socio-economic trajectories can mainly be attributed to individual characteristics and to the local socio-economic context, pointing to structural problems and tensions on the labour market. Though, also differences in the policies of local agencies affect the trajectories, showing that local policies matter.
Underemployment is an involuntary condition where individuals consider their employment inferior relative to a standard. This study analyzes underemployment among veterans using data from a large longitudinal study and federal occupational data to explore the relationship between subjective perceptions and objective indicators. Veterans reported their occupations, salaries, and subjective underemployment. Each veteran’s occupation was matched with O*NET job zone, education, and occupational median income data. Four groups were identified: neither subjectively nor objectively underemployed, subjectively underemployed only, objectively underemployed only, and both subjectively and objectively underemployed. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) examined salary differences. Most veterans’ occupations required some education, and higher educational attainment correlated with increased underemployment. Two thirds of cases showed agreement between subjective and objective assessments, with underemployed veterans earning significantly less. This study highlights the reliability of self-reports as indicators of objective underemployment and underscores the need for innovative strategies to address veteran underemployment through early detection.
This study aims to determine what factors influence underemployment in East Java Province. This study uses several variables such as age, education level, and training participation. The methods used are Linear Probability Model (LPM), Logit, and Probit. The focus of this research is how to reduce the probability of the workforce being trapped into underemployment. The results of this study indicate that the age factor has a positive and significant effect on underemployment where as age increases the probability of becoming underemployed also increases. Furthermore, the education factor shows negative results, the higher the level of education, the lower the probability of underemployment. Workers with an elementary school education level are most prone to being trapped into underemployment. Meanwhile, workers with university graduates have the lowest chance of becoming underemployed. The training participation factor shows that workers who attend training have a lower probability of becoming underemployed.
Highlights and Implications
•Very low or very high levels of employee perceived overqualification (POQ) are associated with a lower likelihood of employee counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs), while the highest levels of CWB occur at the intermediate levels of POQ.
•Deprivation-based motivation dominates the POQ–CWB relationship at low to moderate levels of POQ, and uniqueness-based motivation dominates this relationship at moderate to high levels of POQ.
•Workgroup justice climate decreases the likelihood of overqualified employees displaying CWB.
•Workgroup task interdependence decreases the likelihood of overqualified employees displaying CWB.
•Informed by our study results, we recommend that practitioners be aware of the different motivations triggered in employees who perceive overqualification and pay attention to the important role of workgroup context in preventing CWB that incurs significant losses to the organization.
•Our findings imply that practitioners should be cautious in their selection practices as the organizational benefits of hiring employees who perceive overqualification must be weighed against such costs (i.e., CWBs) to organizations.
•Providing a positive and strong climate of justice and communicating managers’ fairness appropriately and designing the workgroup structure to have higher task interdependence can substantially reduce the possibility of overqualified employees’ engagement in CWB.
After the COVID-19 crisis, a considerable contraction emerged in the labor supply of the hospitality industry. This investigation aims to identify some factors that justify the intention behind an ex-worker in tourism changing their occupation. In particular, we investigate if the change is motivated by skill mismatches or by a willingness to find more stable and rewarding jobs. Several datasets were combined to obtain multilevel information on all the unemployed from the hospitality industry between September 2022 and August 2023. A probit model was used to estimate the intention to change occupation, considering different personal, regional and occupational characteristics. Our results demonstrate that, for overqualified individuals, the intention to change occupation is motivated by trying to find better conditions and not by the mismatch per se. In contrast, the underqualified are significantly affected by the mismatch, which make them more vulnerable. Generally, movers are significantly influenced by the odds of having higher job stability and better wages (especially higher overtime premium) and are more frequently younger and higher educated individuals. Therefore, employers and policymakers should promote better wages, job stability, training, and career progression opportunities to reduce turnover in the hospitality industry.
