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Chemistry, Biological, and Pharmacological
Properties of Gum Arabic
Hassan Hussein Musa, Abdelkareem Abdall Ahmed, and
Taha Hussein Musa
Contents
1 Introduction ................................................................................... 3
2 Structure of Gum Arabic .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Chemical Properties of Gums .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Physical Properties of Gums Arabic .. . ...................................................... 6
5 Biological Properties of Gum Arabic .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1 Antioxidant Properties of Gum Arabic ................................................ 6
5.2 Effect of GA on Renal Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.3 Effect of GA on Blood Glucose Concentration ........................................ 8
5.4 Effect of GA on Intestinal Absorption .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.5 Degradation of GA in the Intestine .................................................... 9
5.6 Effects of GA on Lipid Metabolism ................................................... 10
5.7 The Effect of GA on Tooth Mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.8 Effect of GA on Hepatic Macrophages . . . . . . . . . ....................................... 11
6 Pharmaceutical Properties of Gum Arabic .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7 Food and Cosmetic Properties of Gum Arabic .............................................. 12
8 Conclusion .. .................................................................................. 12
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 13
H.H. Musa (*)
Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medical Laboratory Sciences, University of
Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan
e-mail: hassanhm@uofk.edu
A.A. Ahmed
Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Nyala,
Nyala, Sudan
e-mail: kareemo151@gmail.com
T.H. Musa
Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health,
Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
e-mail: taha.hm99@yahoo.com
#Springer International Publishing AG 2018
J.-M. Mérillon, K.G. Ramawat (eds.), Bioactive Molecules in Food, Reference Series in
Phytochemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54528-8_11-1
1
Abstract
Gum Arabic (GA) is a natural branched-chain multifunctional hydrocolloid with
a highly neutral or slightly acidic, arabino-galactan-protein complex containing
calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Gum Arabic is dried exudate obtained from
the stem and branches of Acacia trees manly Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal.
GA was used by the Ancient Egyptians as an adhesive when wrapping mummies
and in mineral paints when making hieroglyphs since the second millennium BC.
In modern times, GA is used in foods, pharmaceutical, and many other industries.
In this chapter, we describe the structure, chemical, and physical properties of
Gum Arabic. In addition, biological properties include antioxidant properties of
Gum Arabic, an effect of GA on renal function, blood glucose concentration,
intestinal absorption, degradation of GA in the intestine, lipid metabolism, tooth
mineralization, and hepatic macrophages. Similarly, pharmaceutical, food, and
cosmetic properties of Gum Arabic are discussed.
Keywords
Gum Arabic · Chemical · Biological · Pharmacological · Food · Cosmetic ·
Properties
Abbreviations
AG Arabinogalactan
AGP Arabinogalactan protein
ATGL Adipose triglyceride lipase
CAT Catalase
CDC Chenodeoxycholic acid
CRF Chronic renal failure
GA Gum Arabic
GP Glycoprotein
GPx Glutathione peroxidase
HDL High-density lipoprotein
HSL Hormone-sensitive lipase
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
MDA Malondialdehyde
MGL Monoacylglycerol lipase
ROS Reactive oxygen species
SOD Superoxide dismutase
TAP 2,4,6-Triaminopyrimidine
TC Total cholesterol
VLDL Very low density lipoprotein
2 H.H. Musa et al.
1 Introduction
Gum Arabic is a natural branched-chain multifunctional hydrocolloid with a highly
neutral or slightly acidic, arabino-galactan-protein complex containing calcium,
magnesium, and potassium [1]. According to the definition of the Joint Expert
Committee for Food Additives (JECFA), Gum Arabic is a dried exudate obtained
from the stem and branches of Acacia trees (Fig. 1)[2]. There is more than 1000
species of the genus Acacia Gums; only two are significant for commercial purposes
Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal [3]. Acacia senegal is considered the best in quality
due to a low quantity of tannins and comprises the majority of global trade [4],
whereas Acacia seyal produces a lower grade of Gum [5]. Acacia trees are abundant
in central Sudan, central and West Africa, and tropical and semitropical areas of the
world [6,7]. Sudan is the leading producer of Acacia Gums worldwide, followed by
Nigeria, Chad, Mali, and Senegal [8]. Europe and USA are the most important GA
markets, while Japan is the largest Asian consumer.
