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Cognitive Load Theory
Abstract
Cognitive Load Theory
John Sweller, Paul Ayres, Slava Kalyuga
Effective instructional design depends on the close study of human cognitive architecture—the processes and structures that allow people to acquire and use knowledge. Without this background, we might recognize that a teaching strategy is successful, but have no understanding as to why it works, or how it might be improved.
Cognitive Load Theory offers a novel, evolutionary-based perspective on the cognitive architecture that informs instructional design. By conceptualizing biological evolution as an information processing system and relating it to human cognitive processes, cognitive load theory bypasses many core assumptions of traditional learning theories. Its focus on the aspects of human cognitive architecture that are relevant to learning and instruction (particularly regarding the functions of long-term and working memory) puts the emphasis on domain-specific rather than general learning, resulting in a clearer understanding of educational design and a basis for more effective instructional methods. Coverage includes:
• The analogy between evolution by natural selection and human cognition.
• Categories of cognitive load and their interactions in learning.
• Strategies for measuring cognitive load.
• Cognitive load effects and how they lead to educational innovation.
• Instructional design principles resulting from cognitive load theory.
Academics, researchers, instructional designers, cognitive and educational psychologists, and students of cognition and education, especially those concerned with education technology, will look to Cognitive Load Theory as a vital addition to their libraries.
... This visual search process becomes even more demanding, when learners have to find the relevant information at the exact moment an instructor is referring to it (Van Marlen et al., 2019). Consequently, the visual search process imposes a high working memory load or cognitive load (see also Cognitive Load Theory, Sweller et al., 2011). However, not only visual complexity and temporal dependency influence the visual search and the resulting working memory load. ...
... Prior knowledge also affects the available working memory resources in general (Sweller et al., 2011). Moreover, a meta-analysis on visual cues (e.g., arrows, highlighting, colour coding) showed that these cues improved learning for students with low prior knowledge, but effects on learning outcomes were smaller or absent for learners with higher prior knowledge (Richter et al., 2016). ...
... Finally, we expect interaction effects between social cues and visual complexity, indicating that social cues are more beneficial for high visual complexity videos on quality (H1c) and speed (H2c) of attention allocation, cognitive load (H3c), and learning outcomes (H4c) than for videos of low visual complexity. Furthermore, we explore the effects of prior knowledge, as one would expect that social cues have larger beneficial effects on attention, cognitive load and learning outcomes for low prior knowledge students than high prior knowledge students since the latter group needs to use less working memory capacity to comprehend the content (Sweller et al., 2011). ...
Background
There are only few guidelines on how instructional videos should be designed to optimize learning. Recently, the effects of social cues on attention allocation and learning in instructional videos have been investigated. Due to inconsistent results, it has been suggested that the visual complexity of a video influences the effect of social cues on learning.
Objectives
Therefore, this study compared the effects of social cues (i.e., gaze & gesture) in low and high visual complexity videos on attention, perceived cognitive load, and learning outcomes.
Methods
Participants (N = 71) were allocated to a social cue or no social cue condition and watched both a low and a high visual complexity video. After each video, participants completed a knowledge test.
Results and Conclusions
Results showed that participants looked faster at referenced information and had higher learning outcomes in the low visual complexity condition. Social cues did not affect any of the dependent variables, except when including prior knowledge in the analysis: In this exploratory analysis, the inclusion of gaze and gesture cues in the videos did lead to better learning outcomes.
Takeaways
Our results show that the visual complexity of instructional videos and prior knowledge are important to take into account in future research on attention and learning from instructional videos.
... Given the escalation in academic demands placed on students, researchers have sought to identify instructional approaches that can ease the cognitive burden on students, especially in the early stages of learning-such as when students begin a new academic year, a new topic, etc. (Martin & Evans, 2018Martin, Ginns, et al., 2021a;Martin, Ginns, et al., 2021b;Moreno, 2010;Moreno & Mayer, 2007;Sweller, 2012). Cognitive load theory (CLT) has articulated major tenets of instruction aimed at managing the cognitive burden on students (Sweller, 2012;Sweller et al., 2011). Harnessing CLT to guide the development of a practice-oriented instructional framework, Martin (2016;Martin & Evans, 2018 proposed "load reduction instruction" (LRI). ...
... CLT identifies two kinds of cognitive load that impede learning: intrinsic and extraneous (Sweller et al., 2011). Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the inherent difficulty of instructional material and activity. ...
... Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the inherent difficulty of instructional material and activity. Extraneous cognitive load refers to how material is structured and presented (Sweller et al., 2011). LRI comprises instructional principles that are aimed at reducing extraneous cognitive load (as the primary yield)as well as some associated intrinsic cognitive load (as a secondary yield; Martin, 2016;Martin & Evans, 2018). ...
Load reduction instruction (LRI) is a practical instructional framework aimed at managing the cognitive demands experienced by students as they learn. LRI comprises five key instructional principles: (1) difficulty reduction during initial learning, as appropriate to students’ prior learning, (2) support and scaffolding, (3) structured practice, (4) feedback-feedforward, and (5) guided independent application. The present investigation explored student- and teacher-reports of LRI in both mathematics and English. The Load Reduction Instruction Scale – Short was administered to 1773 students and their teachers in 93 mathematics classrooms and 94 English classrooms. Multilevel (Level 1 student; Level 2 classroom) confirmatory factor analysis (MCFA) supported a Level 1 student LRI factor and a Level 2 class-average LRI factor in each of mathematics and English. However, two LRI factors emerged for teachers in each of mathematics and English: one factor related to Principle 1 (difficulty reduction) and one factor related to Principles 2-5 (scaffolding to autonomy). Follow-up multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) revealed that teachers adjusted their application of LRI Principle 1 (but not Principles 2-5) as a function of class-average prior learning (lower prior learning was associated with greater application of Principle 1). MCFA also showed that correlations between student- and teacher-reported LRI were low. Follow-up MSEM revealed that student- and teacher-reports of LRI uniquely predicted students’ effort and achievement—suggesting that students and teachers provide distinct insights into instruction (hence the low correlation between them) and highlighting the important role of both informants in capturing a comprehensive perspective on instruction in the classroom.
... The authors argued that this unexpected negative effect could be the consequence of an increase in working memory load to deal with both object manipulation and text comprehension. The theory of cognitive load (Sweller et al., 2011) can shed light on this double effect (sometimes positive, sometimes negative) of manipulation in learning, by proposing alternative avenues for understanding cognitive mechanisms. Individuals have a limited capacity for processing information coming from their environment, which leads them to process only a tiny part of the information that they receive. ...
... A possible explanation related to cognitive load was put forth by Bara and Tricot (2017). Based on the contribution of research in the field of cognitive load theory (Sweller et al., 2011), they provided arguments to explain how the effects of manipulation in school learning could either be beneficial or deleterious depending on the case. When performing a school task, students must divide their attention, and at times, this division can be too much of a burden and exceed the resources available. ...