As global labor markets become increasingly unstable, scholars have attempted to operationalize and categorize different forms of poor-quality work, such as with underemployment and precarious work. While these have significant implications for mental health and other outcomes, scholars have mostly studied different forms of underemployment using variable-centered assumptions, which assume homogeneity among workers. However, person-centered approaches may be better suited to studying underemployment because of varying patterns of employment in different industries and occupational categories. Therefore, with a sample of working adults ( N = 1,016), we used latent profile analysis to identify profiles of subjective underemployment using seven indicators. We found three distinct profiles: Fully employed, stable underemployed, and precarious workers. Subsequent analyses exploring symptoms of distress, meaningful work, decent work, occupational classification, and level of education revealed key distinctions among the groups, such as precarious workers having the greatest distress and poorest working conditions. Taken together, this study provides a meaningful distinction between underemployed and precarious workers, while highlighting the relevance of these employment groups for several key outcomes.
This chapter focuses on the difficulty locating work that is consistent with one’s needs, abilities, values, and interests and its consequence for workers’ mental health. More specifically, the concept of “volition” is entered in research on mental health consequences of working hours. Volition, in this context, means the degree to which workers are able to work their preferred number of working hours. To describe work hours that are not in line with one’s preferences, the concepts of under- and overemployment are used. Firstly, a short literature review on under- and overemployment conceptualizations and measures is given. After- wards, three relevant empirical questions are answered: (1) whether the length of the working hours is a determinant for mental health or whether the involuntary nature of working hours is harmful to mental health; (2) whether family- and work-related resources are important for the health impact of under- and over- employment; and (3) whether a narrower interpretation of “volition,” comparing solely the discrepancy between actual and preferred working hours, is a determi- nant of health. In this chapter, it becomes clear that the conceptualization and measurements of under- and overemployment are extremely heterogeneous. Moreover, it is hours mismatch rather than the actual number of hours that is detrimental for health.
How do dislocated workers try to avoid downward mobility as they navigate insecure, nonstandard, and precarious work in the contemporary American economy? Should they embrace flexibility, or follow their passions? Drawing on in-depth, qualitative interviews with 56 displaced job seekers, we extend the job searching literature to distinguish two kinds of job searching: self-marketing and self-preservation. Self-marketers are willing to reinvent themselves to pursue opportunities wherever they perceive the best payoffs. By contrast, self-preservers, drawing on affective commitments to particular kinds of work, limit their searches to their current occupation. In this paper, we show how the neoliberal economy buffets and preys on both types of job seekers and how bounded rationality and asymmetric information problems leave self-marketers vulnerable to downward mobility via cons, scams, and predatory business models. But self-preservation searches contain their own pathways to downward mobility: descents into low-wage work that begin as temporary measures often become permanent. Thus, even though self-marketers and self-preservers embrace very different job search strategies, neither flexibility nor passion offers protection against downward mobility in the post-Great Recession economy. We conclude with some reflections on how these two job search orientations may help us better understand current labor market upheavals.
La inestabilidad económica mundial, la disrupción digital y los mercados laborales saturados han aumentado el subempleo entre los profesionales. El objetivo es conocer la identidad laboral de profesionales que trabajan en condición de subempleo. Se utilizó la metodología cualitativa y entrevistas en profundidad realizadas a 15 profesionales. Los datos se procesaron en el software Atlas ti 7 y se aplicó el análisis de tipo hermenéutico. Los resultados muestran una identidad laboral no centrada en la profesión, sino en el “ser profesional” como símbolo de integración y prestigio social. Es una identidad funcional y pragmática. El subempleo es asumido desde un discurso crítico a nivel social, económico y político, pero en la práctica se sobrelleva mediante estrategias y costos individuales.