The use of GA dates back to the second millennium BC when the Ancient
Egyptians used Gum Arabic as an adhesive when wrapping mummies and in mineral
paints when making hieroglyphs [9]. In modern times, they are used in foods,
pharmaceutical, and many other industries [10–13].
2 Structure of Gum Arabic
The chemical composition of GA is complex, and numerous papers have been
published on this subject [14]. The backbone of GA is composed of 1,3-linked β-
D-galactopyranosyl units. The side chains are composed of two to five 1,3-linked β-
D-galactopyranosyl units, joined to the main chain by 1,6-linkages. Both the main
and the side chains contain units of α-L-arabinofuranos, α-L-rhamnopyranosyl, β-D-
glucopyranosyl, and 4-O-methyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl, the last two mostly as end
units (Fig. 2).
Gum Arabic consists mainly of high-molecular weight polysaccharides and their
calcium, magnesium, and potassium salts, which on hydrolysis, yield three main
fractions of polysaccharides and proteins, including arabinogalactan (AG),
Fig. 1 Gum Arabic formed
on a wounded branch of A.
senegal
Chemistry, Biological, and Pharmacological Properties of Gum Arabic 3
arabinogalactan protein (AGP), and glycoprotein (GP), which differ from their
molecular weight and chemical composition [15]. The arabinogalactan fraction
represents 88% of the total Gum weight has a low molecular weight (Mw, ~300
KDa) and associated little protein content below 1%. The arabinogalactan protein
fraction (~10% of the total Gum) has a high molecular weight (Mw) (~1500 KDa)
and protein content (~10%). The glycoprotein fraction (<2% of the total Gum)
has the lowest molecular weight (Mw, ~250 KDa) and the highest protein content
(~20%e50%). Among these fractions, AGP is the most interfacially active compo-
nent [16,17 ], and primarily responsible for the emulsifying properties of GA [18,
19 ]. This fraction can be adsorbed on the oil–water interface to form a viscoelastic
film and reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water because of its amphi-
philic characteristics, which is conferred by the hydrophobic protein chains com-
bined to the hydrophilic polysaccharide fragments [17].
3 Chemical Properties of Gums
Chemically, GA is a complex mixture of macromolecules of different size and
composition characterized by a high proportion of carbohydrates (D-galactose and
L-arabinose) (~97%), and a low proportion of proteins (<3%) [14]. The chemical
composition of GA varies slightly depending on its origin, climate, harvest season,
tree age, and processing conditions, such as spray dying [20–23]. Many studies have
shown some differences between the chemical composition of the GA from Acacia
senegal and Acacia seyal [24–26], the most recent study was conducted by Lopez-
Torrez et al. [29]. Both Acacia Gums contained the same amino acids with a higher
content of protein in A. senegal (2.7%) than in A. seyal (1.0%) (Table 1).
Hydroxyproline, serine, leucine, and proline were the most abundant residues
and represented more than 55% of the total amino acids in each variety (Table 2).
Similar amino acid profiles were identified in previous studies on Acacia Gums
from different origins [27–29]. The A. senegal Gum samples shown to contain
approximately twice the amount of protein compared to the Gum obtained from A.
seyal [28].
