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Microwave Electronic Devices
Abstract
This book deals with microwave electronics, that is to say those components of microwave circuits that generate, amplify, detect or modulate signals. It is based on a course given in the Electrical Engineering Department of Eindhoven University since 1985 and on about twenty years of experience in the microwave field. Somewhat to my surprise I found that there were hardly any textbooks that addressed the specific properties and demands of microwave devices, including vacuum devices and their interactions with circuits. Numerous books exist on semiconductor electronic devices, dealing in an excellent way with the basic device physics, but being somewhat brief on typical micro wave aspects. On the other hand there are also many books that concentrate on electromagnetic theory and passive circuits, treating devices without reference to the underlying physics. In between there are some entirely devoted to a particular device, for example, the GaAs MESFET. With regard to tubes the situation is even worse: books that treat the basic principles are usually quite old and modern books often concentrate on specific devices, like high power tubes. So it seems that there is room for a book like this one. Its aim is to provide an elementary understanding ofmicrowave electronic devices, both vacuum and semiconductor, on the one hand in relation to the basic physics underlying their operation and on the other in relation to their circuit applications.
... The problem is that this solution is band-limited. Instead, the capacitance can be reduced by making a hole in the ground plane of the microstrip-line just below the SMA lead [9] , see ...
... Magnitude and phase of the S11 reflection. 9 10 ...
... There are many methods of LPHNs preparation with some limitations such as: the presence of impurities in final products, costly, require high time that delays research field, and low stability. The newly microwave-based method is employed with great success in the formulation of a highly advanced nano system which is LPHNs and characterized by economical, absence of impurities associated with other nanoparticle preparation methods, inexpensive, high stable of final formulation (10)(11)(12) . The single emulsification solvent evaporation technique (SESET) is widely used in the preparation of nanocarriers. ...
The antihypertensive felodipine is a calcium-channel blocking agent. It is practically insoluble in water and shows low oral bioavailability (15%-20%). This investigation aims to formulate and characterize felodipine lipid polymer hybrid nanocarriers (LPHNs) to be given orally by two nanovesicles formulating methods and make comparative analysis through characterization process and in vitro and ex vivo intestinal permeation evaluation. The felodipine LPHNs formulations (HF1-HF3) were prepared by the new microwave-based method and that felodipine LPHNs formulations (HF4-HF6) were prepared by a single emulsification solvent evaporation technique (SESET). All formulations (HF1-HF6) enter the characterization process. The felodipine LPHNs formulations (HF1-HF6) were prepared successfully and undergo different characterization processes to make a comparative study between formulations prepared by different methods. It was found that formulas prepare by a microwave-based method are most superior to the SESET. The felodipine LPHNs formulations HF1-HF3 has lower particle size, lower PDI and higher zeta potential, significantly higher (p< 0.05) dissolution rate, and significantly higher (p< 0.05) intestinal permeation study than the felodipine LPHNs formulations HF4-HF6. The microwave-based method is a very successful technique in preparing felodipine LPHNs formulations (HF1-HF3) and prepotent to the SESET. All the felodipine LPHNs formulations (HF1-HF6) show extended drug release nanosystem.
... This electric field opposes further diffusion of carriers. [2] Varactor diodes make use of the fact that the capacitance of a reverse biased p-n is strongly voltage dependent They can therefore be used as reactive elements to control the frequency of a signal [3] There are two charge-storage mechanisms in the pn junction. One is associated with the charge stored in the depletion region and it is called Junction capacitance (C j ), and the other is associated with the minority excess-carrier charge stored in the n and p materials as a result of the concentration profiles established by carrier injection and it is called Diffusion Capacitance (C d ) . ...
Varactors, or variable capacitors, are crucial components in electronic circuits, offering dynamic control of ca-pacitance in response to voltage changes. This paper provides a comprehensive introduction to varactors, exploring their structure , operating principles, diverse applications, and numerical evaluations. It highlights the significance of varactors in emerging technologies and discusses the importance of varactor diodes in voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs), resonant band-pass filter circuits, and frequency modulation (FM). The paper also delves into the construction of varactors, as the structure of the depletion layer in a varactor diode and doping profiles significantly influence the device's capacitance and performance .also paper confirms the pivotal role of varactors in enabling voltage-controlled frequency tuning. Additionally, the paper presents numerical evaluations of junction capacitance and the impact of material doping on capacitance, concluding with the verification of results through simulations using CAD tools.
... There are many methods of LPHNs preparation with some limitations such as: the presence of impurities in final products, costly, require high time that delays research field, and low stability. The newly microwave-based method is employed with great success in the formulation of a highly advanced nano system which is LPHNs and characterized by economical, absence of impurities associated with other nanoparticle preparation methods, inexpensive, high stable of final formulation (10)(11)(12) . The single emulsification solvent evaporation technique (SESET) is widely used in the preparation of nanocarriers. ...