This article presents an exploratory mapping of millennial individualism. In doing so, it complicates the common popular and scholarly narrative that millennials as a generation are less committed to the broader social order. Instead, drawing from recent advances in the study of American culture, I show that millennial individualism can be compatible with extra-individual commitment. Analyses draw from in-depth interviews with a sample of underemployed millennials regarding their experiences with work and education, as well as their future orientations and life goals. Findings demonstrate that respondents relate to the broader social order using three styles of millennial individualism – self-realization, reflexive moralism, and utilitarian traditionalism. While the sample does not allow for generalization to the entire generation, the findings presented here demonstrate the clear potential of millennial individualism to translate into traditional institutional milestones, higher life purposes, and the greater good. Respondents with backgrounds from across the social class spectrum draw from individualistic discourses to construct an array of extra-individual commitments. Nevertheless, those from working-class backgrounds are more likely to orient their lives around the attainment of traditional milestones. In demonstrating how a group of millennials actually think about their lives in relation to society, findings suggest that millennial orientations may represent the latest iteration of American individualism rather than a break from the traditional social order.
This chapter explores the challenges associated with COVID-19 social alteration rules. The chapter discusses the implications of the various lockdown measures on the well-being of citizens across countries, noting the inability of the government to control the manifested crisis associated with compliance with the rules. This presented more challenges in Africa because of insufficient infrastructural support required for behavioral adaption. It compromised the sense of solidarity that is common among African societies. Thus, adopting behavioral changes like social distancing in the African context is not easy due to overcrowded living conditions, dependence on public transport, crowding at communal water sources, and scarcity of sanitary facilities. For example, social distancing is severely compromised for people living in informal settlements like slums, because of high occupancy rates in restricted spaces. Social distancing is virtually impossible, thereby making compliance a far cry. The implication of this was the manifestation of deepening criminal social activities like rape, femicide, among other societal malaise that increased during the lockdown periods. This governance crisis was compounded by the vulnerability of citizens to attacks because of the prevailing ineffective security and justice system in most African societies.KeywordsCOVID-19Social AlternationLockdownSocial distancingFemicide
A elevada rotação de colaboradores, nomeadamente no sector da hotelaria, deverá colocar o turnover e a retenção de colaboradores como temas prioritários na agenda da gestão global das organizações como um dos grandes desafíos para as boas práticas na gestão do Capital Humano.
Apesar dos muitos estudos realizados dedicados ao desenvolvimento de modelos preditores de turnover voluntário, nesta dissertação, pretendeu-se estudar, de forma conjunta, potenciais fatores preditores das intenções de ficar menos estudados, nomeadamente a satisfação global com a carreira e recompensas, a empregabilidade percecionada, a sobrequalificação e o equilibrio trabalho-família assim como, a influência de um clima organizacional inovador na atividade profissional, e perceber, se em contextos de crise global, os impactos dos constructos preditores nas intenções de ficar sofrem alterações e a importância dos fatores internos das organizações na retenção dos seus colaboradores.
Foram realizados três estudos de natureza quantitativa e relacional utilizando como instrumento de recolha de dados um inquérito por questionário dirigido a trabalhadores do sector da hotelaria. O modelo conceptual, comum aos três estudos, foi testado através de sistema de equações estruturais, tendo-se no segundo e terceiro estudo recorrido também a uma metodologia de análise através da interpretação de tabelas Z-score.
Os resultados finais evidenciaram a importância dos constructos preditores nas intenções de ficar dos colaboradores na organização assim como o efeito moderador de um clima organizacional inovador (estudo 1), os impactos dos efeitos de uma crise externa sobre esses mesmos constructos (estudo 2) assim como, os impactos dos fatores internos nas intenções de permanência dos colaboradores nas organizações (estudo 3). Espera-se que os resultados obtidos nesta dissertação possam contribuir para melhorar a situação do emprego no turismo.