Fig. 2 Structure chemic of
the Acacia Gum
4 H.H. Musa et al.
Table 1 Biochemical composition of A. senegal and A. seyal Gums in dry basis (mean standard
deviation)
Component (mg g
1
)A. senegal A. seyal
Total dry matter 889.0 0.27 893.0 0.02
Sugars
a
940.0 950.0
Galactose (%)
b
35.8 1.20 36.9 1.05
Arabinose (%)
b
30.3 2.50 47.6 0.60
Rhamnose (%)
b
15.5 0.35 3.0 0.30
Glucuronic acid (%)b 17.4 1.15 6.7 0.40
4-O-Me-glucuronic acid (%)
b
1.0 0.05 5.8 0.55
Proteins 27.0 0.01 10.0 0.04
Minerals 33.0 0.24 40.0 0.07
a
Total content of sugars was calculated by the difference of proteins and minerals from 1000 mg g
1
in dry basis
b
Sugar composition was determined by GC-MS
Source: Lopez-Torrez et al. [29]
Table 2 Amino acid composition for A. senegal and A. seyal Gums in dry basis (mean standard
deviation)
Amino acids (mg g
1
) Abbreviations A. senegal A. seyal
Alanine Ala 0.49 0.04 0.22 0.01
Arginine Arg 0.31 0.05 0.12 0.00
Aspartic acid Asp 1.24 0.04 0.49 0.04
Glutamic acid Glu 0.92 0.01 0.28 0.003
Glycine Gly 0.79 0.004 0.25 0.07
Histidine His 1.37 0.01 0.27 0.01
Hydroxyproline Hyp 6.26 0.52 2.13 0.19
Isoleucine Ile 0.31 0.02 0.13 0.01
Leucine Leu 1.83 0.04 0.60 0.0
Lysine Lys 0.63 0.02 0.12 0.03
Phenylalanine Phe 0.82 0.05 0.21 0.01
Proline Pro 1.61 0.14 0.56 0.001
Serine Ser 2.50 0.05 0.95 0.03
Threonine Thr 1.42 0.02 0.34 0.02
Tyrosine Tyr 0.31 0.04 0.14 0.02
Valine Val 0.71 0.0001 0.31 0.07
Total amino acids 21.5 0.47 7.1 0.16
Source: Lopez-Torrez et al. [29]
Chemistry, Biological, and Pharmacological Properties of Gum Arabic 5
4 Physical Properties of Gums Arabic
The physical properties of GA may vary depending on the origin and age of trees,
the exudation time, and climate. Treatment of Gums after collection such as
washing, drying, and bleaching in the sun and storage conditions effected the
physical properties of Gums [19]. Gum Arabic of excellent quality is tear-shaped,
round, with an orange-brown color. After it is crushed or shattered, the pieces are
paler in color and have a vitreous appearance. GA has high water solubility and a
relatively low viscosity compared with other Gums. GA can get dissolved at water in
a concentration of 50% w/v, forming a fluid solution with acidic properties (pH
~4.5). The resulting solution is colorless, tasteless, and does not interact easily with
other chemical compounds [30,31]. The viscosity of GA solutions can be modified
by the addition of acids or bases as these change the electrostatic charge on the
macromolecule.
The physical properties of Gum Arabic established as quality parameters include
moisture, total ash, volatile matter, and internal energy, which were regarding with
reference to Gums taken from Acacia senegal species in Sudan (Table 3). These
parameters can be used to identify raw Gums mostly used as food additives [32,34,
33]. Gum Arabic is a natural product complex mixture of hydrophilic carbohydrate
and hydrophobic protein components [32]. Hydrophobic protein component func-
tions as an emulsifier which adsorbs onto surface of oil droplets, while hydrophilic
carbohydrate component inhibits flocculation and coalescence of molecules through
electrostatic and steric repulsions in food additives [36,37].
The moisture content facilitates the solubility of GA carbohydrate hydrophilic
and hydrophobic proteins [38]. The total ash content is used to determine the critical
levels of foreign matter, insoluble matter in acid, calcium, potassium, and magne-
sium [39]. The compositions of cations in the ash residue are used to determine the
specific levels of heavy metals in the Gum Arabic quality [32,40]. The volatile
matter determines the nature and degree of polymerization of the compositions
contained in sugar (arabinose, galactose, and rhamnose) which exhibits strong
binding properties to act as emulsifiers and stabilizers in the manufacture of cough
syrups in the pharmaceutical industry [2]. The GA internal energy is the required
energy to produce an amount of carbon by heating at 500 C to release carbon
dioxide. Optical rotation is used to determine the nature of GA sugars as well as to
identify the source of production. Nitrogen content in Gum Arabic determines the
number of amino acid compositions with the range of 0.26–0.39% [32].
