Energie aus Biomasse: Grundlagen, Techniken und Verfahren
Abstract
Dieses Standardwerk beschreibt umfassend und detailliert die biologischen, physikalischen, chemischen und technischen Grundlagen einer Energiegewinnung aus Biomasse. Es werden die Möglichkeiten der Bereitstellung von Nutz- bzw. Endenergie aus organischen Stoffen sachlich und mit Hilfe aussagekräftiger Abbildungen dargestellt. Die Autoren gehen konkret ein auf die unterschiedlichen Biomasseressourcen und ihre Verfügbarmachung sowie auf deren thermo-chemische, physikalisch-chemische sowie bio-chemische Umwandlung in Sekundärenergieträger bzw. in End- oder Nutzenergie.
> Die 2. Auflage wurde vollständig überarbeitet und teilweise neu strukturiert. Hinzu gekommen sind u.a. folgende Themen: die Bereitstellung flüssiger und gasförmiger Biokraftstoffe über die thermo-chemische Biomasseumwandlung, die Torrefizierung fester Biomassen, die Optionen zur Hydrierung von Pflanzenölen und die Technik der Einspeisung von Biogas in Erdgasnetze. Das Buch bietet einen soliden und umfassenden Überblick nach dem Stand der Technik und informiert über Trends und neuere Entwicklungen. Es ist den Herausgebern gelungen, unter Mitarbeit einer Vielzahl kompetenter Fachleute ein solides Werk "aus einem Guss" zu erarbeiten.
> Es ist geeignet für Studierende, Anlagenbetreiber, Berater, Wissenschaftler und interessierte Laien.
Chapters (12)
Unter Biomasse im erweiterten Sinne wird jegliche Phyto- und Zoomasse verstanden (Kapitel 1.1), von der schätzungsweise 1,84·1012 t Trockenmasse auf den Kontinenten existieren. Phyto- oder Pflanzenmasse wird zum größten Teil von Organismen gebildet, die ihre Energie durch Umwandlung der Sonnenenergie im Prozess der Photosynthese gewinnen. Demgegenüber wird die Zoomasse mit dem Energiegewinn aus dem Abbau anderer organischer Substanz gebildet. Das Ziel dieses Kapitels ist es vor diesem Hintergrund, die Prozesse und Einflussfaktoren bei der Entstehung von Pflanzenmasse darzustellen und zu diskutieren.
Entsprechend ihrer energetischen Nutzungsmöglichkeiten werden Energiepflanzen unterteilt in Lignocellulosepflanzen, die als Ganzpflanzen der Festbrennstoffbereitstellung dienen, und in Öl- bzw. Zucker- und Stärkepflanzen, deren Einsatz als Energieträger erst nach der technischen Gewinnung des Öls bzw. Ethanols aus bestimmten Pflanzenkomponenten (meist speziellen Ertragsorganen wie Körnern oder Knollen) möglich ist. Im Folgenden werden wesentliche in Mitteleuropa anbaubare Pflanzen, die zu diesen drei Kategorien zählen, dargestellt. Dabei wird kurz auf die für die energetische Nutzung relevanten Eigenschaften eingegangen, und es werden die jeweiligen Standortansprüche, die entsprechenden pflanzenbaulichen Produktionsverfahren sowie das unter diesen Bedingungen gegebene Ertragspotenzial diskutiert. Auch erfolgt eine kurze Analyse ausgewählter Umweltaspekte, die mit der Produktion der jeweiligen Pflanze verbunden sind.
Unter Rückständen und Nebenprodukten werden Stoffe organischer Herkunft verstanden, die bei der Herstellung eines bestimmten (Haupt-)Produktes aus landund/oder forstwirtschaftlichen Ausgangsmaterialien anfallen und als Energieträger nutzbar sind. Diese können grundsätzlich im Verlauf der gesamten Bereitstellungskette von der Produktion über die Bereitstellung und Nutzung organischen Materials, das für eine stoffliche Nutzung bestimmt ist, bis zur Entsorgung entstehen. Beispielsweise fällt bei der Stammholzproduktion als Nebenprodukt bzw. Rückstand u. a. Waldrestholz und bei der Weiterverarbeitung des Stammholzes beispielsweise zu Möbeln Industrierestholz an; derartige Sortimente werden bereits heute als Energieträger eingesetzt. Am Ende des Lebensweges des Holzes bleibt — ggf. nach einer entsprechenden stofflichen Aufarbeitung bestimmter Sortimente zu beispielsweise Span- oder Faserplatten und damit eines weiteren stofflichen Nutzungszyklus — Gebraucht- oder Altholz übrig, das als Energieträger genutzt oder — wenn es beispielsweise mit halogenorganischen Verbindungen belastet ist — als Abfall thermisch entsorgt werden kann.
Mit dem Beginn der Ernte ist die erste Phase der Energiebereitstellungskette (d. h. Produktion) abgeschlossen. Es folgt nun die Bereitstellung, durch die die organische Masse am Standort der Konversionsanlage verfügbar gemacht wird. Während vor der Ernte hauptsächlich die durch die Pflanzenart vorgegebenen chemisch-stofflichen Biomassemerkmale ausgeprägt werden (Kapitel 8.2), findet im Verlauf der nun folgenden Bereitstellungsphase die Beeinflussung und Veränderung der physikalisch-mechanischen Brennstoffeigenschaften statt; das gilt vor allem bei den Festbrennstoffen.
Die Bereitstellung von End- bzw. Nutzenergie aus biogenen Festbrennstoffen erfolgt entweder direkt — durch Verbrennung — oder durch eine vorherige Umwandlung in entsprechende Sekundärenergieträger, wobei thermochemische, physikalisch-chemische oder biochemische Verfahren zum Einsatz kommen können. Im Folgenden werden die physikalischen und chemischen Grundlagen der direkten Verbrennung organischer (Fest-)Brennstoffe und der thermochemischen Umwandlungsverfahren dargestellt; ihnen liegen letztlich vergleichbare Mechanismen zugrunde. Zusätzlich werden die wesentlichen Brennstoffeigenschaften und Systemelemente, durch die diese Prozesse signifikant bestimmt bzw. beeinflusst werden, diskutiert. Zuvor werden jedoch die wesentlichen Begriffe definiert, die zum Verständnis der Ausführungen in den Kapiteln 8, 9, 10 und 11 notwendig sind.
Für biogene Festbrennstoffe (z. B. Holz, Stroh) hat die direkte Verbrennung in Feuerungen bis heute die weitaus größte Bedeutung unter den Energiewandlungsprozessen und -verfahren. Verbrennungsanlagen werden eingesetzt zur Produktion von Wärme, die genutzt werden kann als Sekundärenergie (z. B. Dampf, der dann weiter in elektrische Energie umgewandelt werden kann), als Endenergie (z. B. Fernwärme) oder als Nutzenergie (z. B. Strahlungswärme eines Kachelofens).
Neben der klassischen Verbrennung, die in Kapitel 9 diskutiert wurde, kann feste Biomasse über eine thermochemische Umwandlung zunächst in einen Sekundärenergieträger umgewandelt werden, der bezüglich der Handhabung und der Konversionsmöglichkeiten in End- bzw. Nutzenergie einige entscheidende Vorteile aufweist. Dabei laufen grundsätzlich die gleichen Umwandlungsprozesse ab, wie sie auch bei der Verbrennung gegeben sind. Die einzelnen Stufen der thermochemischen Umwandlung werden jedoch — im Unterschied zu der Verbrennung — räumlich und zeitlich getrennt realisiert. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist es das Ziel der folgenden Ausführungen, zunächst die Vergasung und damit die Bereitstellung eines gasförmigen Energieträgers ausführlich darzustellen. Im anschließenden Kapitel 10.2 wird die Pyrolyse diskutiert, die das Ziel hat, einen flüssigen Energieträger — in Kuppelproduktion mit einem festen und einem gasförmigen Energieträger — bereitzustellen. Danach wird noch auf die Holzkohleproduktion und damit die Bereitstellung eines festen Energieträgers eingegangen (Kapitel 10.3).