Using a multiple regression analysis, this paper studied existing links between person-job fit and subjective underemployment. Subjective underemployment is a contemporary topic especially in multinational companies, characterized by procedures that often make employees perceive themselves as un-fit with their role. Ten hypotheses were developed in order to test what factors might impact upon subjective underemployment. Results showed that accepting a job out of necessity has got negative consequences on the employee’s perceived fit with the job. On the other hand, positive consequences have been identified for correspondence with the job: the better the skills, qualifications and personality of an employee correspond to the job, the higher the perceived fit. A positive relationship has also been found between net income and job-fit: the higher the income, the better the job fit (or, else said, the lower the perception of underemployment).
Purpose
Organizations send their employees for international assignments so as to develop their international working experiences, their global knowledge and skills. These employees are then expected to return to their home countries (hereof known as repatriates) to share their newly gained knowledge or skills with their colleagues. This practice would benefit the organization's performance to some extent. Nonetheless, past literature had pointed out that many of such repatriates tend to leave their respective organizations as a result of not being able to fully utilize their newly acquired knowledge and skills, which led them to perceive that they were overqualified. This occurrence could lead to a loss of valuable knowledge for their organization. Aiming to address this issue at hand, the current study focuses on examining of the antecedents that could influence these repatriates' knowledge sharing behaviour.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper uses a research framework which was developed from three aspects of interest–perceived overqualification, affective commitment and the moderating effect of repatriation support practices on knowledge sharing behaviour of repatriates. Structural model analysis was carried out to assess 152 useable data which were collected from returning corporate repatriates in Malaysia. The SmartPLS 3.0 software was applied.
Findings
Repatriates with highly perceived overqualifications tend to exhibit low affective commitment. The impact of their perceived overqualification on knowledge sharing behaviour was fully mediated by their affective commitment. Repatriation support practice was found to strengthen the positive relationship between affective commitment and knowledge sharing behaviour.
Originality/value
The use of the relative deprivation theory showed that the outcome derived from this study could serve as an insight for organizations to understand how those repatriates' perception of overqualification influences their level of affective commitment, and subsequently, the extent to which they share knowledge upon returning.
Background
The literature shows that female surgeons have lower operative volumes than male surgeons. Since volume is dependent on new patient referrals for most surgeons, inequities in referrals may contribute to this employment disparity.
Methods
Using 1997–2018 data from a large medical center, we examined the number of new patient referrals for surgeons. Multivariate linear analysis was performed, adjusting for surgeon race, calendar year, seniority, and clinical subspecialty.
Results
A total of 121 surgeons across 12,410 surgeon-months were included. Overall, surgeons had a median of 14 new patient referrals per month (interquartile range (IQR) = 7, 27). On adjusted analysis, female surgeons saw 5.4 fewer new patient referrals per month (95% CI -6.4 to −4.5).
Conclusion
Female surgeons, with equal training and seniority, received fewer new patient referrals than their male peers, and this may contribute to female surgeon under-employment. Surgeon gender may be one of the factors contributing to this differential referral pattern.