... El problema con esta perspectiva, como ocurre con la manera tradicional de diseñar un currículum, es que no tiene en cuenta cómo los estudiantes aprenden y sus limitaciones cognitivas. Las tareas de solución de problemas usualmente son complejas e imponen alta carga cognitiva y emocional a los estudiantes cuando no tienen relevante conocimientos previos (Sweller, Ayres, & Kalyuga, 2011;Zambrano R., 2016, 29 de Septiembre al 01 de Octubre). Estas tareas producen bajo aprendizaje y podrían restar motivación (Kalyuga, 2011). ...
... Estas prácticas usualmente proveen gran cantidad de repetición, y solamente se comienzan cuando los estudiantes han recibido los aspectos rutinarios en el contexto de una tarea completa y significativa. plazo hará que experimenten menos carga cognitiva (Sweller et al., 2011). La información de soporte puede presentarse de dos formas. ...
Las carreras de educación superior de Ecuador deben contribuir con la construcción de la sociedad del Buen Vivir. Para esto se sugiere rediseñar el currículum y la enseñanza a partir de modelos que desarrollen el aprendizaje y la experticia de los estudiantes, a fin que resuelvan los problemas cruciales de la sociedad ecuatoriana. En este trabajo primero se plantea la necesidad de articular la metodología de diseño curricular con la evidencia empírica, sobre las mejores condiciones para aprender y desarrollar el talento humano. Segundo, se argumenta que el enfoque basado en la solución de problemas contribuiría significativamente a esta articulación. Y por último, se presenta el diseño curricular e instruccional de los cuatro componentes del diseño instruccional para el aprendizaje complejo, como un modelo alternativo que guíe la implementación adecuada de carreras de educación superior. Se concluye que la articulación entre las teorías del aprendizaje, el diseño curricular y la solución de problemas, es una vía promisoria para la construcción de la sociedad del Buen Vivir. ABSTRACTEcuadorian higher education careers must contribute building a Good Living society. This suggests redesigning the curriculum and instruction from models that develop learning and student expertise in order to solve the crucial problems of the Ecuadorian society. Due to, this paper firstly proposes the need to articulate the curriculum design methodology with the empirical evidence about the best conditions to learn and develop human talent. Secondly, it suggests that the problem-solving approach can contribute significantly to this articulation. And finally, it presents the instructional design model of four components to complex learning to design curriculum instructional programs as an alternative model to guide the effective implementation of programs in higher education. It concludes proposing that the integration between learning theories, curriculum design, and problem-solving approach is a promising way to build the Good Living society.
... However, some cognitive load theorists have criticized that launching a lesson with cognitively demanding tasks, which is not explicitly linked to prior instruction, is problematic and therefore undermines student learning (e.g., [32][33][34][35]). This argument is based on the idea that human working memory has a limited capacity to process new information that has not been stored in long-term memory, and it is therefore easily overloaded when required to solve unfamiliar and challenging problems with various interacting elements [35]. ...
... However, some cognitive load theorists have criticized that launching a lesson with cognitively demanding tasks, which is not explicitly linked to prior instruction, is problematic and therefore undermines student learning (e.g., [32][33][34][35]). This argument is based on the idea that human working memory has a limited capacity to process new information that has not been stored in long-term memory, and it is therefore easily overloaded when required to solve unfamiliar and challenging problems with various interacting elements [35]. This approach is also pedagogically demanding for teachers, as they might be uncertain about how to structure classroom learning sessions (e.g., [31,36,37]). ...
The field of mathematics education research has been promoting problem-solving-based mathematics instruction (PS-based MI) to afford opportunities to develop students’ conceptual understanding and problem-solving abilities in mathematics. Given its usefulness, there is still little knowledge in the field about how it can afford such opportunities in real classrooms. In this study, an attempt was made to make in-depth observations of such classrooms from the perspective of variation. We examined the differences in the space of learning provided by two lessons of the same teacher in two Ethiopian primary school classrooms. Based on the literature, we identified three key aspects for analysis: mathematical tasks, lesson structure and classroom interaction patterns. Our analysis showed that, even though both lessons focused on the same topic of solving linear inequalities, they were enacted differently. The lesson that employed a PS-based MI approach constituted a wider space of learning than the lesson employing a conventional approach. This study demonstrates the usefulness of our analytical approach for describing and documenting PS-based MI practice, and for qualitatively interpreting the differences in what is mathematically made available to learn. We suggest that it can provide guidelines for mathematics teachers to reflect upon and to enhance learning spaces in their own classrooms.
... However, in informatics education, the focus is on the third level of problem solving, ignoring the first and the second -understanding the problem, what we know about the problem and the planning, building algorithm -thus making it impossible to reach the fourth level, the evaluation, the discussion. Overall, the Hungarian Frame Curricula [18,19] does not pay attention to the development of the students' computer thinking skills and does not support the algorithm building and the schema construction, which play crucial role in cognitive load [27] and ultimatily activating fast and slow thinking effectively [12,15]. ...
... The matching tasks (Redmenta) develop students' fast thinking skills [15,27], based on the schemata build up in long-term memory. It is important that the students do not only follow strict steps, they rather focus on the problem and the problem-solving strategies, otherwise they would not be able to solve the tasks, since they are all different -authentic content. ...
... Na literatura internacional, há algumas décadas os autores exploram referenciais teóricos cognitivistas que auxiliam na elaboração e aplicação de materiais digitais e virtuais. A Teoria da Carga Cognitiva (TCC) proposta por Sweller (Sweller, 1988;Sweller, Ayres, & Kalyuga, 2011) e a Teoria da Aprendizagem Multimídia (TAM), proposta por Mayer (2009), merecem destaque pois fornecem princípios e diretrizes para elaboração e aplicação de materiais de ensino que potencializam a aprendizagem significativa, especialmente aqueles de caráter multimídia, ou seja, que agregam informações visuais e verbais. Em termos gerais, ambas as teorias consideram que a arquitetura cognitiva humana é formada por três sistemas de memórias que atuam em conjunto durante a aprendizagem. ...
... Ela é limitada, pois sozinha permite apenas o processamento de informações triviais e mais importantes durante a aquisição de informação. Se os múltiplos elementos desta nova informação se combinarem formando um único elemento cognitivo (por meio da codificação), diz-se que houve a construção de um esquema, o qual é transferido à memória de longo prazo (Sweller, Ayres, & Kalyuga, 2011). Por fim, esta última é definida como o local que armazena incontáveis esquemas, sendo ilimitada em tamanho, espaço e tempo (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2004). ...