Eine gemeinsame Nutzung von biogenen Festbrennstoffen und fossilen Energieträgern („Co-Utilisation“) ist zur Deckung vieler Versorgungsaufgaben — insbesondere zur Wärmeversorgung — derzeit üblich. So wird beispielsweise die Nahwärmeversorgung eines Wohngebietes auf Biomassebasis oftmals mit biogenen Festbrennstoffen in der Grundlast und mit leichtem Heizöl oder Erdgas in der Spitzenlast realisiert. Auch sind viele in der holzbe- und -verarbeitenden Industrie betriebene Feuerungsanlagen z. B. mit öl- oder gasbefeuerten Zünd- und Stützbrennern ausgerüstet, um u. a. auf wechselnde Leistungsanforderungen der betrieblichen Energienachfrage einfach reagieren zu können. Vor diesem Hintergrund werden im Folgenden zunächst die wesentlichen Konzepte einer gemeinsamen Nutzung von Biomasse mit fossilen Energieträgern diskutiert. Anschließend wird auf die grundlegenden Vor- und Nachteile einer derartigen gemeinsamen Nutzung von Biomasse und fossilen Energieträgern eingegangen.
In Mitteleuropa kommen hauptsächlich Raps und Sonnenblumen als Ölsaaten für die Produktion von Kraftstoffen auf Pflanzenölbasis in Frage (Kapitel 3). Raps beispielsweise enthält im lagerfähigen Zustand etwa 43 % Öl, 40 % Rohprotein und Extraktstoffe, 7 % Wasser, 5 % Rohfaser und 5 % Asche. Ziel der verschiedenen Ölgewinnungsverfahren ist es, den Ölanteil aus der Saat möglichst effizient abzutrennen, wobei unerwünschte Bestandteile aus dem Samenkorn nicht in das Öl überführt bzw. aus diesem entfernt werden sollen. Hierauf können bereits der Transport, die Trocknung und die Lagerung der Ölsaat einen Einfluss nehmen.
Bei den biogenen Stoffen, die primär für eine biochemische Umwandlung prädestiniert sind, handelt es sich i. Allg. um organisches Material pflanzlicher oder tierischer Herkunft, das meist durch einen hohen Wasseranteil gekennzeichnet ist (Kapitel 4.3). Dies können Nebenprodukte und/oder Rückstände (z. B. tierische Exkremente) oder auch Abfälle (z. B. separat gesammelte Haushaltabfälle, organisch belastete Abwässer) sein. Da solche organischen Stoffe bei der Photosynthese durch biologische Prozesse aufgebaut werden, sind sie prinzipiell auch biologisch abbaubar. Dies kann durch Bakterien und andere Mikroorganismen realisiert werden, die ihre zum Leben benötigte Energie aus dem Energieinhalt der abgebauten chemischen Verbindungen des organischen Materials beziehen.
Ziel der folgenden Ausführungen ist es, die Grundlagen der alkoholischen Gärung darzustellen. Dazu werden zunächst — in Ergänzung zu Kapitel 3 — kurz die Rohstoffe beschrieben und charakterisiert, aus denen Alkohol produziert werden kann; dabei wird unterschieden zwischen zucker-, stärke- und cellulosehaltigen Ausgangsstoffen. Der Schwerpunkt liegt dabei bei solchen Pflanzenkomponenten, die in Mitteleuropa produziert werden können; andere bedeutende, im Regelfall aber nur in tropischen Gegenden anbaubare Pflanzen werden nur am Rande dargestellt. Anschließend wird auf die biochemischen Grundlagen der alkoholischen Gärung eingegangen.
Die für eine Biogaserzeugung prinzipiell einsetzbaren organischen Stoffe werden im Folgenden vorgestellt und diskutiert; außerdem werden die biochemischen Grundlagen der anaeroben Fermentation dargestellt. Darüber hinaus wird auf die verfahrenstechnischen Mess- und Betriebsgrößen eingegangen, die die technische Umsetzung der Biogaserzeugung bestimmen. Auf den somit definierten Rand- und Rahmenbedingungen basiert die technische Umsetzung der anaeroben Fermentation, die anschließend in Kapitel 15.2 dargestellt wird.
... However, the annual amount of harvested timber and the associated sawdust production is limited by the annual growth rate of forests, which is a fundamental concept of sustainable forest management since hundreds of years. thereby, can reduce the emissions below the respective federal emission limits, e.g., in the BImSchV [24]. ...
... This was caused by the higher cellulose and hemicellulose content in hardwood species [38]. Cellulose and hemicellulose have a higher oxygen share and a lower carbon share in comparison to lignin [24]. The reduced oxygen content and the increased carbon content of all pellets in comparison to the feedstocks showed that the high dye temperature caused a mild pyrolysis ( Table 2). ...
... Nitrogen oxide emissions depend on the concentration of nitrogen in the fuel, with thermal and prompt NO x formation as the only exception [24]. However, thermal and prompt NO x form at combustion temperatures above 1300 °C, which is much higher than the combustion temperatures in this study (Fig. 7). ...
European pellet production will be a future challenge due to two effects: (1) the share of hardwood species in Europe will increase and (2) the pellet market will face raw material shortages. Therefore, we investigated the blending of conifer sawdust with black locust sawdust. Twenty-one physical and chemical pellet quality parameters were recorded, including combustion emissions. Our statistical evaluation showed a strong linear correlation (p>0.8 or p<−0.8) of the share of black locust with nine quality parameters. Fifty-three percent of the overall variation in the data was explained by the major principal component, which included the share of black locust. The cause of the decreasing pellet quality with increasing share of black locust sawdust was attributed to the heat conductance in the dye, which was affected by the hydrophobicity and rigidity of the black locust saw dust. A share of 25% black locust in blends with conifer sawdust is proposed as the limit to meet the A2 standard criteria in the European DIN EN ISO 17255-2. This would allow a black locust sawdust consumption of app. 6 mio t per year in Europe, which is far above the estimated abundance and indicates a high potential for hardwood sawdust as an alternative feedstock for pellet production in general.
... One way to put these residues into use would be the concept of pyrolysis. In principle, pyrolysis is the thermochemical conversion of biomass under the exclusion of oxygen [2]. This technology has been known to mankind for thousands of years. ...
... As stated before, biochar is produced via thermochemical conversion of biomass with limited to no oxygen in the reaction atmosphere. There are a few different processes that apply to this definition, namely i) gasification ii) hydrothermal carbonization, liquefaction and Source:Adapted from Kaltschmitt et al. [2]and Jouhara et al. [18]. ...
... However, both gasification and hydrothermal technologies are viable alternative routes for biochar production that deserve their own spot. Regarding pyrolysis, depending on the operational configuration, there are different forms of pyrolysis, namely i) fast pyrolysis ii) intermediate pyrolysis and iii) forms of slow pyrolysis [2]. Table 1 shows the different forms and their specifications. ...
One promising technology in the field of residue valorization is the pyrolytic conversion of biomass to biochar. There are a lot of proven technologies for this task, with many of them being quite distinctive. Biochar has a lot of valuable properties and it shows potential to be applicated in many different fields of industry as a green carbon resource. Thus, as the demand for its production rises, more and more people from different fields share interest in the same technologies and the demand for guidance in form of readily available information increases. Two prominent technologies rather similar in appearance are rotary kilns and screw reactors. Both technologies consist of a long, hollow cylinder and both technologies use some form of longitudinal rotation as a means to transport feedstock. In this review, both technologies are described and their biggest differences and similarities are discussed, all under the aspect of biochar production. In total, 21 unique rotary kilns and 58 unique auger reactors were identified. The paper addresses process specific aspects, like heat supply or residence time, but it also gives an overview on current research and general aspects like scale-up considerations. Differences between both technologies were found in all of these aspects, with some of the most pronounced being the bigger maximum capacities and the greater residence time distributions in rotary kiln pyrolysis. Both technologies are viable candidates for producing biochar on a commercial level, however, literature comparing the influence of the reactor type on biochar properties was very scarce. As a future outlook it is recommended to produce data that can be compared on a quantitative level, so a more accurate assessment of each technologies up- and downsides can be made.
... The threes or perhaps more correctly the shoots are cut right back to the base of the stool, which then regrows the following spring. Table 9.1 Normal yield (dry matter) of straw compared to the yield of grain in Germany according to Kaltschmitt et al. (2016). This style of harvesting is known as coppicing. ...
... Especially the harvesting of microalgae is challenging compared to macroalgae. The normal harvesting methods for microalgae include filtration, flotation, sedimentation, and centrifugation, where the latter requires 5-10 MJ/m 3 compared to 2 MJ/m 3 for filtration (Kaltschmitt et al., 2016). The moisture content of algae is normally above 80% and means a drying is needed for dry processes (Holm-Nielsen & Ehimen, 2016). ...