Both perceived and objective measures of employee overqualification can impact job attitudes, various workplace behaviors, and work relationships. Utilizing motivation and capability-based theoretical approaches, this review summarizes research regarding the antecedents (demographic influences, personality traits, relational influences, job characteristics) and outcomes (individual health and well-being, turnover intentions and turnover, job performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, interpersonal relationships, innovative behaviors, counterproductive work behaviors, and career success) of overqualification. In addition, we review work done to date regarding the moderators and mediators of these relationships. Finally, we offer future directions for research.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Pscyhology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 8 is January 21, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
شكّلت ظاهرة التأهيل المفرِط تحديّاً لمسئولي التوظيف من ناحية استقطاب وتوظيف الأفراد ذوي التأهيل المفرِط، وادماجهم في بيئة العمل، بل استبقاءهم في المنظمة. الإشكالية هنا تتمثل في أنّ تصور الأفراد بأنّهم يملكون ما يفوق متطلبات وظائفهم يؤدي إلى انخفاض رضاهم الوظيفي، ويساهم في تنامي الرغبة في ترك العمل. أضف إلى ذلك، أنّ الأدبيات المكتوبة باللغة الانجليزية تزخرُ بعددٍ وافر من الدراسات والنظريات التي ناقشت ظاهرة التأهيل المفرط، إلا أنّ مما يثير الدهشة أنّ الأدبيات العربية لم تتطرق إلى إشكالية ترجمة المصطلحات الانجليزية المرتبطة بهذه الظاهرة، هذا فضلاً عن دراسة الظاهرة ذاتها وتحليلها نظريّاً وتطبيقيّاً حيث تخلو هذه الأدبيات، حتى الآن، من أيّ دراسةٍ في هذا المجال. لذلك، سعت هذه الدراسة لسد هذه الفجوة المعرفية من خلال تحقيق ثلاثة أهداف. الأول، بيان ماهية الظاهرة، ودواعي الاهتمام بها، وأهمية دراستها، وإيجابياتها. الثاني، تسليط الضوء على بعض الجوانب المنهجية للظاهرة كمحدداتها وآثارها، النظريات المفسِّرة لعلاقتها بالعوامل التنظيمية، وطرق قياسها. الثالث، تقديم مقترحات وتوصيات للتعامل هذه الظاهرة والتخفيف من آثارها السلبية في المنظمات.
لذلك، استخدمت الدراسة الحالية المنهج الوصفي بغرض تأصيل هذه الظاهرة وتأسيس لأبعادها المختلفة. وقد خلصت الدراسة إلى ضرورة الالتفات نحو دراسة هذه الظاهرة لدورها في إثارة العديد من الظواهر التنظيمية السلبية، كما أنّه، في الوقت ذاته، ينبغي عدم تجاهل إيجابياتها فرديّاً ووظيفيّاً. أيضاً، أكدت الدراسة أنّ لهذه الظاهرة آثاراً متعددة تتعدى الأفراد نفسيّاً واجتماعيّاً، مروراً بالمنظمات أداءً وعلاقاتٍ اجتماعية، وصولاً للجانب الاجتماعي والاقتصادي في المجتمعات الحديثة. علاوة على ذلك، شدّدت الدراسة على أهمية دور إدارات الموارد البشرية في المنظمات في تهيئة البيئة الملائمة للتعامل هذه الظاهرة. وأخيراً، قدّمت الدراسة عدداً من التوصيات والمقترحات العلمية والعملية دعماً لجهود الباحثين والممارسين في التخفيف من هذه الظاهرة، ولعل من أبرزها ضرورة استكشاف هذه الظاهرة والتحقق من نتائجها وذلك من خلال دراسة العوامل المؤثرة فيها، والعوامل التنظيمية المتأثرة بها، بل أيضاً العوامل الوسيطة التي قد تؤثر على العلاقة بين هذه المتغيرات.
The phenomenon of overqualification (OQ) has posed a challenge to recruitment officials in terms of attracting and hiring overqualified individuals, integrating them into the work environment, and even retaining them. The dilemma is that the perception of OQ reduces employees’ job satisfaction and increases their intention to quit. Although English literature is rich in a large number of studies and theories that have discussed OQ, it is surprising that the Arabic literature has not addressed the problem of translation of the English term, OQ, or studying the phenomenon itself theoretically and empirically. So far, there is no Arabic study in this area of research. Therefore, the current study sought to fill this knowledge gap by achieving three aims. First, identifying OQ in terms of its definition, reasons, importance, and advantages. Second, highlighting some methodological aspects such as OQ antecedents and consequences, theories used to explain the linkage between OQ and organisational factors, and methods of measurement. Third, providing some recommendations to deal with OQ and mitigate its negative consequences.