As origens históricas dos mapas conceituais se localizam na área de Ensino de Ciências. Em 1972, Joseph Novak criou esta técnica de representação do conhecimento para identificar mudanças conceituais sobre temas da Biologia. Passados 50 anos, os mapas conceituais se aproximam da maturidade num momento de enormes transformações sociais provocadas pela pandemia de Covid-19 que impactam a Educação. Os autores aproveitam a celebração dos 50 anos de criação dos mapas conceituais para refletir sobre a estagnação ou crescimento das pesquisas sobre os mapas conceituais, considerando a produção específica da área de Ensino de Ciências. O objetivo do artigo é refletir sobre o atual momento das pesquisas sobre mapas conceituais a partir da análise da literatura acadêmica e de uma perspectiva histórica do desenvolvimento e da aplicação dos mapas conceituais. As perspectivas que se encontram no horizonte sugerem que o crescimento é mais provável do que a estagnação, desde que duas condições sejam observadas por pesquisadores e professores: (1) a ampliação das perspectivas teóricas que informam o uso dos mapas conceituais e (2) a adoção de um novo conjunto de valores que enfatizem a práxis educativa como um processo, evitando o foco no produto que caracteriza um ponto de chegada no processo de aprendizagem.
... Extending from the perspective of cognitive load, when learners involve in understanding the learning content in the learning process, the gap between their learning effect and cognitive load is defined as learning efficiency (Sweller et al., 2011;van Gog et al., 2012). The formula of learning efficiency is shown as below: LE fficiency : learners' learning efficiency after learning; LE ffect : standardized Z score transferred from learners' learning effect after learning; TCL oad : standardized Z score transferred from learners' total cognitive load in the learning process. ...
There has been a little research on emotion, cognitive load, or learning performance for digital game-based learning (DGBL). However, there is still a dearth of research on investigating the interactive effects of scaffolding DGBL and cognitive style on the above three outcomes. Participants were 97 middle-aged and elder adults from a community college and randomly assigned into three groups. Taking prior knowledge as the covariate, 3 × 2 two-way MANCOVA was adopted to verify the interactive effects of scaffolding DGBL (hard scaffolding DGBL, soft scaffolding DGBL, and non-scaffolding DGBL) and cognitive style (Serialist and Holist). The findings presented that there exited significantly interactive effects of scaffolding DGBL and cognitive style on learning emotion, cognitive load, and learning performance. In hard scaffolding DGBL, learning emotion, cognitive load, and learning performance of Serialist learners were significantly better than those of Holist learners. Conversely, in soft scaffolding DGBL, learning emotion, cognitive load, and learning performance of Holist learners were significantly better than those of Serialist learners. Learning emotion, cognitive load, and learning performance of Serialist learners using hard scaffolding DGBL and Holist learners using soft scaffolding DGBL were significantly better than those of learners using non-scaffolding DGBL. The findings demonstrated concrete contributions and implications on practical promotion and theoretical development. This study ensures sufficiency of applying the cognitive-affective theory of learning with media (CATLM), cognitive load theory and cognitive style theory on DGBL, suggesting to extend the application of these theories to scaffolding.
... If the cognitive load increases beyond the capacities of the working memory, this leads to a complete or at least partial failure of the cognitive system. The consequence is that the processing of necessary information can no longer take place [10]. ...
The cognitive load of design engineers is a promising metric to get a deeper insight into cognitive processes of design engineers while designing. Previous findings regarding cognitive load are often based on intuitive rather than analytical thinking processes, which is also a large part of the design process. Thus, they are not directly transferable to the design process. Therefore, a study was conducted in which engineering design students and design engineers worked on a selection of typical tasks from the design process. Subsequently, it was investigated which eye parameters show a correlation to cognitive load obtained via a questionnaire. The results show that the eye parameters studied are more strongly influenced by the task than by cognitive load. This is probably due to the diversity of design tasks causing different patterns in gaze behavior. Therefore, ways and parameters are needed with which cognitive load can be measured in various tasks.
... From the cognitive load point of view, the resources of human working memory are limited in terms of storage and duration learning (Paas et al., 2003;Sweller et al., 2019). There are three types of cognitive load in the process of information processing (Sweller & Chandler, 1991Sweller et al., 2011): (a) Intrinsic cognitive load (ICL) is related to the element interaction (internal complexity) of learning material and learners' prior knowledge; (b) Extraneous cognitive load (ECL) is mainly related to the quality of instructional design, and poor instructional design will lead to high ECL and poor learning performance; (c) Germane cognitive load (GCL) reflects the cognitive processing related to the learning task itself, and higher GCL is conducive to learning. According to cognitive load theory, affective PA who exhibited enthusiasm may increase learners' ECL (i.e., additional processing in the mind), which negatively impacts learning. ...
... We started by developing trial and error tasks with Piet Hein's Soma Cubes (Berlekamp et al., 2003) and different geometric shape puzzles. We designed the tasks as workedexamples (Sweller et al., 2011), with high instructional guidance in view of their limited working memory capacity, to familiarise students with the software and the printing device (i.e., Dynamic Principle and Perceptual Variability Principle). In the first learning session, with these tasks, high instructional guidance was given to explain the use and functions (e.g., AR) of the dynamic geometry software GeoGebra 3D. ...
This paper reports on a case study of two elementary school students with mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) (ages 10 and 11) using augmented reality (AR), digital and physical modelling in mathematics class. MLD students worked on modelling geometric shapes (cubes, cuboids, squared pyramids, and octahedrons) and forms (polygons) by combining real-world objects with AR and creating a copy of geometric shapes or missing parts with a 3D printing device. The study focused on the development of process skills and mathematical concepts, tried to identify changes in the visual-spatial memory, and documented the learning behaviour in class. Further, we collected data through task-based interviews with both students. Based on our findings, we present settings and manipulatives which are likely to foster process skills and mathematical concepts in geometry tasks suitable for MLD elementary school students.
Sápmi is the traditional term for the historical settlement area (the northern areas of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia) of the Indigenous people of this area, the Sámi. The school systems in Sápmi were imposed by Western educators and missionary workers in the eighteenth century. The road to a good Sámi school has had more than its fair share of obstacles, which is often a common experience at intersections between Indigenous peoples’ cultures and attempts by Western authorities to influence the mindsets and behaviour of Indigenous people. In the face of assimilation pressures, many Sámi lost their language and identity as a cultural minority. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, a new direction of Sámi education arose: the Norwegian, Swedish and Finnish education authorities decided that Sámi learners should have the opportunity to choose education in a Sámi language (of which there are several languages) in addition to receiving teaching in school subjects. Although the long road to Sámi teacher education has been a winding and tortuous path, today it is offered by two institutions (Sami University of applied sciences and Nord University). However, there are still challenges in obtaining enough teachers who have mastered Sámi languages.
This meta-analysis integrates outcomes of experimental and quasi-experimental studies to analyze the effects of background music (BM) on learning. Research articles, dissertations, and conference proceedings published in or before 2021 were examined. Seventy-one effect sizes from 47 studies were integrated using a random-effects model and subgroup analyses. Five key results were found: (a) a small and positive mean effect size ( d = 0.314) in favor of the BM condition, (b) a positive and medium effect size for studies that implemented BM before the learning assessment, (c) a positive and small effect size for factual knowledge retention, (d) a positive and small effect size for classical music compared with other music genres, and (e) individuals’ age can potentially moderate the impact of BM on learning. The results suggest a revised explanation of how the BM may affect learning, refuting existing cognitive load and multimedia learning theories that discourage the use of BM during instruction.