5 Biological Properties of Gum Arabic
5.1 Antioxidant Properties of Gum Arabic
Oxidative stress is largely occurred through the deregulation of oxidants/antioxi-
dants injury or breakdown of macromolecules of biological nature such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, ensuing in the imbalances of intracellular
6 H.H. Musa et al.
homeostasis and consequently the production of several types of reactive oxygen
species (ROS) which finally induce more oxidative injury or damage [41]. The
antioxidant enzymes activity plays a vital role in the damage of hyperglycemia-
related tissue [42]. Previous studies indicated that production of ROS in diabetes
might commence the chronic diabetic lesions development on many tissues such
as blood vessels [43], eye retina [44], kidneys [45], and neurodegenerative disorders
[46].
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) [47], catalase (CAT) [48], and glutathione peroxi-
dase (GPx) [49] are considered the main vital defense tools against reactive oxygen
molecules, which are involved in the oxidative damage [50,51]. In the diabetic
patients, the oxidative stress was found to induce various unfavorable effects at the
molecular levels in cell physiology [52]. The oxidative stress reduced the concen-
trations of glutathione (GSH) in patients with type 2 diabetes [52], decreased the
activity of CAT [53], reduced the concentrations of renal SOD [54], and increased
the level of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) [55]. The reduction in antioxidant
components can cause diabetic complications [56]. The administration of Alloxan
by GA was cause a significant reduction of antioxidant enzymes including GPx,
CAT, and SOD. The reduction of antioxidant enzymes activities was associated with
observable augment in production of malondialdehyde (MDA). The elevation MDA
levels ultimately cause oxidative stress, and consequently it mirrors a decreased
antioxidant defense potentiality [50,57].
Several studies indicated that GA is exert a nephron-protective effect against
gentamicin (antibiotic) and cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in rat [58,59], and
doxorubicin-induced cardio toxicity in rat [60]. Trommer and Neubert [61] indicated
that the treatment of GA together with polysaccharides reduced lipid peroxidation. In
contrast, Ali [62] revealed that administration of GA to rats at concentrations of
2.5%, 5.0%, and 10.0% in the form of drinking water for eight successive days did
not significantly change the levels of free radical scavenger’s GSH, acid vitamin C
(ascorbic acid, and SOD, or lipid peroxidation). The mechanism of action through
Table 3 International specifications of Gum Arabic quality FAO [32]
Property Value
Moisture (%) 13–15
Ash content (%) 2–4
Internal energy (%) 30–39
Volatile matter (%) 51–65
Optical rotation (degrees) (26)–(34)
Nitrogen content (%) 0.26–0.39
Cationic composition of total ash at 550 C
Copper (ppm) 52–66
Iron (ppm) 730–2490
Manganese (ppm) 69–117
Zinc (ppm) 45–111
Source: Dauqan and Abdullah [35]
Chemistry, Biological, and Pharmacological Properties of Gum Arabic 7
which GA improves the antioxidant capacity may be due to the fact that GA contains
several types of amino acid residues such as lysine, tyrosine, and histidine, which
are commonly considered as antioxidants biomolecules [63,64]. Moreover, the
antioxidant properties of GA in biological systems require a more direct knowledge
of the antioxidant capacity [65,66]. Consequently, the antioxidant activity of GA in
biological systems is still an unresolved issue, and therefore it requires a more direct
knowledge of the antioxidant capacity of GA that can be obtained by in vitro
experiments against different types of oxidant species.
5.2 Effect of GA on Renal Function
The administration of GA in the form of drinking water (15%, w/v) reduces the
concentrations of plasma urea and creatinine in adenine-induced chronic renal
failure (CRF) in rats. It also decreased the clearance of creatinine and induced
significant increases in the inflammatory mediator’s concentrations. Further, the
treatment with GA significantly ameliorated all adverse effect that induced by
adenine. The mechanism underlying the salutary effect of GA in adenine-induced
CRF may associate with mitigation of the adenine-induced inflammation and gen-
eration of free radicals [67].