The study used a descriptive approach to establish this phenomenon and its different dimensions theoretically. The study concluded that it is necessary to pay more attention to studying the phenomenon due to its role in provoking many negative organisational phenomena, and simultaneously its advantages individually and functionally should not be ignored. It emphasized that OQ has multiple consequences beyond individuals, psychologically and socially, to influence performance and social relations within the workplace, and even more has many social and economic consequences in modern societies. Moreover, the study stressed the important role of HR departments in creating an appropriate environment to deal with overqualification properly. Finally, the study posed some theoretical and practical recommendations to support researchers’ and practitioners’ efforts in alleviating OQ such as calling for exploring the antecedents and consequences of this phenomenon, and mediators that may affect the relationships between these factors.
There are a large number of worker in Indonesia due to its high number of population. However, goverment should pay close attention to the worker's quality since it can cause problems in the economic structures integration. The quality of labor in each region can be measured by labor productivity. Labor productivity can be seen by underemployment rate, especially in primary sector. In analyzing underemployed workers, there is a possibility of inter-provincial linkages. This study aims to identify factors that affect productivity of underemployed workers, both direct and indirect effects and comparison with primary sector. The analytical method used is descriptive analysis and inferential analysis using spatial regression method. The results showed that the productivity of underemployed workers in all sectors and primary sector was affected by different spatial effects. Labor productivity of all sectors is influenced by spillover effect of independent variables, while in primary sector is influenced by spillover effect of independent variables and spatial effect of dependent variable. The productivity of workers in all sectors is more influenced by the level of education than the level of health, while in the primary sectors is more influenced by the level of health than the level of education. Wage and investment factors have a positive effect on all sectors and primary sector. This study recommends government to revitalize primary sector in order to integrate economic structure transformation and to improve quality of health, education, and investment to increase productivity. Abstrak Indonesia adalah negara dengan jumlah penduduk yang tinggi, sehingga jumlah angkatan kerjanya juga tinggi. Namun apabila kualitas dari angkatan kerja tersebut rendah, maka hanya akan menimbulkan masalah dalam integrasi struktur ekonomi. Kualitas tenaga kerja daerah dapat diukur dengan nilai produktivitas pekerja. Salah satu faktor yang digunakan untuk melihat produktivitas pekerja adalah tingkat pekerja setengah menganggur khususnya pada sektor primer. Dalam menganalisis pekerja setengah menganggur terdapat kemungkinan adanya keterkaitan antarprovinsi. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi faktor-faktor yang memengaruhi produktivitas pekerja setengah menganggur, baik efek langsung maupun tidak langsung serta perbandingannya dengan sektor primer. Metode analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis deskriptif serta analisis inferensial dengan metode regresi spasial. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa produktivitas pekerja setengah menganggur di seluruh sektor dan sektor primer dipengaruhi oleh efek spasial yang berbeda. Produktivitas pekerja seluruh sektor dipengaruhi oleh spillover effect dari variabel independen, sedangkan pada sektor primer dipengaruhi oleh spillover effect variabel independen dan efek spasial variabel dependen. Produktivitas pekerja di seluruh sektor lebih dipengaruhi oleh tingkat pendidikan dibandingkan tingkat kesehatan, sedangkan di sektor primer lebih dipengaruhi oleh tingkat kesehatan dibandingkan tingkat pendidikan. Tingkat upah dan tingkat investasi berpengaruh positif baik pada seluruh sektor maupun sektor primer. Penelitian ini merekomendasikan pemerintah untuk merevitalisasi sektor primer demi pengintegrasian perubahan struktur ekonomi serta meningkatkan kualitas kesehatan, pendidikan, dan investasi demi peningkatan produktivitas. Kata kunci: produktivitas, setengah menganggur, SLX, SDM, efek tidak langsung PENDAHULUAN Indonesia merupakan negara