Utilizing cognitive psychology as a foundation, this paper offers a deeper consideration of contemporary theoretical influences on coaching pedagogy. Countering recent dichotomies suggested between pedagogic approaches, we reintroduce key findings from the cognitive tradition and their implications for practice which coaches may find useful. Using cognitive load, novice and expert differences, desirable difficulty, and fidelity, we suggest that the lines drawn between different “pedagogies” may not be as sharp as suggested. Instead, we suggest that coaches avoid defining themselves as being aligned to a specific pedagogical or paradigmatic stance. We conclude by advocating for research informed practice, absent of strict theoretical boundaries and instead, considering contemporary pedagogy as drawing on the needs of the context, the experience of the coach and the best available evidence.
In recent years, the development of adaptive models to tailor instructional content to learners by measuring their cognitive load has become a topic of active research. Brain fog, also known as confusion, is a common cause of poor performance, and real-time detection of confusion is a challenging and important task for applications in online education and driver fatigue detection. In this study, we propose a deep learning method for cognitive load recognition based on electroencephalography (EEG) signals using a long short-term memory network (LSTM) with an attention mechanism. We obtained EEG signal data from a database of brainwave information and associated data on mental load. We evaluated the performance of the proposed LSTM technique in comparison with random forest, Adaptive Boosting (AdaBoost), support vector machine, eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and artificial neural network models. The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed approach had the highest accuracy of 87.1% compared to those of other algorithms, including random forest (64%), AdaBoost (64.31%), support vector machine (60.9%), XGBoost (67.3%), and artificial neural network models (71.4%). The results of this study support the development of a personalized adaptive learning system designed to measure and actively respond to learners’ cognitive load in real time using wireless portable EEG systems.
The teaching of anatomy for physiotherapy differs from other health professions, and yet there is lack of guidance for best practice in the literature, especially within the United Kingdom (UK). The present study aimed to provide the most effective pedagogical guidance for teaching a typical anatomy curriculum for a three-year BSc Physiotherapy degree program within the UK. The research design used a constructivist grounded theory where semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight registered physiotherapists teaching anatomy to undergraduate physiotherapy students within the UK. The study generated 72,292 words of qualitative data that were thematically analysed using Saldaña's coding techniques until data saturation was reached. The results had three main components: a Pedagogical backdrop composed of five pedagogical issues, Pedagogical Approaches with its three sub-components and Pedagogical Timings of phases of when anatomical teaching was conducted across the three undergraduate physiotherapy degree programs. The Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) best explained the results through five main pedagogical principles: spiral curriculum strategies, visual anatomical imagery, kinesthetic anatomical skills, strategies for teaching clinical physiotherapy anatomy, and using anatomical principles for metacognition. The study proposes a new modified version of CLT which acknowledges that newly acquired knowledge is fragile in novice learners, who have limited long term memory capacities, and subsequently require regular revisitations, and also acknowledges kinesthetic input and germane cognitive load metacognition strategies. The study recommends appointing anatomy theme leads to take responsibility for the spiral curriculum approach across the three years and to introduce explicit anatomy teaching during the later clinical years. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
According to the multimedia principle, adding relevant pictures to text is beneficial for learning. This beneficial effect is particularly true for text depicted in pictures (illustrated text information) but not for a text that is not illustrated in pictures (non-illustrated text information). The multimedia principle was examined for threat-related content: spider-fearful participants (SFs) learned about spiders. Since SFs typically inadequately process spider pictures, a beneficial effect of pictures concerning illustrated text information was not assumed for SFs but only for non-anxious control participants (NACs). Participants (N = 123) were randomly assigned to either a text-only condition or a text-picture condition and classified as SFs or NACs. In line with this assumption, adding pictures to text was not beneficial for SFs but only for NACs, particularly for illustrated text information. Thus, the perceived emotional content of pictures can serve as a boundary condition for the well-established multimedia principle.
Students with disabilities (SWD) in general education science classes are expected to engage in the scientific practices and potentially in the writing of arguments drawn from evidence. Currently, however, there are few research-based instructional approaches for teaching argument writing for these students. The present article responds to this need through the application of an instructional model that promises to improve the ability of SWDs to write scientific arguments. We approach this work in multiple ways. First, we clarify our target group, students with high incidence disabilities (learning disability, ADHD, and students with speech and language impairments), and discuss common cognitive challenges they experience. We then explore the role of argumentation in science, review research on both experts’ (scientists’) and novices’ (students’) argument writing and highlight successful cognitive strategies for teaching argument writing with neurotypical learners. We further discuss SWDs’ general writing challenges and how researchers have improved their abilities to comprehend and evaluate scientific information and improve their domain-general writing. Cognitive apprenticeships appear advantageous for teaching SWDs science content and how to write scientific arguments, as this form of instruction begins with problem solving tasks that connect literacy (e.g., reading, writing, argumentation discourse) with epistemic reasoning in a given domain. We illustrate the potential of such apprenticeships by analyzing the conceptual quality of arguments written by three SWDs who participated in a larger quantitative study in which they and others showed improvement in the structure of their arguments. We end with suggestions for further research to expand the use of cognitive apprenticeships.
The content of economic education in Germany is based largely on the laws and ideals of the prevailing economic system. While Western concepts such as the competitive market typically are addressed in economic programs in Germany, they may be unfamiliar in Eastern European countries that were part of, or under the influence of, the former Soviet Union, where many youths living in Germany originate. Findings from large-scale quantitative studies of economic and financial literacy in Germany indicate that people who have a migration background (MB) perform worse on tests of economic literacy than those who do not; however, these studies do not provide sufficient insight into the underlying migration-related causes of the deficits in economic literacy. In this study we investigate the influence of family financial socialization on young adults’ understanding of economic and financial concepts. We interview eight young adults with a post-Soviet MB living in Germany using a two-part procedure: problem-centered and think-aloud interviews. We found that migrant parents directly and indirectly influenced their children’s understanding of economic and financial concepts in numerous ways, and we maintain that the best way to remedy the deficits in their understanding of such concepts is through targeted programs and teacher training.
The purpose of the study is to enumerate the representations in high school geometry, to narrow the focus to the most common ones, and to describe how the common representations are coordinated. To achieve this purpose, I analyzed several sections of a popular geometry textbook using thematic analysis, semiotics, and a pragmatic approach to capture the variety of representations into categories and to use descriptive statistics to narrow the focus to the most common representations and coordinations. The major findings are the bringing into prominence of representations like textbook gestures, ordered pairs, written language, tables, and their uses, and at the same time understating the importance of less common representations of physical objects. Other important findings are: (1) exposing which representations are most often coordinated like written language (WL), diagrams (D), numbers (N), and ordered pairs (OP), short geometry symbols (Sy), e.g., WL to D, WL+Sy to D, and N+OP to D; (2) some of the mechanisms in that coordination like using, numbers, point names, and textbook gestures, which include color, arrows, font changes, etc. Clarifying the representations in high school geometry and narrowing the scope to the most common ones allows researchers to study various combinations of representations and their impact students.