... The countermeasures are nearly the same which reduce the loss of dry matter and heating value. The measures are according to Kaltschmitt et al. (2016): • Low moisture content by storing. ...
Biomass exists in many forms, and potential feedstocks for refining can be found almost everywhere in our environment. Biomass as waste and residues normally have a relatively low price and a larger variation than the main crop or products. On the other hand, a plant able to accept large feedstock variation will most likely turn out to be more expensive to build and run. This chapter covers knowledge about biomass essential for the planning and operation of a biorefinery. In addition, it describes the supply chain from field, forest, aquatics, and so on, to processed solid feedstock for refining and conversion into biofuels. It is important to understand that variation discovered in the fuel conversion is not only related to the conversion process alone, as all steps in the supply chain may influence the final product. Especially the soil, climatic conditions, crop age, harvesting method, and so on together with the storage conditions affect the biomass feedstock characteristics relevant for conversion. The biomass properties may imply a required upgrading or pretreatment like torrefaction, densification, comminution, or similar to ease transportation and handling or meet the required characteristics as feedstock at the refinery.
... Shear forces on the material as well as friction between rollers, material and die cause heat so that the temperature of the die can rise to 90 • C (Schaldach, 2022) or even 130 • C (Nielsen et al., 2009), where lignin is softened (Whittaker and Shield, 2017). This so called glass transition temperature varies depending on plant species between 50 • C and 180 • C (Irvine, 1985;Kaltschmitt and Hartmann, 2016;Stelte et al., 2011;Tejado et al., 2007). When the pellets cool down again the soft lignin acts as a binder and gives mechanical strength to the pellets (Hasler et al., 2001;Kaltschmitt and Hartmann, 2016;Tumuluru et al., 2011). ...
... This so called glass transition temperature varies depending on plant species between 50 • C and 180 • C (Irvine, 1985;Kaltschmitt and Hartmann, 2016;Stelte et al., 2011;Tejado et al., 2007). When the pellets cool down again the soft lignin acts as a binder and gives mechanical strength to the pellets (Hasler et al., 2001;Kaltschmitt and Hartmann, 2016;Tumuluru et al., 2011). If the lignin content and temperature are high enough no additives are needed (Kuschel, 2004;Stelte et al., 2011;Whittaker and Shield, 2017). ...
Organic livestock farming requires all resource input to be organic as well. Competition for raw materials as bedding increases the demand for alternative bedding materials. The production of absorbent fibre pellets from underutilized lignocellulosic plant material is therefore a research area that needs further attention. Precise research on processing methods and absorbent quantity is essential for the development of sustainable, high-quality absorbent bedding pellets. Twin-screw extruded fibre from eight different raw materials were processed into absorbent pellets. These pellets were investigated for physical properties including absorbency, mechanical durability, particle-size distribution and bulk density in accordance with relevant standards. Due to the absence of a standardised method for assessing absorbency, a testing method was devised. This involved submerging the produced pellets in deionized water for durations of 30 s, 300 s, and 1200 s. This research analysed various raw materials for suitability in absorbent pellet production. Poplar pellets performed good in absorbency (130 %, 172 %, 194 % respectively) and mechanical durability (95 %). As a result, larger quantities of absorbent pellets could be produced from poplar if needed since poplar wood chips are of higher availability due to existing short rotation coppices. This article emphasised producing absorbent bedding pellets, prioritising, using twin-screw extruded lignocellulosic fibre, revealing significant raw material influence on absorption properties.
... Physical or mechanical conversion of biomass requires the modification of biomass; it involves pre-processing activities, including size reduction/comminution, drying and densification [23][24][25][26][27]. Mechanical conversion of biomass is required to transform biomass into forms that have better properties than raw biomass, such as higher bulk density, higher energy density and hydrophobicity. ...
... Densification technologies have been classified into low pressure (<5 MPa), medium pressure (5-100 MPa) and high pressure (>100 MPa). High-pressure technologies utilize equipment, such as the screw press/extruder briquetting machine, mechanical piston presses, hydraulic piston presses, roller presses and pelleting machines [27]. Theoretical studies [28][29][30][31][32][33][34] have been carried out on some high-pressure densification technologies to understand the effect of design parameters on the operational performance of equipment. ...
Biomass has a high potential to contribute towards resolving the energy deficit. Processing biomass into solid fuels enhances its use in various bioenergy conversion technologies. The quality of densified biomass depends on several variables. The investigation of the effect of densification parameters on briquette quality is necessary for process optimization. This study investigates the influence of die temperature (100, 120, 140 °C) and feeding speed (2.4, 2.9, 3.3 mm s−1) on the quality of briquettes produced from poplar using a hydraulic biomass briquetting machine. The density of the briquettes ranged between 746.7 and 916.8 kg m−3 , the mechanical durability ranged from 97.4 to 98.4%, and the water resistance index was between 91.6 and 96.1%. The results show that the temperature was statistically significant (p < 0.05) on the density, mechanical durability and water resistance of biomass briquettes. The feeding speed was statistically significant (p < 0.05) on the density and water resistance. The interaction of temperature and feeding speed was statistically significant (p < 0.05) on all properties considered. The results obtained in this study are useful for optimizing the quality of briquettes produced using the hydraulic piston press.
... It was even higher when fuel mass flow was adjusted (R 2 = 0.75; Fig. 5). The reason for the good correlation between CO and NO X is probably the homogeneous NO-consuming reaction, in which CO is oxidized to CO 2 while simultaneously NO is reduced to N 2 [38]. Thus, at higher CO concentrations, the equilibrium is shifted towards N 2 [38]. ...
... The reason for the good correlation between CO and NO X is probably the homogeneous NO-consuming reaction, in which CO is oxidized to CO 2 while simultaneously NO is reduced to N 2 [38]. Thus, at higher CO concentrations, the equilibrium is shifted towards N 2 [38]. However, these impact on NO X emissions is kinetically limited and thus can only cause slight differences in NO X emissions as they were observed here. ...
In Germany, wood pellets must fulfill high quality standards to be utilized in small-scale furnaces. According to current legislation, i.e., the 1st BImSchV, only ENplus A1–certified pellets may be used. Despite these strict requirements, physical fuel parameters can vary within the permissible range and variation usually increases due to fuel transport and storage. Fluctuations in physical fuel parameters may have a strong influence on combustion, especially in pellet stoves with a low degree of automation regarding fuel control and air supply. During this study, pellet length, moisture content, and the content of fines of spruce wood pellets were varied artificially at three levels for each parameter. All pellets were analyzed according to international standards for solid biofuels. Fuels were combusted in a 6 kW pellet stove and selected assortments in a 15 kW pellet boiler. For the pellet stove, pellet length had a significant influence on gaseous but not on total particulate matter (TPM) emissions. Both, rather short (10.3 mm) and long (17 mm) pellets caused an increase in emissions. In contrast, for the boiler, no significant effect of pellet length on gaseous and TPM emissions was observed. A low moisture content (3 w-%) led to increased CO, organic gaseous carbon (OGC), and TPM emissions in the pellet stove. This could be especially relevant for furnaces with very simple or no heat output control as it is common in most pellet stoves. High content of fines (3 to 10 w-%) led to a significant increase in gaseous emissions (CO up to fivefold, OGC up to tenfold) and TPM emissions (up to 1.4-fold) in the pellet stove most likely due to elevated particle entrainment. Overall, the state-of-the-art pellet stove showed larger sensitivity towards variable pellet qualities compared to the automatically stoked pellet boiler; thus, improvements in fuel design and stove technology are recommended. Overall, this study has provided important insights into the influence of pellet length, fines content, and moisture content on emissions from pellet stoves and pellet boilers, which can help drive future technical development in the areas of fuel flexibility and emission reduction.
... %), hydrogen (H2: 0-1 %), ammonia (0.01-2.5 mg/m³) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S: 10-30,000 mg/ m³) (M. Kaltschmitt, 2016). Microalgae Chlorella Vulgaris was taken from natural conditions (Kaltschmitt, 2016). ...
... Kaltschmitt, 2016). Microalgae Chlorella Vulgaris was taken from natural conditions (Kaltschmitt, 2016). To study the growth and development of microalgae, we took values of concentrations of sulfide HSanion and ammonium NH4 + cation, which correspond to the values of volume pressures of these pollutants in biogas. ...