kepulauan yang memiliki jumlah penduduk yang sangat besar. Dengan jumlah penduduk yang tinggi menjadikan Indonesia sebagai negara yang juga memiliki potensi jumlah tenaga kerja yang tinggi. Dilihat dari data Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS), tingkat pengangguran terbuka dari tahun 2010 hingga tahun 2017 cenderung mengalami penurunan, di mana pada Agustus 2017 mencapai 5,5 persen. Namun menurunnya tingkat pengangguran tersebut perlu ditinjau kembali dengan memerhatikan produktivitas yang dimiliki oleh angkatan kerja yang bekerja. Produktivitas pekerja adalah suatu ukuran yang dapat digunakan untuk melihat bagaimana kualitas tenaga kerja yang dimiliki suatu daerah. Meskipun tingkat pengangguran suatu daerah menurun, namun apabila produktivitas pekerja rendah maka akan menjadi masalah untuk daerah tersebut. Menurut Cobb Douglas, tenaga kerja adalah salah satu faktor penting dalam pembangunan ekonomi. BPS mengatakan salah satu faktor yang dapat digunakan untuk melihat produktivitas tenaga kerja di Indonesia adalah melalui proporsi jumlah penduduk setengah menganggur yang bekerja di bawah 35 jam per minggu. Hal ini sesuai
Despite increasing research on the mechanisms that underlie the relation between perceived overqualification (POQ) and extra-role behaviors, the relation’s affective mechanisms have been understudied. In this study, we focus on the role of job boredom among overqualified workers in order to understand two types of extra-role behaviors: counterproductive work behaviors (CWB) and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). Using a sample of white-collar employees in South Korea (N = 298), we found that job boredom fully mediated the effects of POQ on CWB and OCB after controlling for the effects of state anger and neuroticism. We additionally examined whether career calling moderates the indirect effects of POQ on CWB and OCB via job boredom and found career calling mitigated the negative indirect effect of POQ on OCB via job boredom. However, career calling did not moderate the positive indirect effect of POQ on CWB. Implications of these findings are discussed.
We are on the cusp of the fourth Industrial Revolution which promises to revolutionize the way we live and work. Throughout history, as society and technology progress, so too have our workplace safety and health (WSH) strategies in regard to better knowledge and enhanced regulation. In this paper, we argue for a new WSH 4.0 strategy which requires us to adopt an adaptive and highly responsive approach to promote Total Worker Health in the face of rapid technological advancements and changes in employment relationships. To do so, we propose a multi‐pronged strategy comprising (i) adaptive WSH solutions in regard to surveillance, risk assessment, and control measures leveraging on new technologies; (ii) effective multi‐stakeholder dialogues for collaborative and sustainable solutions; (iii) an anticipatory WSH governance framework based upon shared values and cooperative responsibility; and (iv) professional development among WSH practitioners. This new WSH 4.0 strategy will enable WSH professionals to remain effective in this coming Industrial Revolution.
This article argues that gender segregation influences patterns of underemployment and the relationships that underemployment has with the subjective well-being of men and women. Previous studies have paid little attention to how gender segregation shapes underemployment, an increasingly prominent feature of the UK and European labour markets since the economic crisis of 2008. Using data from the UK Annual Population Surveys, this article examines time-related underemployment: people working part time because they cannot find a full-time job. The article asks whether there are gender differences in underemployment trends and in the links between underemployment and subjective well-being. The results suggest that the probability of underemployment is growing at a faster rate among women rather than men and that underemployment is most common in the jobs that women are more likely to perform, namely in female-dominated occupations, the public sector and small organizations. Underemployment is least common in male-dominated occupations and industries and in the private sector. Moreover, for employees with longer tenures, underemployment has more negative relationships with the subjective well-being of women than with that of men. These findings imply that gender segregation in labour markets is a crucial factor to consider when researching underemployment and its consequences.