Pretreatment of GA (7.5 g/kg/day per oral administration), starting 5 days before
mercuric chloride injection, resulted in a complete reversal of Hg-induced increase
in blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, and total
nitrate/nitrite to control values. Pretreatment of GA prevented Hg-induced degener-
ative changes of kidney tissues. Thus indicated that GA is an efficient cytoprotective
agent against Hg-induced nephrotoxicity [68]. The protective effect of GA on renal
function was also confirmed to significantly reduce blood creatinine and urea
nitrogen concentrations in diabetic nephropathy patients [69]. Recent studies have
shown that GA significantly reduced serum urea and urinary protein. In addition,
GA significantly decreased α-SAM and TGF-β1 gene expression in kidney and
increased kidney cytokeratin19 and E-cadherin gene expression when compared to
STZ-treated group. Therefore, GA may attenuate the development of nephropathy in
type I diabetes rat [70].
5.3 Effect of GA on Blood Glucose Concentration
In India, GA is one of the indigenous medicines, and it has many medicinal uses. In
Tunisia, the use of GA as hypoglycemic medicinal plants to treat diabetic patients
was found to reach more than 70% compared to other medicinal plants [71].
A clinical trial used 40 participants with a daily supplement of powdered GA
(10 g/day) for 16 weeks in healthy individuals, prediabetics patients, type 2 DM
patients, and diabetic nephropathy patients. The results showed that supplementation
of GA significantly decreased fasting blood glucose levels and glycosylated hemo-
globin (HbAc1) together with significant reduction of blood uric acid and total
8 H.H. Musa et al.
protein concentrations [72]. Moreover, supplementation of GA in different forms to
the normal or diabetic or fed-high fat diet rat/mice significantly reduced blood
glucose levels [83,85]. The blood glucose lowering propriety of GA may be because
GA inhibits absorption of glucose in the intestine via interaction with membrane
abundance of sodium-glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1) in experimental mice [69].
5.4 Effect of GA on Intestinal Absorption
The small intestine is a major part of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) where almost all
organic nonelectrolytes and electrolytes absorbed in it different mechanisms which
are operating at the cellular and molecular levels [73]. Concurrent intestinal secretion
is a physiological occurrence which is tightly controlled by various mechanisms.
This process maintains within the intestinal lumen a condition of variability, dilution,
and solubilization that is indispensable to the usual intestinal function of digestion
and absorption. The net effects of those mechanisms play a significant role to
maintain the normal mammalian small intestine in an absorptive manner. On the
other hand, under a certain condition, secretion forces exceed absorption, and a net
secretory condition ensues resulting in diarrhea and dehydration. It has been reported
that GA enhances small intestinal absorption of sodium in normal experimental rats
[74,75]. GA is also found to increase the absorption of sodium and water in two
animal models of diarrheal disease [76]. In normal young rats, the addition of 5 and
10 g/L of GA increased sodium removal rates from the intestinal lumen perfused
with oral rehydration solutions containing either 60 or 90 mM sodium. Although GA
tended to ease bidirectional fluid movement in those experiments, the net absorption
of water was not influenced [77]. At high concentration, GA was associated with
increases and expansion of the basolateral intercellular space. Experimental diarrhea
was induced in rats by either 1 week of drinking cathartic (magnesium citrate-
phenolphthalein) solution to produce chronic osmotic-secretory effects or by jejunal
perfusion of theophylline to induce jejunal secretion. The positive influences of the
GA on electrolyte and fluids absorption were shown in jejunal perfusion studies in
experimental rats that were recovering from chronic osmotic diarrhea induced by
cathartic agents [73]. In free living rats, the administration of GA in the form of
drinking supplemented ad libitum revealed accelerated recovery when compared to
those receiving either water or oral rehydration solutions (ORS) without GA [73].
GA was reported to increase water and electrolytes movement, e.g., water and
sodium, from the intestinal lumen to the blood stream [78].
5.5 Degradation of GA in the Intestine
Gum Arabic is mostly indigestible to both animals and humans as it is not degraded
in the small intestine. However, it fermented in the large intestine particularly in
colon due to the enzymatic action of microorganisms [79]. Several studies have
Chemistry, Biological, and Pharmacological Properties of Gum Arabic 9
reported that intestinal bacteria can ferment GA to short-chain fatty acid, mainly
propionate [80].
5.6 Effects of GA on Lipid Metabolism
Gum Arabic is considered as a dietary supplement that reduces the deposition of
body fat. Ingestion of GA was revealed to decrease body mass index (BMI) and
percentage of body fat in healthy adult human females [81]. GA has many anti-
obesity properties as a dietary supplement in both humans and experimental animals.