This work studies the impact of electromagnetic fields on the degradation of agricultural land. During the analysis of available sources of information, it was found that in the scientific publications by domestic authors, there is no mention of such a factor of land degradation as the action of electromagnetic fields (EMF) of man-made origin. Numerous scientific works by foreign experts present the results of experimental studies that confirm the negative impact of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) of power lines (PL) on agricultural land. The application of mathematical methods of modelling the dynamics of the distribution of the number of microorganisms or other soil components in the irradiation zone of power lines can be the basis for biomonitoring in the system of construction technologies to protect agricultural land from electromagnetic pollution. The paper presents statistical models designed to assess the impact of electromagnetic fields on pollution of agricultural land and conduct appropriate biomonitoring. The dependence of the number of fungi in the soil on the distance to the 110 kV power line at different seasons and the dynamics of the intensity of adaptation processes in the soil at different distances from the power line (PL) was constructed. The methods of regression, variance and cluster analysis were used in the development of models, and the corresponding elasticity functions were constructed. It is shown that the application of modern data processing methods allows obtaining additional information even from the already published results of work performed by various researchers.
... Available data on RPR have a large scatter as they are reported for different crop cultivars, cropping methods, climatic conditions, etc., and the correlations found vary accordingly. The literature reports a wide range of variation in the RPR from 0.6 to 1.8 [39,42,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51] and the RPR determined in this study is within this indicated range (average 1.01 for old cultivars and 1.11 for modern ones). ...
Selecting cultivars with greater biomass results in higher yields and greater carbon sequestration. Storage of atmospheric carbon in the plant/soil pool contributes not only to food security but also to mitigating climate change and other agroecological benefits. The objective of this study was to determine: (1) grain, residue, and root biomass yields; (2) harvest indexes; (3) residue-to-product ratio; (4) root-to-shoot ratio; (5) biomass carbon and nitrogen contents; and (6) C:N ratios for two new and two old winter wheat cultivars. The greatest yield difference was found between old Srpanjka (the lowest) and new Kraljica (the highest) cultivar where grain, residue, root, and total biomass yield was higher by 38%, 91%, 71%, and 64%, respectively. Total biomass was composed of 40–47% grain, 10–11% roots, 32–36% stems + leaves, 9–11% chaff, and 1–2% spindle. The range of HI was 0.45–0.53, RPR 0.91–1.25, and R:S ratio 0.12–0.13. For all cultivars, positive carbon and negative nitrogen balance within the plant pool was determined. Still, root biomass and rhizodeposition carbon remain open questions for a better understanding of agroecosystems’ C dynamics.
... Thus, we have; Low compaction pressure machines (below 5MPa), Intermediate Compaction pressure Machines (5 to 100MPa), High Compaction pressure machines (100MPa and above) [7][8]. Also, Biomass Briquetting Machines can be grouped depending on the type of equipment used, vis-a-vis the mechanism and mode of operation, thus we have Piston press, Screw press, Roll press, Pelletizing and Low pressure (manual presses) briquetting machines respectively [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. ...
This study investigated the quality of biomass fuel briquettes; a Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) made from bio-wastes generated from a local farm produce market in Nekede, Owerri, Nigeria, known as Umuokomoche daily market. The wastes were mainly waste groceries; vegetable stems, leaves, fruits, plantain peels and stems, yam and potato peels, corn hob and all sorts of discarded food / agro materials which constitute over 70% of the total Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) generated by the community. The study involved the design, fabrication and installation of a piston-type, hydraulic powered pedal operated Biomass Briquetting Machine. The briquettes produced were tested, in order to ascertain their quality as Refuse Derived Fuels (RDF). The biomass wastes generated were initially gathered, sun dried and carbonized through pyrolysis in a kiln. The biochar was then crushed and mixed with a 20% starch bond and finally fed to the machine as feedstock. The products (briquettes) recorded satisfactory combustion outcomes when tested. The preliminary results showed a calorific value of 4900Kcal/Kg which is adequate as a reliable and alternative energy source for domestic and industrial applications. Other parameters tested are; fixed carbon at 32%, Volatile matter at 44%, Moisture at 5% and are Ash content at 5.02%. A bulk density of 580 kg/m3 and a Compressive ratio of 1:2.5 were also recorded. Both results confirm the handling ability and ease of transportation of the briquettes. Therefore the briquettes are of good quality and reliable as an alternative energy source for domestic and industrial applications.
... Organic waste from households typically has higher dry matter contents and a broader particle size distribution than a mixture of manure and water. Due to the broader particle size distribution and the influence of impurities, AD applications for MSW usually require various treatment steps, such as size reduction, impurity separation, screening, and mixing or inoculation (Kaltschmitt et al., 2016). The smallscale fixed-dome digester currently predominantly used is technically inappropriate for this purpose. ...
Poor solid waste management is a global issue that causes vast environmental, social, and financial costs to societies. Considering waste as a potential resource, both materially and energetically, will contribute towards reducing residual waste and represent direct support to developing a circular economy. The challenges and potentials of organic waste in Ethiopia and other East African countries have been examined in the "Guideline for organic waste treatment in East Africa" project by the German Biomass Research Center (DBFZ). With a waste generation of 6.63 million tons per year, of which 55-80 percent is organic waste, Ethiopia has excellent potential for valorizing organic waste. Anaerobic digestion can be one integral part of this systematic approach. This paper aims to overview the challenges and potentials of using anaerobic digestion for treating MSW and agricultural residues from a macro-perspective. The methodology is based on a systematic literature review, meta-analysis, and expert interviews. MSW has a potential of 161 to 385 million m3 year-1 of methane. As one example for the agricultural sector, coffee byproducts have a potential of 68 million m3 year-1. Technical and economic restrictions in logistics and processing technologies pose the most significant challenges in utilizing this potential.
... B. Biomüll, Tiermist, Gülle) oder gezielt produzierter Biomasse wie Maissilage durch mikrobielle Zersetzung zu Biogas umgewandelt. Dieser komplexe Prozess wird in vier Reaktionsschritte unterteilt, die im Gärbehälter einer Biogasanlage synchron ablaufen: die Hydrolyse, die Acidogenese, die Acetogenese und die Methanogenese [8,9]. ...
Das Dekarbonisierungspotenzial von Wasserstoff bietet eine Reihe neuer Anwendungspfade im Kampf gegen den Klimawandel. Dies führt zu einer steigenden Nachfrage nach Wasserstoff. Das Forschungsteam des HyPerFerment-Projektes stellt sich dieser Herausforderung und produziert mit Hilfe der Dunkelfermentation biologischen Wasserstoff als Alternative zur Wasserstoffproduktion mittels Elektrolyse. Erste Ergebnisse haben gezeigt, dass durch die Integration der Dunkelfermentation in bestehende Biogasanlagen die Gesamteffizienz des Prozesses erhöht werden kann, indem zusätzlich zum Biogas Wasserstoff bereitgestellt wird. In diesem Fachbericht werden die ersten Ergebnisse von Laborexperimenten vorgestellt und ausgewertet.
... Oxidation of sulfur [43]. The liquid fractions are evaporated, and the gas fractions are oxidized according to the available oxygen. ...
The present paper focuses on developing a novel virtual representation framework for optimizing standalone hazardous waste rotary kiln incineration plants. A digital support tool can be provided to optimize the plant's waste management, operation, and maintenance by combining thermochemical-based simulation models with a fuel classification system. First of all, the virtual representation can be used to determine the waste composition of not entirely analyzed waste streams. Furthermore, the determined waste compositions of historically fed waste streams can be used to enable further advanced applications. The determined waste compositions are linked with the appropriate waste code and supplier, which first enables the monitoring of the delivered waste streams. In the case of recurring fractions, the virtual representation can be used to optimize the barrel sequence to reach homogenous waste inputs. Additionally, the plant operation can be optimized regarding stable operation conditions due to the knowledge about waste compositions of recurring fractions. The parametrization results fit very well with the comparable sensor values. Therefore, the novel virtual representation of the hazardous waste incineration plant could definitely make a reasonable contribution to optimize the efficiency of thermal waste treatment within the hazardous waste sector in Austria and Europe.
Graphical Abstract
... Variation of process parameters, heat integration and material recycling are used to maximize Since a particle size of less than 300 microns is essential for entrained flow gasification 85 The pyrolysis step in gasification, where the solid feed gets decomposed into its basic constituents is modeled using an isobaric RYield reactor. To consider the complex reaction pathway of nitrogenous components an additional RStoic reactor is employed modeling the formation of HCN and NH3 based on data of Aho et al. 87 . ...