Zusammenfassung
Digitale Medien, wie Smartphones und Tablet-PCs, sind im Alltag weitverbreitet. Die Mobilität dieser Geräte ermöglicht die Durchführung physikalischer Untersuchungen in einer für die Schülerinnen und Schüler alltäglichen, natürlichen Umgebung. Bei der Tablet-PC-gestützten Videoanalyse können natürliche Bewegungsabläufe, wie z. B. das Laufen oder Springen, mithilfe der im Tablet eingebauten Kamera aufgenommen und danach mithilfe geeigneter Apps unter physikalischen Gesichtspunkten analysiert werden. Um den Einsatz solcher digitaler Medien nachhaltig zu gestalten, bedarf es grundlegender, empirisch abgesicherter Aussagen zur Lernwirksamkeit dieser Medien. Aus verschiedenen multimedialen Lerntheorien kann z. B. für die Tablet-PC-gestützte Videoanalyse u. a. eine erhöhte Lernwirksamkeit im Vergleich zu traditionellem Unterricht vermutet werden. Diese Hypothese wurde in mehreren Studien untersucht. Ausgewählte Ergebnisse dieser Studien zu den interventionsinduzierten Emotionen, zur kognitiven Belastung und zum physikalischen Konzeptverständnis werden vorgestellt.
Zusammenfassung
Funktionale Zusammenhänge sind im Mathematikunterricht fast aller Jahrgangsstufen präsent, jedoch gelingt es Lernenden häufig nur unzureichend, tragfähige Vorstellungen zu Funktionen zu entwickeln. Experimente erweisen sich hier als geeignete Unterstützung. Werden sie durch Simulationen digital ergänzt, kann dies Lernende beim Experimentieren entlasten und den funktionalen Zusammenhang in den Vordergrund rücken. Es eröffnet auch eine dynamische Perspektive auf diesen und rückt das Änderungsverhalten der beteiligten Größen (Kovariation), das für Lernende eine besondere Hürde darstellt, stärker in den Fokus. Allerdings erfordert die Kombination von gegenständlichen Materialien und Simulationen gemäß dem Instrumental Approach die Genese zusätzlicher Nutzungsschemata durch Lernende, was kognitive Ressourcen bindet. Je näher die Materialien der mathematischen Tätigkeit stehen, umso effizienter ist diese Genese. Entscheidend für die Frage, ob digital gerahmte Experimente lernwirksamer sind, könnten demnach die dynamische Perspektive sowie die Passung der Materialien sein. Um dem nachzugehen, kontrastiert eine Pre-Post-Interventionsstudie ( N = 442) ein Setting mit fokussierter Passung der Materialien, ein Setting mit zusätzlichem inhaltlichen Fokus auf Kovariation und eine Kontrollgruppe ausschließlich mit Simulationen. Dabei zeigt sich, dass allein durch die Kombination aus Simulationen und gegenständlichen Materialien kein Mehrwert für das Verständnis von Funktionen entsteht. Ergänzt um eine dynamische Perspektive und den Fokus auf Kovariation erzielt die Kombination allerdings größere Lernzuwächse.
In winter storms, enhanced radar reflectivity is often associated with heavy snow. However, some higher reflectivities are the result of mixed precipitation including melting snow. The correlation coefficient (a dual-polarization radar variable) can identify regions of mixed precipitation, but this information is usually presented separately from reflectivity. Especially under time pressure, radar data users can mistake regions of mixed precipitation for heavy snow because of the high cognitive load associated with comparing data in two fields while simultaneously attempting to discount a portion of the high reflectivity values. We developed an image muting method for regional radar maps that visually de-emphasizes the high reflectivity values associated with mixed precipitation. These image muted depictions of winter storm precipitation structures are useful for analyzing regions of heavy snow and monitoring real-time weather conditions.
This chapter explores a mentoring intervention for a group of higher degree research students at an Australian university designed to develop their academic and reflective writing through skills-based instruction and the development of a student-driven community of practice. To analyse and evaluate this initiative, the chapter provides a detailed description and unpacking of the program's motivations, objectives, and outcomes using 16 mentoring design elements. The program is also evaluated using an extended application of the 3P presage, process, product model. Three data sets were used to evaluate the success of the program: doctoral participants' evaluations at the time of the workshops and 12 months after the workshop and the reflections of the mentor and educator expert response for the program. The chapter concludes by identifying key learnings and potential for further application of a revised model for delivering holistic and co-designed learning experiences for future leaders such as doctoral students.
Solving a novel problem has recently garnered some attention as a viable alternative to traditional explicit instruction in the preparation of students for learning. This study investigated the effectiveness of introducing problem-solving tasks and worked examples prior to explicit instruction, along with the use of contrast, for gifted and non-gifted adolescents. One hundred and ninety-nine students from academically selective government and Independent high schools participated in this study. The 2 × 2 × 2 research design that was used examined the effects of giftedness (i.e., gifted vs. non-gifted), instruction-type (i.e., problem-solving vs. worked examples), and structure (i.e., high vs low contrast materials) on the learning outcomes of transfer and procedural knowledge. The study also examined the impact of explicit instruction and invention-first instruction strategies on non-performance variables—self-efficacy, extraneous load, experience of knowledge gaps, and interest. The results of the study suggested that invention-first instruction may be more effective than example-first instruction in transfer, and that gifted students may benefit more from invention-first instruction than example-first instruction. The use of contrast materials was not found to affect performance. Furthermore, instruction was found to have no significant effects on the investigated non-performance variables. Collectively, these findings challenge the conventional teaching modality of explicit instruction in gifted education, and puts forward the possibility of the invention-first strategy as an effective instructional strategy for gifted students.
Multimedia messages use combinations of texts, pictures, maps, and graphs as tools for communication. This book provides a synthesis of theory and research about how people comprehend multimedia. It adopts the perspectives of cognitive psychology, semiotics, anthropology, linguistics, education, and art. Its central idea is that information displays can be categorized into two different but complementary forms of representations, which service different purposes in human cognition and communication. Specific interaction between these representations enhances comprehension, thinking, and problem solving, as illustrated by numerous examples. Multimedia Comprehension is written for a broad audience with no special prior knowledge. It is of interest to everyone trying to understand how people comprehend multimedia, from scholars and students in psychology, communication, and education, to web- and interface-designers and instructors.
Based on Shannon’s communication theory, in the present paper, we provide the theoretical background to finding an objective measurement—the text-entropy—that can describe the quality of digital natural language documents handled with word processors. The text-entropy can be calculated from the formatting, correction, and modification entropy, and based on these values, we are able to tell how correct or how erroneous digital text-based documents are. To present how the theory can be applied to real-world texts, for the present study, three erroneous MS Word documents were selected. With these examples, we can demonstrate how to build their correcting, formatting, and modification algorithms, to calculate the time spent on modification and the entropy of the completed tasks, in both the original erroneous and the corrected documents. In general, it was found that using and modifying properly edited and formatted digital texts requires less or an equal number of knowledge-items. In information theory, it means that less data must be put on the communication channel than in the case of erroneous documents. The analysis also revealed that in the corrected documents not only the quantity of the data is less, but the quality of the data (knowledge pieces) is higher. As the consequence of these two findings, it is proven that the modification time of erroneous documents is severalfold of the correct ones, even in the case of minimal first level actions. It is also proven that to avoid the repetition of the time- and resource-consuming actions, we must correct the documents before their modification.