GA serves as a dietary fiber which helps to reduce body weight and fat deposition.
The property of lowering caloric density of the diet of GA is the most potential
mechanism involved in the reduction of body weight [82]. In addition, our recent
reports suggest that other complex mechanisms might be involved [83]. The prop-
erty of lowering glucose and fat absorption of GA is an additional proposed
mechanism; nevertheless, this mechanism was debated in earlier reports [84]. GA
suppressed diet-induced obesity by altering the expression of mRNA levels of genes
involved in lipid metabolism in mouse liver [83]. In addition, GA consumption in the
form of drinking water decreased visceral adipose tissue (VAT) associated with
downregulation of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I in liver and muscle
of mice [85].
Administration of GA reduced plasma total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low
density lipoprotein (LDL) concentrations in human [86] and mice [85]. In agreement
with these findings, we reported that GA supplementation decreased plasma LDL,
very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), and total cholesterol concentrations, whereas
increased HDL concentrations. Numerous mechanisms have been proposed to reveal
the hypocholesterolemic effects of dietary fiber [87]. One potential clarification is
that dietary fiber increases the viscosity of the intestinal contents, and therefore,
interfering nutrient with absorption and micelle formation, which, sequentially,
decreases intestinal lipid absorption [88]. Another mechanism suggested that soluble
fibers act by disrupting the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids, consequential to
increased bile acid excretion, and subsequently reduces plasma cholesterol concen-
trations [89]. Moreover, the viscosity of fermentable dietary fibers is found to
contribute substantially to the lipid lowering effects in rat [90].
Supplementation of GA significantly downregulated hepatic adipose triglyceride
lipase (ATGL) mRNA and conserved receptor expressed in brain 2 (SREB2) mRNA
expression in mice fed with high-fat diet (HFD) [83,91]. HMG-CoA reductase
(HMGR), the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis mRNA expression,
was significantly lowered in the GA-treated mice [83]. The dietary fibers have
pertained to the hepatic mRNA expression of HMGR in rat [92,93]. Thus, these
results provided insight into how dietary fibers affect lipid metabolism at the gene
level. Adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL), hormone sensitive lipase (HSL), and
mono-acyl-glycerol lipase (MGL) are tightly regulated by a nutritional factor.
However, under a condition of energy intake, imbalance leads to failure to effi-
ciently control their activity. Consequently, serious metabolic disorders will occur
10 H.H. Musa et al.
and is believed to be a key mechanism in the development of type 2 diabetes in
obesity [94].
5.7 The Effect of GA on Tooth Mineralization
Dental caries is found to occur when the tooth enamel is lost due to an imbalance of
the demineralization and demineralization phases, and prevention can be accom-
plished if the demineralization phase is enhanced [95]. A number of agents have
been used for that purpose, including fluoride [96]. Lately, using histopathological
methods, it is found that GA can promote demineralization possibly by sustaining
other demineralization activities [97]. This supporting function was approved to the
rich content of Mg2þ, Ca2þ, and Kþsalts of polysaccharides in GA, and to the
influence of the Gum on Ca2þmetabolism and possibly phosphate. It is also
reported that GA contains cyanogenetic glycosides and other numerous types of
enzymes such as peroxidases, oxidases, and pectinases that exhibit antimicrobial
properties against certain microorganisms such as Prevotella intermedia and Pro-
phyromonas gingivalis [98].
5.8 Effect of GA on Hepatic Macrophages
Macrophages are known to play a vital role in the regulation of immunological
process in all vertebrates. It was reported that the GA activates macrophage by its
ability to produce superoxide anions in vitro [99]. While other studies report that GA
was competent to blocking the macrophage function completely [100,101]. There-
fore, the scientist inferred that such influences of GA would promise the consider-
ation in the treatment of chronic liver disease, as a disturbed function of Kupffer cells
and hepatic macrophages occurs in this kind of disease and is involved in its
complications, such as end toxemia [102].