In an effort to reduce dependency on fossil fuel resources, biomass could essentially be converted into chemicals using high capacity processes. The Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis (FTS) pathway has been chosen as the focus of this book as it is a mature area, and unlike other pathways such as pyrolysis, FTS is a potential way of producing fuel/hydrocarbons with no sulfur, no nitrogen, and no heavy metals contamination, making it a good choice. Integrating technological development and business development rationales to highlight the key technological developments that are necessary to industrialize biofuels on a global scale, this book focusses on the key challenges that still hinder the effective biomass use and the realization of zero fossil fuel use. Traditional biomass to hydrocarbons pathways are covered, showcasing how they are tailored to yield a specific group of chemicals with the aim of reducing downstream processes. New developments are considered, including process synthesis, catalysts, and reactors, etc.
Providing an up-to-date overview of the production of specialty chemicals and fuels from biomass via the Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis pathway, this title makes an excellent addition to the libraries of academics and practitioners working in catalysis and chemical engineering.
... Furthermore, change rates for the general agricultural area in the municipality until 2050 and potential shares of miscanthus and short-rotation wood in 2050 according to scenario A (base scenario) in [60] were applied. Based on the corresponding areas of different species, annual harvest yields for wheat straw according to [123,124], as well as miscanthus, short-rotation wood, and corn cobs according to [125], could be calculated. To maintain sustainable use of wheat straw, only one-third was considered for energy conversion, according to [121]. ...
The paper focuses on developing an energy-modeling tool called ENECO2Calc, which allows the determination of current ecologic and economic footprints based on calculating the final energy demand within several sectors for municipalities. Furthermore, different energy transition paths until 2050 can be investigated and compared to the business-as-usual reference scenario. ENECO2Calc is the first municipality-based energy-modeling tool that allows the development of meaningful scenarios until 2050 by considering climate policy goals and RES potentials, and it involves the mobility emission forecast tool “PROVEM”. ENECO2Calc is exclusively based on consistent statistical datasets. Additionally, the energy-modeling process was demonstrated as exemplary for the Austrian municipality St. Margareten im Rosental. For the selected municipality, three different scenarios were investigated. It could be concluded that a mix of decentral RES technologies and central cogeneration units in the heat sector, a mix of solar PV and cogeneration units in the electricity sector, and the use of synthetic biofuels coupled with a higher share of electrification in the fuel sector seemed to be most promising in the considered region. ENECO2Calc is a helpful energy-modeling tool toward climate neutrality to support municipalities in developing appropriate economic and ecological footprint strategies.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
The Scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions analysed in the OECM are defined and are presented for the 12 sectors analysed: (1) energy, (2) power and gas utilities, (3) transport, (4) steel industry, (5) cement industry, (6) farming, (7) agriculture and forestry, (8) chemical industry, (9) aluminium industry, (10) construction and buildings, (11) water utilities, and (12) textiles and leather industry. The interconnections between all energy-related CO2 emissions are summarized with a Sankey graph.KeywordsScope 1, 2, and 3 emissionsIndustryServiceTransportBuildings steelCementAluminiumChemicals agricultureForests water utilitiesTextile and leather
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
The OneEarth Climate Model (OECM), its background, and program architecture are described. How the OECM is broken down into two independent modules to calculate demand and supply is explored. The basic program logic of the MATLAB-based bottom-up demand module, with high technical resolution, is described for various sectors, including the input and output parameters. The description includes numerous figures and tables for both demand and supply modules. The sub-sectors used for the OECM 1.5 °C pathway are listed, including outputs and the areas of use.
The second part of the chapter documents the high-efficiency building (HEB) model of the Central European University, which was used for the global and regional bottom-up analyses of the building sector. Its methodology, including the programme architecture, the workflow, and the equations used, is provided.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
The decarbonisation pathways for the industry sectors are derived. The energy-intensive chemical industry, the steel and aluminium industries, and the cement industry are briefly outlined. The assumptions for future market development used for the scenario calculations are documented, and the assumed development of the energy intensities for product manufacture is presented. An overview of the calculated energy consumption and the resulting CO 2 intensities is given, with the assumed generation mix. The textile and leather industry is also included in this chapter because of its strong ties to the chemical industry and meat production (part of the service sector).
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
This chapter summarizes all the calculated energy demands for the industry, service, transport, and building sectors. The supply side results for the OECM 1.5 °C scenario are documented. Electricity generation and the power generation required globally are provided by technology, together with the corresponding renewable and fossil energy shares. A detailed overview of the heat demand by sector, the heat temperature levels required for industrial process heat, and the OECM 1.5 °C heat supply trajectories by technology are presented, in both total generation and installed capacities. The calculated global final and primary energy demands, carbon intensities by source, and energy-related CO 2 emissions by sector are given. Finally, the chapter provides the global carbon budgets by sector.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
This section documents the development of four different energy demand pathways on the basis of the high-efficiency buildings (HEB) model of the Central European University. The assumptions and the scenario narratives are derived and the results provided in numerous graphs and tables. Of the four derived scenarios, two are selected for the OECM and the selection criteria are justified. The results in terms of the global energy demand and energy-related CO2 emissions are provided in tables.KeywordsDecarbonisation pathwaysBuildingsResidentialCommercialHigh-efficiency buildings (HEB) modelEnergy intensitiesFloor areaBottom-up demand projections
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
The structure of the Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS) system and how it is used in the OECM are described, as well as how the statistical data of the International Energy Agency (IEA) were merged with the GICS structure. The development of the pathways for the industry and service sectors, based on the GICS and IEA data, is explained, together with the parameters that are important for the financial industry. In this context, the definitions of Scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions newly developed for the OECM are explained, as well as how the systemic error of double counting in the original procedure can now be avoided.KeywordsGlobal Industry Classification Standard (GICS)IEA Statistic
Scope 1
2
and 3 emissions
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
The status quo in the global oil, gas, and coal industries in terms of their economic value, geographic distribution, and company structures is given. The current fossil fuel production volumes and decline rates required under 1.5 °C-compatible pathways for coal, oil, and natural gas are discussed. The assumptions made when calculating scope 1 and 2 emissions and current and future energy intensities are defined. The role of power and gas utilities under the OECM 1.5 °C scenario is discussed, together with the projected trajectories for renewable power- and heat-generating plants and those for hydrogen and synthetic fuel. Future structures of the global primary and secondary energy industries are suggested.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
The decarbonisation pathways for the service sector are derived. Brief outlines of the agriculture—food and forestry—wood product sectors, fishing industry, and water utilities are presented. The projected development of product quantities or GDP and the assumed development of energy intensities are given. The industry-specific energy consumptions and CO 2 emission intensities are provided in tables. The non-energy-related CO 2 emissions for all sectors analysed in this chapter are discussed and quantified.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
Basic information on ecosystem-based approaches to climate mitigation is provided, and their inclusion in international climate and nature conservation treaties is discussed. Key concepts around net-zero emissions and carbon removal are examined, as are the roles they play in the One Earth Climate Model, which develops a 1.5 °C-compatible scenario by combining ecosystem restoration with deep decarbonization pathways. The carbon removal potentials of the five ecosystem restoration pathways—forests and agricultural lands, forest restoration, reforestation, reduced harvest, agroforestry, and silvopasture—are provided. Land-use management options, including the creation of ‘carbon conservation zones’ (CCZ), are discussed.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
An overview of the main drivers of the transport energy demand and the assumed socio-economic development (population and GDP) until 2050 for ten world regions are given. The countries in each world region are tabulated. Detailed documentation of projected shifts in transport modes for all world regions, including technological assumptions and energy intensities, by vehicle type is presented. This section contains the OECM 1.5 °C transport scenarios for aviation, shipping, road, and rail, each broken down into passenger and freight transport. The calculated energy demands and energy-related carbon emissions for all transport modes are provided.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
This section focuses on technologies that provide heat, and especially process heat, with renewable energy and electrical systems. All the technologies described, except those that use high-temperature geothermal or concentrated solar heat (CSH) for process heat, are used for the OECM 1.5 °C pathways described in Chaps. 5 , 6 , 7 , and 8 . The authors have included geothermal and solar technologies to highlight the further technical options available and to underscore that more research is required in the area of renewable process heat.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
This section provides an overview of all greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols, the sources, their contributions to overall emissions, and their likely cumulative effects on global temperature increases. The non-energy GHG modelling in this chapter is an update of the probabilistic assessment of the global mean temperature published in the first part of Achieving the Paris Climate Agreements , Chap. 12 (Meinshausen 2019). The 1.5 °C energy and non-energy pathways were assessed by Climate Resource—specialists in assessing the warming implications of emissions scenarios. The analysis focuses on the derivation of the trajectories of non-CO 2 emissions that match the trajectories of energy and industrial CO 2 emissions and evaluates the multi-gas pathways against various temperature thresholds and carbon budgets until 2100. (120).