Dieser Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit »Leichter Sprache« – einem
Bereich der Wissensvermittlung, der bis jetzt wenig Aufmerksamkeit
der angewandten Typografie erfahren hat. Die Ursachen für
diese Nichtbeachtung sowie die Bedeutung von Typografie für
den Erfolg von Kommunikation mit »Leichter Sprache« werden
aufgezeigt. Ich beschreibe den Stand der Forschung zu »Leichter
Sprache« und skizziere den Aufbau des geplanten linguistischtypografischen
Forschungsprojektes.
Unobtrusiveness has been highlighted as an important design principle in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). However, the understanding of unobtrusiveness in the literature varies. Researchers often claim unobtrusiveness for their interaction method based on their understanding of what unobtrusiveness means. This lack of a shared definition hinders effective communication in research and impedes comparability between approaches. In this article, we approach the question “What is unobtrusive interaction?” with a systematic and extensive literature review of 335 papers and an online survey with experts. We found that not a single definition of unobtrusiveness is universally agreed upon. Instead, we identify five working definitions from the literature and experts’ responses. We summarize the properties of unobtrusive interaction into a design framework with five dimensions and classify the reviewed papers with regard to these dimensions. The article aims to provide researchers with a more unified context to compare their work and identify opportunities for future research.
Conceptual models play a vital role in the engineering of information systems. A variety of stakeholders rely on their use, but they often find it challenging to make sense of such models. This is particularly known to be the case for process models, which capture complex temporal behavior. In practice, professionals often extend process models with textual descriptions to make them easier to understand, but it is not known whether this creates an even higher cognitive burden. In this study, we adopt the dual coding theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, which suggest that people experience a better learning process when materials are presented via two different sensory channels (i.e., auditory and visual). We used this theory to set up and conduct an experiment with 42 participants that involve models of two real-life processes. We also implemented an online environment, which presents additional information on process model elements through the auditory channel in the form of narration. Our findings support that the use of narration may have a positive impact on process model comprehension, although it seems to depend on the kind of model elements that are explained. We discuss the implications of these findings and suggest further directions for research into process model comprehension.
Using background music (BGM) during learning is a common behavior, yet whether BGM can facilitate or hinder learning remains inconclusive and the underlying mechanism is largely an open question. This study aims to elucidate the effect of self-selected BGM on reading task for learners with different characteristics. Particularly, learners’ reading task performance, metacognition, and eye movements were examined, in relation to their personal traits including language proficiency, working memory capacity, music experience and personality. Data were collected from a between-subject experiment with 100 non-native English speakers who were randomly assigned into two groups. Those in the experimental group read English passages with music of their own choice played in the background, while those in the control group performed the same task in silence. Results showed no salient differences on passage comprehension accuracy or metacognition between the two groups. Comparisons on fine-grained eye movement measures reveal that BGM imposed heavier cognitive load on post-lexical processes but not on lexical processes. It was also revealed that students with higher English proficiency level or more frequent BGM usage in daily self-learning/reading experienced less cognitive load when reading with their BGM, whereas students with higher working memory capacity (WMC) invested more mental effort than those with lower WMC in the BGM condition. These findings further scientific understanding of how BGM interacts with cognitive tasks in the foreground, and provide practical guidance for learners and learning environment designers on making the most of BGM for instruction and learning.
Pedigree problems are typical tasks in school genetics classes. However, they are perceived as difficult and often are not successfully completed. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine relevant factors that might have an impact on success in pedigree analysis. Based on previous research, we investigate the influence of the superficial appearance of the pedigree (relating to a well-known misconception), the mode of inheritance, content knowledge, reasoning abilities, the last biology grade, and mental effort. This means, we are simultaneously examining student and task characteristics. For this purpose, we analyse data from N = 135 students, who solved four pedigree problems each, using Generalised Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs). Specifically, we use multilevel logistic regression to determine the influence of the variables in question. The final model shows mixed results: For example, the represented mode of inheritance has no significant influence. The superficial appearance of the pedigree, in contrast, is one of the important predictors of success in identifying the present mode of inheritance. Therefore, our results imply that students make decisions based on misconceptions when analysing pedigree problems. This and all other results are discussed in order to infer implications for teaching and learning pedigree analysis.
According to cognitive load theory, learning can only be successful when instructional materials and procedures are designed in accordance with human cognitive architecture. In this context, one of the biggest challenges is the accurate measurement of the different cognitive load types as these are associated with various activities during learning. Building on psychometric limitations of currently available questionnaires, a new instrument for measuring the three types of cognitive load—intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load—is developed and validated relying on a set of five empirical studies. In Study 1, a principal component analysis revealed a three-component model which was subsequently confirmed using a confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2). Finally, across three experiments (Studies 3–5), the questionnaire was shown to be sensitive to changes in cognitive load supporting its predictive validity. The quality of the cognitive load questionnaire was underlined by satisfactory internal consistencies across all studies. In sum, the proposed questionnaire can be used in experimental settings to measure the different types of cognitive load in a valid and reliable manner. The construction and validation process of the questionnaire has also shown that the construct germane cognitive load remains controversial concerning its measurement and theoretical embedding in cognitive load theory.
The design principles of cognitive load theory and learning by analogy has independently contributed to our understanding why an instruction will or will not work. In an experimental study involving 97 Year 9 Australian students conducted in regular classrooms, we evaluated the effect of the unguided problem-solving approach, worked examples approach and analogy approach on learning to solve two types of trigonometry problem. These trigonometry problems (sin40° = x 6 vs. cos50° = 14 x) exhibited two levels of complexity owing to the location of the pronumeral (numerator vs. denominator). The solution procedure of worked examples provided guidance, whereas the unguided problem-solving was without any guidance. Analogical learning placed emphasis on comparing a pair of isomorphic examples to facilitate transfer. Across the three approaches, solving practice problems contributed towards performance on the post-test. However, the worked examples approach and analogy approach were more efficient than the unguided problem-solving approach for acquiring skills to solve practice problems regardless of their complexity. Therefore, the worked examples approach and analogy approach that emphasizes algebraic transformation skills have the potential to reform instructional efficiency for learning to solve trigonometry problems.
Chemical phenomena are only observable on a macroscopic level, whereas they are explained by entities on a non-visible level. Students often demonstrate limited ability to link these different levels. Augmented reality (AR) offers the possibility to increase contiguity by embedding virtual models into hands-on experiments. Therefore, this paper presents a pre- and post-test study investigating how learning and cognitive load are influenced by AR during hands-on experiments. Three comparison groups (AR, animation and filmstrip), with a total of N = 104 German secondary school students, conducted and explained two hands-on experiments. Whereas the AR group was allowed to use an AR app showing virtual models of the processes on the submicroscopic level during the experiments, the two other groups were provided with the same dynamic or static models after experimenting. Results indicate no significant learning gain for the AR group in contrast to the two other groups. The perceived intrinsic cognitive load was higher for the AR group in both experiments as well as the extraneous load in the second experiment. It can be concluded that AR could not unleash its theoretically derived potential in the present study.