6 Pharmaceutical Properties of Gum Arabic
In recent years, plant-derived polymers have evoked tremendous interest due to their
diverse pharmaceutical applications such as diluents, binders, disintegrants in tab-
lets, thickeners in oral liquids, protective colloids in suspensions, gelling agents in
gels, and bases in suppository [103].
In the pharmaceutical industry, GA is used as a carrier of drugs since it is
considered a physiologically harmless substance. GA has some biological properties
as an antioxidant [61,104,105] on the metabolism of lipids [106,107] and in
treating many diseases such as kidney [102,108], cardiovascular [109], and gastro-
intestinal diseases [110].
Gum Arabic reduces glucose absorption, increases fecal mass and bile acids, and
has the potential to beneficially modify the physiological state of humans [111]. GA
Chemistry, Biological, and Pharmacological Properties of Gum Arabic 11
is slowly fermented by the bacterial flora of the large intestine producing short-chain
fatty acids [112]. In addition, GA is able to selectively increase the proportion of
lactic acid bacteria and bifidus bacteria in healthy subjects. Previous studies have
shown that a daily intake of 25–30 g of GA for 21–30 days reduced total cholesterol
by 6% and 10.4%, respectively. The decrease was limited only to LDL and VLDL,
with no effect on HDL and triglycerides [113,114].
7 Food and Cosmetic Properties of Gum Arabic
Gum Arabic is used in textiles, ceramics, lithography, cosmetic, paints, and paper-
making [9,116]. In the food industry, GA is primarily used in confectionery, bakery,
dairy, beverage, and as a microencapsulating agent. Acacia Gums are unique among
the various hydrocolloids; they are used notably in food industry because they
modify and control the rheological properties of aqueous food systems acting as
thickeners, stabilizers, film formers, suspending agents, flocculants, and emulsifiers.
A. senegal Gum is most widely used in food applications mainly because of its better
emulsifying properties than A. seyal Gum [115]. In addition, Gum solutions of A.
senegal are generally less colorful than A. seyal. These properties explain differences
in the higher price of A. senegal Gum compared to A. seyal in the international
market. Gum Arabic is well recognized as emulsifier used in essential oil and flavor
industries such as production of citrus and cola flavor oils for soft drinks [31,34]. In
dairy products, Gum Arabicis is used as a stabilizer in frozen products like ice and
ice cream, absorbing water and producing a finer texture. In cosmetic industry, Gum
Arabic is used as smoothener in lotions and protective creams, and adhesive in facial
masks or face powders [9].
8 Conclusion
Although there are more than 1000 species of the genus Acacia Gums, only two are
significant for commercial purposes: Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal. The chemical
composition of GA varies slightly depending on its origin, climate, harvest season,
tree age, and processing conditions, while the physical properties of Gum Arabic
established as quality parameters including moisture, total ash, volatile matter, and
internal energy.
GA improves the antioxidant capacity because it contains several types of amino
acid residues such as lysine, tyrosine, and histidine, which are commonly considered
as antioxidants biomolecules. GA effects renal function through reduction in blood
creatinine and urea nitrogen concentrations in diabetic nephropathy patients. GA
significantly decreased fasting blood glucose levels and glycosylated hemoglobin
(HbAc1) together with a significant reduction in blood uric acid and total protein
concentrations. GA increases water and electrolytes movement from the intestinal
lumen to the blood stream. GA can be fermented by intestinal bacteria to short-chain
12 H.H. Musa et al.
fatty acid, mainly propionate. GA, as a dietary fiber, helps to reduce body weight and
fat deposition.
In the pharmaceutical industry, GA is used as a carrier of drugs since it is
considered a physiologically harmless substance. GA has some biological properties
as antioxidant on the metabolism of lipids, and in treating many diseases such as
kidney, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal diseases.
In the food industry, GA is used in confectionery, bakery, dairy, beverage, and as a
microencapsulating agent. In dairy products, it is used as the stabilizer in frozen
products like ice and ice cream, absorbing water and producing a finer texture. In
cosmetic industry, Gum Arabic is used as smoothener in lotions and protective
creams, and adhesive in facial masks or face powders.
Acknowledgment Authors acknowledge all researchers whom conducted studies on Gum Arabic.
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