Section 7.2 is based on the following: ‘Documentation of ‘UTS scenarios – Probabilistic assessment of global-mean temperatures’ by Climate Resource Malte Meinshausen, Zebedee Nicholls, October 2021.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
Background information is given on the Paris Climate Agreement and the role of nationally determined contributions and net-zero pledges. An overview of historical energy-related CO 2 emissions since 1750 and how they relate to economic development, measured in gross domestic product (GDP), is provided, together with the cumulative energy-related CO 2 emissions by region. The future energy demand if historical trends in energy efficiency and carbon intensity continue until 2050 is projected. The term ‘science-based target setting’ is defined, and how it relates to the carbon budget published in the Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC is discussed. The energy-related CO 2 emission pathway required to achieve the 1.5 °C target is outlined.
... This technology provides almost complete combustion, with very stable temperatures and low emissions. The prerequisites are fuels with particle sizes <100 mm and ash melting temperatures >1000 °C (Kaltschmitt et al., 2009). Entrained-flow combustion is suitable for fuels that are available as small particles, such as sawdust or fine shavings, which are pneumatically injected into the furnace. ...
This section summarizes the main findings of all parts of the research, with priority given to the most important findings to avoid the repetition of previous chapters. The key findings for the industry, services, buildings, and transport sectors, including the 12 sub-sectors analyzed, are provided and discussed. Policy recommendations for each sector and recommendations for the actions for governments, industries, the real economy, and financial institutions are offered.KeywordsConclusion
Policy recommendationsIndustryServicesFinancial institutionsGovernment policies
... This high degree of fineness requires safety measures during processing, such as additional aspiration or moistening during handling and transport processes. Due to the high initial moisture content of the char material (40 -50 wt.-%) compared to densification of woody biomass which is typically between 8 and 14 wt.-%) [13], [14], the char pellets must be post-dried to ensure pellet stability and to comply with the requirements for moisture content of the ISO/TS 17225-8 [11], Table III. Directly after densification, the moisture content of the pellets was only 2 -5 wt.-% below the initial moisture content of the char. ...
In the most wood gasification technologies, char accumulates as fine particles. Depending on the particle size distribution, this may lead to a high dust load and explosion hazards. In addition, the dust has process-related disadvantages for certain applications. If gasifier char is to be used as a fuel for micro-cogeneration plants, a defined and uniform particle size distribution is necessary to ensure a proper material flow into the fuel bed. For the production of pellets from gasification char, the common technology from wood and feed pelleting can be used. The tests were carried out with a ring die press on a pilot scale (30 kW), a 6x20 mm die and a distance between roller and die of 0.5 mm. The moisture content, type and the amount of binder were varied. The tested matrix binders were carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and starch. During the first pelleting pre-tests, the necessity of a high water content for the densification of the pulverized material was evident to achieve low energy demand during operation while optimal physical-mechanical properties can be achieved by the subsequent drying process and hardening of the binder. However, the bulk density is reduced due to the loss of water. Furthermore, the model evaluation of the durability shows that the amount of binder and the moisture content have a stronger influence compared to the type of binder. For the modelled bulk density, the moisture content seems to have the highest influence.
... Trees have significant advantages for biomass production as they need less energy than food crops to produce similar amounts of biomass, grow often on soils not used in agriculture, do not need fertilization, and do not compete with usage as food. Plantation forests including short rotation coppices cultures (e.g., for poplars) have been developed to meet the increasing demand for wood production [3] as they offer a decentralized, storable, and renewable energy source [4]. The optimization of biomass formation by trees is of high economic interest not only to produce renewable energy but also for its use in the production of biopolymers, for example in the pulping industry. ...
The cambial meristem is responsible for bark and wood formation in woody plants. The activity of the cambial meristem is controlled by various factors; one of them is the plant hormone cytokinin. Here, we have explored different approaches to genetically engineering cambial activity in poplar plants by the ectopic expression of a cytokinin biosynthesis gene with enhanced activity (named ROCK4) or of a gene encoding a constitutively active cytokinin receptor variant (ROCK3). Both genes are derived from Arabidopsis thaliana and were expressed in poplar trees under the control of their own promoter or the cambium-specific pHB8 promoter. pIPT3:ROCK4- and pHB8:ROCK4-expressing plants were smaller than wild-type plants and formed more lateral branches; pHB8:ROCK4 transgenic plants additionally showed an increased stem diameter. In contrast, pAHK3:ROCK3- and pHB8:ROCK3-expressing plants grew taller than wild type without an altered branching pattern and formed more cambial cells, leading to increased radial stem growth. The effectivity of ROCK3 when expressed in either secondary phloem cells or in cambial cells is consistent with a dual, tissue-autonomous and non-autonomous activity of cytokinin in regulating cambial activity. We propose ROCK3 as a novel gene to enhance biomass formation in woody plants.
... Often, a carbon-based solid, broadly known as hydrochar, would result from the HTC process that heats biomass under the condition of 180-250 • C and 1.2-2.5 MPa. The duration of treatment, on the other hand, might last anywhere between 2 and 16 h in a water phase (Kaltschmitt et al., 2016). The wet oxidative application to MSW can be examined in Fig. 9. ...
The proper handling of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is critical due to its high generation rate and the potential to minimise environmental impacts by simultaneously reducing resource depletion and pollution. MSW utilisation for recycling is important for transforming the linear economy model into a circular one. The current review analyses and categorises MSW to energy technologies into direct and indirect approaches taking the Circular Economy perspective. The direct approach involves incinerating MSW for heat recovery. The indirect approach, including thermochemical and biochemical processes, is more complicated but attractive due to the variety of the valorised products – such as syngas, bio-oil, biochar, digestate, humus. However, consensus on the best MSW treatment approach is yet to be established due to the inconsistency of assessment criteria in the existing studies. In the case of converting MSW to energy (Waste-to-Energy – W2E), its economic indicators, such as capital, compliance, and operation cost, are important criteria when implementations are considered. In the current work, the critical characteristics of technologies for the MSW to energy routes are scrutinised. In addition, the economic characteristics and the role of MSW in the circular bio-economy is also thoroughly evaluated. Methods to advocate the industrial adoption and important assessing aspects of W2E are proposed at the end of the review to address the environmental and resource management issues related to MSW – most notably dealing with the uncertainty in composition and amounts, the energy efficiency and the resource demands of the W2E processing.
... Hergestellt wird Pyrolyseöl durch die thermische Zersetzung von Verbund-Biopolymer-Holz durch die sogenannte Pyrolyse. Für Optimierungsprozesse, die meist einen höheren Energiegehalt anstreben, ist die genaue Zusammensetzung des Gemisches mit seinen vielen verschiedenen Einzelkomponenten und die strukturelle Eigenschaften der Komponenten entscheidend.[Km09] ...
Despite of all research attempts to optimize materials and efficiency, the mass production of CIGS thin film solar cells is still employing mechanical scribing to obtain P2 and P3 structures which are required to achieve the monolithic serial interconnection between neighboring cells. However, mechanical scribing results in random lift-offs and chipping, remaining material at the chip-off locations and increased non-productive area ‘dead zone’ there by resulting in the loss of active solar cell area. Moreover, the non-deterministic nature of the material removal mechanism yields wide, irregular scribe lines that necessitate large spacing between adjacent scribes. As a result, the CIGS modules suffer decreased efficiency. The key challenge will be how to reduce this loss of power generation and enhance the performance of the patterning processes. In this work the mechanical scribing of CIGS thin film solar cells was investigated by experimental and numerical methods. In the experimental investigation, mechanical scribing of CIGS solar cell is done with the help of a tungsten needle and finally a half-symmetric Finite Element model for the crack initiation is presented for the numerical analysis of the mechanical scribing process. The initial crack probably propagates very close to the contact point between the spherical tip and the CIGS layer specimen and forms a circular crack before lift-off which is representing the scribe.