Virtual humans are on-screen characters that are often embedded in learning technologies to deliver educational content. Little research has investigated how virtual humans can be used to correct common misconceptions. In this study, we explored how different types of narrative structures, refutation text and expository text, influence perceptions of trust, credibility, and learning outcomes. In addition, we conducted exploratory analyses examining how different measures of trust and credibility are related to each other and how these measures may mediate learning outcomes. Results showed that the type of narrative used did not influence any measure. However, the trust and credibility measures, while related to one another, were measurably distinct. In addition, only perceptions of message trust were significantly related to learning. Perceptions of message trust did not mediate learning outcomes, but were significantly predictive of learning at nearly the same effect as prior knowledge.
Avalanche warning services publish avalanche condition reports, often called avalanche bulletins, to help backcountry recreationists make informed risk management choices regarding when and where to travel in avalanche terrain. To be successful, these bulletins must be interpreted and applied by users prior to entering avalanche terrain. However, few avalanche bulletin elements have been empirically tested for their efficacy in communicating hazard information. The objective of this study is to explicitly test the effectiveness of three different graphics representing the aspect and elevation of avalanche problems on users' ability to apply the information. To address this question, we conducted an online survey in the spring of 2020 that presented participants with one of three graphic renderings of avalanche problem information and asked them to rank a series of route options in order of their exposure to the described hazard. After the route ranking tasks, users were presented with all three graphics and asked to rate how effective they thought the graphics were. Our analysis data set included responses from 3056 backcountry recreationists with a variety of backgrounds and avalanche safety training levels. Using a series of generalized linear mixed effects models, our analysis shows that a graphic format that combines the aspect and elevation information for each avalanche problem is the most effective graphic for helping users understand the avalanche hazard conditions because it resulted in higher success in picking the correct exposure ranking, faster completion times, and was rated by users to be the most effective. These results are consistent with existing research on the impact of graphics on cognitive load and can be applied by avalanche warning services to improve the communication of avalanche hazard to readers of their avalanche bulletins.
The Covid-19 pandemic resulted in an unprecedented move to emergency remote teaching. The present study examined the Scottish context of teacher resilience (TR) by considering the lived experiences of eight Scottish primary school teachers during ongoing lockdowns, referred to as ‘transitional emergency remote teaching’ (TERT). Data from virtual interviews was analysed following an inductive and experiential approach to Braun and Clarke’s (2013) six phases of reflexive thematic analysis. Four main themes were identified: ‘Teacher career adaptability’, ‘Relationships within school’, ‘Learning from home’ and ‘Continuous Professional Development’(CPD). Key findings suggest that teachers who demonstrated resilience adapted to TERT and identified new positive aspects to their teacher identities; senior management had a key role in supporting TR; TERT impacted positively on teacher-student relationships with parents increasingly viewed as partners in learning; and reflection promoted help-seeking behaviours, with practitioners desiring more formal reflective opportunities considering the impact of TERT.
Objective
Explicit instructions to students to use the index finger to trace out specified elements of mathematics worked examples have been shown to improve mathematics learning outcomes; however, there is limited research on whether the magnitude of tracing actions impacts these outcomes.
Method
Using an experimental design, 34 adults were randomly allocated to an experimental (tracing out larger ellipses) or control (tracing out smaller ellipses) condition. We hypothesised explicit instructions to make larger tracing actions on the surface of worked examples on a mental mathematics skill would support learning more than making smaller tracing actions. Video analysis established the two conditions differed in distance traced in the expected direction.
Results
Contrary to hypotheses, making larger tracing actions did not result in better post-lesson problem-solving. Instead, an aptitude–treatment interaction was established between multiplication expertise and experimental condition, with less expert students in particular solving more similar post-test problems after making smaller tracing actions. This interaction may reflect a split-attention effect generated by experimental materials.
Conclusions
Findings suggest there needs to be close consideration of how instructions to trace lesson elements are designed, so that visual processing following the index finger supports rather than hinders learning. Directions for future research are discussed.
Numerous effective digital learning environments have evolved over the last few years built around video examples that follow an introduction phase and are often supplemented by prompts. The learning mechanisms behind these components remain subject to open questions, though. We thus conducted an online experiment with university students (N = 138) and compared four conditions: (A) training intervention with an introduction, video examples, and self-explanation prompts (training condition, n = 34), (B) condition A without self-explanation prompts (no prompt condition, n = 35), (C) condition B without video examples (introduction condition, n = 35), and (D) no training intervention (control condition, n = 34). We applied a-priori contrasts to test assumed effects of video examples and self-explanation prompts on learning processes and learning outcomes. Referring to learning processes, video examples already fostered self-explanation quality, but additional self-explanation prompts provided an extra boost. Referring to learning outcomes, the introduction alone already fostered knowledge, but only the additional video examples provided an extra boost in knowledge gain. Finally, self-explanation quality mediated the video examples’ effect on knowledge gain. Our findings provide further empirical support how a fruitful combination of video examples and self-explanation prompts promote learning processes and outcomes—despite the asynchronous and unsupervised online setting with potential diversions and off-task behavior.
Ters-yüz öğrenme son yıllarda oldukça ilgi görmekte ve ters yüz öğrenmenin akademik başarı, derse yönelik tutum, kalıcılık, öz-yeterlik, eleştirel düşünme becerisi gibi farklı değişkenler üzerindeki etkisi gerçekleştirilen araştırmalarla incelenmektedir. Ters-yüz öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrenmeyi yönlendiren etkili bir güç olan motivasyon üzerindeki etkisini sınamak için de Türkiye ve yurtdışında çeşitli araştırmalar yapılmıştır. Ancak ters-yüz öğrenmenin etkililiğini inceleyen çalışmaların sonuçları farklılık göstermektedir. Kimi çalışmalar ters-yüz öğrenmenin öğrencilerin motivasyonu üzerindeki etkisinin pozitif olduğu sonucuna ulaşırken, kimi çalışmalar istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark bulunmadığını, bazı çalışmalar ise negatif bir etkinin söz konusu olduğunu bildirmişlerdir. Bu araştırmanın amacı, ters-yüz öğrenmenin motivasyon üzerindeki etkisini inceleyen deneysel ve yarı deneysel çalışmaların sonuçlarını meta-analiz yöntemiyle analiz etmektir. Araştırmada yaklaşımla ilgili yurt içinde ve yurt dışında yapılmış deneysel ve yarı deneysel çalışmalara ulaşabilmek için alanyazın taraması yapılmıştır. Belirlenen anahtar kelimelere göre yapılan tarama sonucunda listelenen 4463 çalışmadan dâhil edilme ölçütlerine uyan 17 çalışma meta-analiz sürecine tabi tutulmuştur. Bu çalışmalardan 14’ü pozitif, üçü negatif etki büyüklüğüne sahiptir. Pozitif yönlü çalışmaların ikisi zayıf, beşi küçük, altısı orta ve biri güçlü etki büyüklüğü düzeyindedir. Gerçekleştirilen analiz sonucunda ters-yüz öğrenmenin genel etki büyüklüğü değeri rastgele etkiler modeli ile 0.077 ile 0.594 güven aralığında 0.336 olarak hesaplanmıştır (%95 CI, SE=0.132). Elde edilen bu sonuç, ters-yüz öğrenme yaklaşımının geleneksel eğitim süreçlerine kıyasla motivasyon üzerinde küçük düzeyde ve pozitif bir etkiye sahip olduğunu göstermektedir.