This article challenges a key assumption of underemployment scholarship: that the modal underemployed worker is involuntarily underemployed. Drawing from in-depth interviews, the author analyzes one particular type of underemployment: overqualification among college graduates. Findings demonstrate (a) that workers differ markedly in their perceptions of overqualification, (b) that these perceptions create distinct overqualification experiences, and (c) that these experiences vary by social class background. While some respondents report being overqualified at no choice of their own and are struggling to find better work, many others narrate their overqualification experience as voluntary. Among these graduates, who are likely to come from middle-class backgrounds, some understand overqualification as a temporary period of exploration; others think of it as potentially permanent and see themselves as opting out of the typical postcollege career path. Importantly, typical factors that have been analyzed as consequences of overqualification (job dissatisfaction and distress) covary with perceptions, such that the most negative outcomes tend to be among the disproportionately working-class graduates who view themselves as involuntarily underemployed.
─ Labour market is often characterised by an imbalance between demand and supply that sometime is a result of the available labour resources not being fully utilised. Labour underutilisation is known as underemployment. In South Africa, academic debates and analysis about underemployment are largely absent and workers in such positions remain under-researched. Literature review indicates three specific categories of underemployment namely time-related, skill-related and income-based. This paper analyses the demographic characteristics of time-related underemployment using descriptive and logistic regression. The empirical evidence portion of the paper is based on data from a survey " War on Poverty Programme " conducted by the provincial department of Social Development in Mpumalanga. The study is based on a sample of 21668 individuals from targeted prioritised wards in Bushbuckridge Municipality, which is rural. This paper reveals that females are more likely to be underemployed comparing to males. It also indicates that older people are less likely to be underemployed compared to younger people. Furthermore, the study results confirmed that the more educated one gets the less likely to be underemployed. The study discusses the socioeconomic policy implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are made.
The paper addresses the global challenge of the growing rate of underemployment and its socio-economic costs. The purpose of the paper is to stress the relevance of studying and measuring underemployment in order to reach better performance outcomes both on micro- and macroeconomic level. The research gives insight into the complex concept of underemployment, its causes and effects. The aim of the empirical part of the paper is to make an introductory analysis of the relation between the time-related underemployment and employee engagement data as an input for future more complex research of its correlation. The results of the research indicate that dealing with the hidden costs of underemployment is a path to higher performance on individual, organizational and national level.
Despite the many studies examining the impact of unemployment, underemployment has often been neglected in psychology. Moreover, problems exist with the measurement of underemployment, including categorization of continuous variables and neglect of overemployment. In the current study, we used a new method of measuring underemployment, polynomial regression with response surface mapping, to examine discrepancies between ideal and real hours worked—allowing for the continuous assessment of both under- and overemployment. We also used discrepancy scores to examine variables theorized to be related to under- and overemployment: social class, work volition, job satisfaction, and meaningful work. Partially supporting our hypotheses, work volition and social class were lower for people who were under- and overemployed.
Using Canadian nationally representative, multisource longitudinal data, this paper examines relationships between hours underemployment, employee turnover and human resource practices. The results of hierarchical linear models indicate that underemployed employees are more likely to leave an organisation that relies heavily on part-time workers, whereas they are more likely to stay when their employers hire regularly from within the company. These findings extend the literature on hours underemployment from individual-level direct effects to organisational-level moderating factors, and accordingly, they provide empirical evidence that human resource professionals can use to address the detrimental effects of underemployment.
Career Development: A Human Resource Development Perspective offers a strategic framework that demonstrates the role of career development within the human resource function. It goes beyond conventional interventions and includes key topics such as diversity, work-life balance, and ethics. Historically, the career development literature has been viewed either from the perspective of the individual (how to build a career) or from an economic perspective (how an organization benefits from developing employees). In this book, McDonald and Hite bring together the strengths of both traditions, offering an integrated framework for career development. The theoretical foundation expands on the counseling literature by incorporating the literature from human resource development and related fields. The application section reflects on the wide range of ages and working options that characterize the current and future workplace. The final section of the book addresses career development issues such as managing a diverse, global workforce; ethics; and work-life balance. This book will help prepare human resource development students, scholars, and practitioners to develop and maintain successful career development programs, and to foster more innovative research that advances the discourse.
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