The objective of this paper was to determine the effects of rapeseed genotype and nitrogen fertilization for dual purposes, i.e., on seed yield for human consumption and on the quantitative and qualitative value of harvested residues as feedstock to produce heat energy. The research was carried out in field trials set up under the agroecological conditions of northwestern Croatia at the University of Zagreb’s Faculty of Agriculture in the vegetation periods of 2012/2013 and 2013/2014. The research included three rapeseed genotypes (conventional hybrid SY Cassidy, cultivar Komando, and semidwarf hybrid PR45D03) and three nitrogen topdressing rates that included the supply of soil mineral nitrogen. Nitrogen treatments were N1 (without topdressing), N2 (applying the nitrogen difference from the fertilizer to 150 kg N ha–1 to the soil with one topdressing), and N3 (applying the nitrogen difference from the fertilizer to 200 kg N ha–1 to the soil with two topdressings). During both vegetation periods, the highest seed yield was achieved by the conventional hybrid SY Cassidy. In 2012/2013, the highest stalk yield, silique residue yield, utilizable biomass, and energy biomass yield were achieved by the conventional hybrid SY Cassidy and the cultivar Komando. By applying up to 200 kg N ha–1 with two topdressings (N3), the utilized biomass yield and energy biomass yield were increased, but only in the extremely humid 2013/2014 vegetation period. The effect of rapeseed genotype and nitrogen topdressing on stalk combustion properties were mainly dependent on weather conditions. The conventional hybrid SY Cassidy and cultivar Komando had the most favorable combustion properties of rapeseed stalks during both vegetation periods. Topdressing with a higher nitrogen rate had mostly positive effects on the combustion properties of the rapeseed stalks, especially for conventional hybrid SY Cassidy in the 2013/2014 vegetation period.
The aim of the work was to analyze the impact of biochar produced under various production conditions on the course of the dark (hydrogen) fermentation process. A series of experiments were planned, in which the starting material was digestate from a functioning agricultural biogas plant. Changes in the physicochemical properties and microstructure of biochar obtained in the manufacturing process with different parameters were also analyzed. Another issue analyzed was the size and dynamics of the gas production during dark fermentation with the use of various types of auxiliary material. This work showed that increasing the temperature and holding time during the production of biochar from digestion pulp improved the dynamics of biohydrogen production during the process of dark fermentation. The results of this research can be used in industrial research to optimize the process of biohydrogen production using biochar.
The analysis of the chemical composition of biomass plays an important role in all steps of the life cycle of biomass, especially in thermal conversion processes. Electrothermal vaporization (ETV) coupled with inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) is a promising approach for biomass analysis as almost no sample preparation is required, samples can be analysed quickly, and the release of elements from the sample can potentially be quantified with temperature resolution. In this work, the concentration of seven important side and trace elements is determined in beechwood, torrefied wood, wheat straw, miscanthus, and spruce bark. For comparison and validation of the ETV setup, four additional methods of analysis are applied to determine the elemental concentration. Chemical fractionation analysis (CFA) is conducted to investigate the chemical association form. In addition, microwave pressure digestion is carried out with two different acid solutions (HNO3 and HBF4). X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis is performed to determine the ash composition of all samples. The spread between most of the results of the different measurement techniques is with less than 20 % well within the expected range for heterogeneous biomass samples. Large deviations, such as the sulphur concentration in the XRF analysis, can be explained by the method used. The ETV results are in very good agreement with the CFA and microwave pressure digestion results. As these methods are well established, ETV analysis has proven to be suitable for the analysis of side and trace elements in biomass.
Graphical Abstract
Sawmilling is the conversion of round timber of a defined geometry and quality into sawn timber in accordance with given or custom-ordered specifications regarding dimensions and quality. This process also results in by-products such as bark, sawdust, and chips. An industrial sawmill operation is a complex process involving external and internal logistics, optimization, and process control in order to maximize the value yield and to reduce operating costs. The volume yield of sawn timber is of great importance. Sawmills are classified according to their main machining concept such as frame-saw mills, bandsaw mills, circular-saw mills, profiling-technology-based mills, etc. In this chapter, various sawmill concepts and machining technologies are described and the basic approaches to achieve optimization are introduced. The sawing machines are described on a conceptual basis and sawmill design, selection, and maintenance are surveyed.KeywordsSawmillingRound timberSawn timberSawing patternSawmill machinerySawn-timber volume yieldBy-products
In the native state of a tree, moisture can be present as a liquid solution in the cell lumen (specific for sapwood) and/or in the microstructure of the wood cell wall (bound moisture). In most wood products uses, moisture content has to be reduced significantly in order to match an in use target moisture content. This is carried out through the process of drying (dehydration) that is either natural or artificial by technical means. The latter comprises technical equipment such as a drying kiln with controlled energy transfer and a controlled drying environment, in order to reduce the moisture content of wood by avoiding drying defects. Based on the fundamentals of drying (Chap. 13), the current chapter introduces the main technologies applied to timber drying as a subsequent process to the sawmilling process. According to its importance, a major part is dedicated to the conventional air circulation kiln drying (heat-and-vent kilns) compared to dehumidification and vacuum drying. A minor part of the chapter also addresses the steaming of wood, primarily with respect to wood color management.The main drying stages of the overall drying regime are described in detail in order to understand the main variables of the drying process such as air humidity, air temperature, and air circulation. Kiln drying control and drying quality are further topics to be addressed. The latter includes the assessment of various drying defects and measures in order to avoid defects.KeywordsTimber dryingTimber steamingDrying processKiln dryingDrying scheduleDrying models
Als Rohstoffe werden die aus der Natur durch die Urproduktion gewonnenen und weitgehend unbearbeiteten Grundstoffe bezeichnet, die in der Regel einer weiteren industriellen Verarbeitung zugeführt werden. Zudem wird zwischen Primärrohstoffen aus der natürlichen Umwelt und Sekundärrohstoffen, die aus bereits genutzten Werkstoffen und Produkten recykliert werden, unterschieden.
Increasing biogas production in the Three Seas Initiative countries (3SI) is a good way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to increase energy self-sufficiency by replacing some of the fossil energy sources. An assessment of the biogas production potential carried out for the 3SI at the NUTS 1 and NUTS 2 level shows that the potential of this energy carrier was stable for the period (from 2010–2021). The results showed that it can cover from approximately 10% (Hungary, Slovakia) to more than 34% (Estonia, Slovenia) of natural gas consumption; moreover, there is strong variation in the value of potential at the regional level (NUTS 2) in most of the countries studied. The biogas production forecast was carried out with the ARIMA model using four regressors, which are GDP, biogas potential utilisation, natural gas consumption and investments in RES (renewable energy sources) infrastructure, including changes in the EU energy policy after 24 February 2022. In the most promising scenario (four regressors), the results obtained for the period from 2022–2030 predict a rapid increase in biogas production in the 3SI countries, from 32.4 ± 11.3% for the Czech Republic to 138.7 ± 27.5% for Estonia (relative to 2021). However, in the case of six countries (Bulgaria, Lithuania, Hungary, Austria, Poland and Romania) the utilisation of 50% of the potential will most likely occur in the fifth decade of the 21st century. The above results differ significantly for those obtained for three regressors, where the highest rise is predicted for Bulgaria at 33.5 ± 16.1% and the lowest for Slovenia, at only 2.8 ± 14.4% (relative to 2021).