Inštrumentálny realizmus sme predstavili ako epistemologickú koncepciu zameranú na analýzu zmien jazyka matematiky. Podľa tejto koncepcie je možné odlíšiť zmeny jazyka štyroch rozličných druhov. Z pohľadu inštrumentálneho realizmu je úlohou vyučovania matematiky v kognitívnom systéme žiaka navodzovať zmeny všetkých štyroch druhov. Rôzne prístupy k vyučovaniu matematiky (konštruktivizmus, realistická matematika, hermeneutický prístup, genetická metóda) sa líšia tým, aký didaktický význam prikladajú jednotlivým druhom zmien. Kvalitu určitého prístupu k vyučovaniu matematiky môžeme posudzovať aj podľa toho, ako úspešne navodzuje v mysli žiaka zmeny každého z uvedených druhov. Vychádzame z predpokladu, že kognitívne zmeny, ktoré učiteľ pri vyučovaní matematiky navodzuje v mysli žiaka, sú svojou povahou príbuzné s kognitívnymi zmenami, ku ktorým došlo v mysliach matematikov, ktorí pojmy, postupy a poznatky, ktoré žiakov dnes učíme, objavovali. Ak je tento predpoklad správny, umožňuje nám znalosť dejín uvedomiť si zložitosť zmien, ktoré sa učiteľ usiluje navodiť v myslení žiaka. Cieľom článku je analýza genetického konštruktivizmu z pohľadu inštrumentálneho realizmu. Chceme ukázať, že genetický konštruktivizmus obsahuje didaktické prostriedky na to, aby v mysli žiaka navodil autentické kognitívne zmeny všetkých štyroch druhov. Naša analýza je druhom epistemologickej rekonštrukcie, zameranej na konceptuálnu stavbu genetického konštruktivizmu. Preto nevypovedá o empirickom obsahu skúmanej teórie, avšak veríme, že upresnenie nášho porozumenia pistemologickej štruktúre skúmanej teórie umožní vytvoriť si jasnejšiu predstavu o parametroch, ktoré bude treba zohľadniť pri jej empirickom skúmaní.
**Çalışmanın baskı öncesi versiyonunu talep edebilirsiniz***
Son yıllarda eğitsel video kullanımında ciddi bir artış gözlemlenmektedir. Teknolojinin gelişmesi ile birlikte ortaya çıkan yeni ihtiyaçlar, farklı öğretim yöntem/tekniklerinin video kul-lanımını teşvik etmesi, videoların pedagojik bağlamda birtakım fırsatlar sunması ile öğrenme çıktılarını pozitif yönde etkilediğine dair ampirik kanıtlar bu artışın arkasında yatan temel un-surlardır. Eğitsel videolar, içeriğin nasıl sunulduğu, öğrenme hedeflerine ulaşmak için izlenen yol ya da çeşitli video tasarım unsurları bağlamında farklı şekillerde gruplandırılabilmektedir-ler. Çoklu ortam öğrenme materyalleri kategorisinde yer alan videoların nasıl hazırlanması ge-rektiğine dair birtakım tasarım önerileri bulunmaktadır. Bu öneriler doğrultusunda hazırlana-cak videoların öğrenme çıktılarını pozitif yönde etkilediğine dair birçok çalışma bulunmaktadır. Fakat video ders tasarımı sürecinin pedagojik açıdan nasıl planlanması ve video derslerin bu bağlamda nasıl hazırlanması gerektiğine dair öneriler içeren kavramsal modellerin sayısı olduk-ça sınırlıdır. Bu bölümün amacı alan yazında sıklıkla referans verilen video ders tasarım mo-dellerini bütün bileşenleri ile birlikte değerlendirmektir. Bu kapsamda öncelikli olarak eğitimde video kullanımına değinilmiştir. Ardından günümüzde yaygın şekilde kullanılan video çeşitleri farklı eksenlerde kategorize edilerek açıklanmıştır. Son olarak video ders tasarım sürecinin mikro ölçekte nasıl olması gerektiğine odaklanan video tasarım modelleri irdelenmiştir.
This paper investigates team psychological safety (N = 34 teams) in a synchronous online engineering design class spanning 4 weeks. While work in this field has suggested that psychological safety in virtual teams can facilitate knowledge-sharing, trust among teams, and overall performance, there have been limited investigations of the longitudinal trajectory of psychological safety, when the construct stabilizes in a virtual environment, and what factors impact the building of psychological safety in virtual teams.
It is often challenging for physics instructors to dedicate time during a course to engage students in developing strategic approaches to learning in addition to problem-solving skills and content knowledge. In this work, we introduce a simple modification to our teaching practice with the purpose of fostering student development of self-regulated learning (SRL). Instructional practices supportive of self-regulated learning are associated with positive academic, social, and personal outcomes in higher education. Research also indicates that students can improve in their self-regulation over time, and we demonstrate that instructors can support this development in class with strategies that require minimal class time. In the context of classroom instruction, we can think of SRL as an intentional, active, and goal-driven engagement in learning activities that relies on metacognitive knowledge and skills.
Driver monitoring systems play an important role in lower to mid-level autonomous vehicles. Our work focuses on the detection of cognitive load as a component of driver-state estimation to improve traffic safety. By inducing single and dual-task workloads of increasing intensity on 51 subjects, while continuously measuring signals from multiple modalities, based on physiological measurements such as ECG, EDA, EMG, PPG, respiration rate, skin temperature and eye tracker data, as well as behavioral measurements such as action units extracted from facial videos, performance metrics like reaction time and subjective feedback using questionnaires, we create ADABase (Autonomous Driving Cognitive Load Assessment Database) As a reference method to induce cognitive load onto subjects, we use the well-established n-back test, in addition to our novel simulator-based k-drive test, motivated by real-world semi-autonomously vehicles. We extract expert features of all measurements and find significant changes in multiple modalities. Ultimately we train and evaluate machine learning algorithms using single and multimodal inputs to distinguish cognitive load levels. We carefully evaluate model behavior and study feature importance. In summary, we introduce a novel cognitive load test, create a cognitive load database, validate changes using statistical tests, introduce novel classification and regression tasks for machine learning and train and evaluate machine learning models.
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