Erdgas spielt eine zentrale Rolle im heutigen Energiesystem Deutschlands. Auch mittelfristig wird in aktuellen Analysen damit gerechnet, dass die Nachfrage nach Erdgas groß bleiben wird. Gleichzeitig stellt die Diskussion um Treiber, Quelle und vor allem Größenordnung von Methanschlupf während der gesamten Prozesskette die Rolle von Erdgas als Brückenenergieträger in Richtung Klimaneutralität in Frage. In diesem Kontext stehen Technologien bereit, welche Erdgas durch erneuerbares Methan oder Wasserstoff substituieren können. Diese bieten zwar signifikantes Potenzial zur Einsparung von Treibhausgasemissionen, können sich unter den aktuellen politischen und wirtschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen allerdings nicht etablieren. Hauptziel dieser Thesis ist es deshalb, szenariobasiert und modellgestützt mögliche Transitionspfade zur Förderung erneuerbarer Gase zu ermitteln und zu analysieren, und damit zur aktiven Gestaltung des künftigen Gasmarkts beizutragen. Zunächst wird zu diesem Zweck das Energiesystemmodell MIREG (Model for the Integration of Renewable Gases) entwickelt und vorgestellt. Darin werden erneuerbare Gaserzeuger hinsichtlich ihrer techno-ökonomischen Performance sowie ihrer Treibhausgasemissionen detailliert systemdynamisch abgebildet. Die Kombination mit den relevanten Rohstoffmärkten (Strom- und Biomassemarkt) berücksichtigt Wechselwirkungen innerhalb des Energiesystems. Ein Gleichgewichtsmodell optimiert die resultierenden Gaspreise und Speichereinsätze und erlaubt die Abbildung eines Gasmarkts bei steigenden Anteilen erneuerbarer, dezentraler Gaserzeuger. Mithilfe einer Ausbauplanung können darüber hinaus Investitionsentscheidungen modellendogen getroffen werden. Anschließend werden mit MIREG die Auswirkungen unterschiedlicher Förderinstrumente und wirtschaftlicher Entwicklung auf die Penetration erneuerbarer Gase szenariobasiert untersucht. Zusätzlich wird der Einfluss unterschiedlicher Bilanzierungen von Methanschlupf bei der Förderung von Erdgas auf die Ergebnisse analysiert sowie der Effekt singulärer Marktereignisse am Bespiel der Ukrainekrise betrachtet. Im definierten Business as Usual ist kein wesentlicher Ausbau erneuerbarer Erzeuger beobachtbar, was die Notwendigkeit zur Förderung erneuerbarer Gase nochmals verdeutlicht. Brennstoffförderungen, zinsfreie Kredite sowie ein verstärkter Ausbau erneuerbarer Stromerzeuger zeigen sich hierzu als wenig effektive Mittel. Stärker steigende CO2- und Grenzübergangspreise hingegen begünstigen den Zubau grüner Gase stark. So steigt der erneuerbare Anteil des Gasmixes im Modell auf 59,6%, wenn 2050 Grenzübergangspreise i.H.v. 110 €/MWh erreicht werden. Ein CO2-Preis von 304 €/t in 2050 führt zu 45,5% erneuerbaren Gasen. Investitionskostenförderungen unterstützen insbesondere Power-to-Gas-Anlagen. Die durchgeführte ökologische Parametervariation verdeutlicht die ökonomischen und ökologischen Konsequenzen der strikteren Bilanzierung von Vorkettenemissionen bei der Förderung von Erdgas. In keinem der Szenarien kann bei weiterhin unterstelltem hohen Verbrauch eine vollständige Substitution fossilen Erdgases durch erneuerbare Gase erreicht werden. Das resultierende CO2-Äquivalent des Gasmixes liegt u.a. dadurch stets deutlich über dem erneuerbaren Stroms. Dies führt zu den Forderungen, den Gasverbrauch Deutschlands zu senken, erneuerbare Gase für Anwendungen ohne Möglichkeit zur direkten Elektrifizierung vorzuhalten, die Bilanzierung von Vorkettenemissionen fossilen Erdgases kritisch zu hinterfragen, sowie – zusätzlich zu nationalen Anstrengungen – internationale Lieferketten zur Defossilisierung des Gasmarktes zu suchen.
Biogas production within cooperatives and energy clusters that include both food businesses and biogas plants seems to be a good way to both improve financial health and increase energy self-sufficiency. The paper assesses the financial health of more than 2100 food businesses operating during the period of 2014–2020; the analysis was based on data from public statistics. The financial analysis carried out using the ROS (Return on Sale) indicator and the SI for the study (saving indicator) showed that the average SI/ROS increased by more than 2.78-fold over the study period. Moreover, for 185 powiats, the observed growth remained above average over a period of one to five years. The application of the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method allowed the relative efficiency of biogas utilization to be calculated at the powiat level (former LAU level 1). It was found that the utilization of biogas potential within cooperatives and energy clusters grouping food businesses is most effective mainly for urban powiats.
The systemic view of the bioeconomy has matured at various levels in Germany in recent years: the subsystems of the bioeconomy have formed, actors are investing in regional and intersectoral networking to enable new innovations, and the supporting systems have put bioeconomy design on the agenda. The promise of innovation to increase efficiency and improve products is concrete. Specific resource and climate gas savings can be expected in all sub-sectors of the bioeconomy if sustainable energy supply can be achieved at the same time. However, the current market has so far been insufficiently supportive of these ideas. Additionally, as a central topic of all the subsystems the prospect of conserving natural resources is programmatic: contributions to climate protection and species conservation are described as central, but are to be achieved primarily through “more from the same base”. The decision on how many of these resources are to be used for the bioeconomy must be negotiated within the society – in Germany, but also in all other regions of the world.
The increasing consumption of carbon-based products in recent decades and their impact on the environment and climate change is becoming more and more significant. To curb this problem, the use of pyrolysed biomassBiomass as a reducing agent substitute for carbon-based reduction processesReduction process can be part of the solution for a CO2-neutralCO2-neutral metallurgy. Previous research has shown that biochar can be a replacement for conventionally used carbon sources. However, the economic interest in this technology has gradually decreased, due to the falling prices for the CO2-certificates about eight years ago. In the meantime, the prices for the certificates have risen strongly again and the topic is coming back into focus. In this publication, the use of biomassBiomass was investigated in an experimental setup and the selection, properties, and possible applications are discussed. The results show that biomassBiomass can be an adequate product for CO2-neutralCO2-neutral process control.
Апстракт: Проблематика анализе специфичности фактора ефикасности
управљања трошковима и профитом у трговини континуирано је актуелна, врло
сложена и значајна. Имајући то у виду, у овом раду се емпиријски истражује
утицај кључних фактора на ефикасност управљања трошковима и профитом
трговине у Србији. У последње време се знатно побољшала трошковна и профитна
ефикасност трговине у Србији. На повећање ефикасности управљања трошковима
и профитом трговине у Србији у великој мери je утицалa динамика величине
набавне вредности реализоване робе, оперативних трошкова, зараде запослених,
марже, као и унапређење управљањa активом, капиталом и профитом. Њиховом
адекавтном контролом може се знатно утицати на остварење циљних трошкова
и профита трговине у Србији.
Кључне речи: ефикасност, трошкови, профит, детерминанте, трговина Србије
Abstract: The issue of analysis of the specifics of the factors of cost and profit management
efficiency in trade is continuously current, very complex and significant. With this in mind,
this paper empirically investigates the impact of key factors on the efficiency of cost and
profit management of trade in Serbia. Recently, the cost and profit efficiency of trade in
Serbia has significantly improved. The increase in the efficiency of cost and profit
management of trade in Serbia was largely influenced by the dynamics of the size of the
purchase value of goods sold, operating costs, employee salaries, margins, as well as the
improvement of asset, capital and profit management. Their adequate control can
significantly affect the realization of target costs and profits of trade in Serbia.
Key words: efficiency, costs, profit, determinants, Serbian trade
Jel classification: L81, M31, M41, O32
O biogás e o biofertilizante são grandes alternativas para aumentar a produtividade e a sustentabilidade da agricultura familiar na Amazônia. Neste contexto, objetivou-se avaliar a qualidade biogás e aplicar o biofertilizante gerado a partir de esterco bovino em biodigestor anaeróbico para a produção de Lactuca sativa (alface) sob diferentes concentrações no Município de Castanhal, Nordeste do Estado do Pará, Brasil. Foram determinados os seguintes componentes do biogás: Amônia, Gás Sulfídrico, Gás Carbônico e Metano com e sem a aplicação de um filtro caseiro para purificação do biogás. Para aplicação do biofertilizante no cultivo de L. sativa, foi implantado um experimento em bloco causalizados com cinco tratamentos (fertirrigação com biofertilizante nas concentrações 100, 75, 50, 25 e 0%) e cinco repetições. Foram analisados: número de folhas, comprimento do caule, fitomassa fresca e fitomassa verde das plantas 60 dias após a semeadura. O esterco bovino possui um alto potencial energético, pois apresentou concentração de metano de 68%, o qual foi ampliado para 78,3% com a utilização do filtro purificador de gás. O uso do biofertilizante puro (100%) favoreceu a maior produtividade da L. sativa, sendo que nesta concentração o número de folhas, comprimento do caule, fitomassa fresca e fitomassa verde foram de 77%, 89%, 1200% e 400% superior ao tratamento sem a aplicação do biofertilizante. Estes resultados demonstram que a utilização de biofertilizantes oriundos de esterco bovino são altamente eficientes para aumentar a produtividade da Alface.
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