... Electrical parametric oscillators have been known for a long time [5]. In an electrical parametric oscillator, a resonating circuit is interfaced with a nonlinear capacitor, or nonlinear inductor [6]. ...
Parametric oscillators and parametric amplifiers are known for their ‘quiet’ operation and find new applications in quantum circuitry. A Capacitor-within-Capacitor (CWC) is a nested electronic element that has two components: the cell (e.g., the outer capacitor) and the gate (e.g., the inner capacitor). Here we provide analysis and experiments on diode-interfaced, CWC that exhibit parametric oscillations and parametric amplifications. By replacing the diode with a doped nano-graphene junction, we demonstrated a new structure whose doping may be electronically and chemically controlled. Advantages of these elements are in their simplicity, large relative capacitance change (of the order of 50%), separation of pump and signal channels and possibility for large integration.
... Distributed transmission lines require more board space but have lesser losses, whereas, lumped component idlers are compact, but possess higher insertion losses [1]. This issue of space availability versus losses is a major road block in the design of higher order harmonic frequency translation modules [1][2][3]; which in turn is the reason that 2X harmonic mixer integrated circuits (ICs) are most popular followed by only few instances of realization of 3X and 4X mixers [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. The 2X mixers referred in [4][5][6][7] have to utilize only a single resonator or idler and consume lesser board space. ...
Two design methodologies for realization of low frequency (less than 20 GHz) compact and low loss microwave idlers have been proposed in this paper. Such idlers can be used for realizing low frequency higher order (6X or more) harmonic mixers or multipliers on monolithic integrated technology. Low frequency higher order harmonic mixers or multipliers are generally avoided due to higher losses and board space consumed by multiple idlers. The present proposed methods of idler design are based on realization of idlers by combining distributed microstrip transmission line and lumped components. The approach helps in transmitting the desired frequency with lower insertion loss and providing more rejection to the undesired frequencies. The design proposal has been demonstrated by designing an idler for 3 GHz LO side of a 6X harmonic MMIC mixer. This mixer utilizes 6th harmonic of the 3 GHz LO for generating 18 GHz output RF signal by frequency mixing. The idler for 3 GHz LO rejects dc, IF and selective even harmonics of LO; 6 GHz, 12 GHz and 18 GHz. On wafer test results of the developed 6X harmonic MMIC mixer has substantiated the idler design.
... When the gate electrodes are made of 2-D films, such as graphene, voltage controlled charge doping may be achieved in a rather simple manner [4]. . Electrical parametric oscillators have been known for a long time [5]. In essence, a resonating circuit is interfaced with a nonlinear capacitive, or nonlinear inductive [6] element. ...
A Capacitor within Capacitor is a nested structure that has two components: the cell (for example, the outer capacitor) and the gate (for example, the inner capacitor). These designations may be interchanged, though. Unlike lumped elements, the gate controls the cell capacitance through changes in the self and mutual capacitance (namely, through accumulated charge on the gate electrodes). Here we demonstrate an efficient parametric oscillator with CWC interfaced with a diode. Such combination could be useful for graphene electrodes where a voltage bias shifts the Fermi level and hence, its doping level. An intensity signal to noise ratio (SNR) of 40 dB is observed when increasing the pump power by 2.5 dB from just below to just above threshold.
... Microwave vacuum tubes are devices used for generation or amplification of the microwaves [1]–[13]. Microwaves cover a large part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and at the same time there are only a few kinds of devices operating in this frequency band, capable of operating with high power. ...
The article presents a microwave vacuum tube called gyrotron. Its applications, construction and principle of operation are briefly described. It is also discussed the issue of an appropriate electron beam generation and formation. Keywords—beam gun, gyrotron, interaction of electrons with fast wave, microwaves.
... The main sources of noise in a MESFET or HEMT can be identified as [90], [116]: • Thermal noise of the parasitic resistances, mainly drain and gate resistances. ...
... So in general, the dynamic bias C will not be equal to the DC bias point. This effect is referred to as back rectification in [40]. This result is unintuituve based on what is learned in linear circuit and small signal theory. ...
Currently, three-terminal devices with N-shaped I-V characteristics are being fabricated for switching and multi-valued logic applications. The purpose of this study is to investigate switching speed improvements and potential problems of circuit designs employing these nonlinear devices. In this work, both two-terminal and three-terminal devices are analyzed. A design methodology is developed for a second-order twoterminal device circuit and a novel method of I-V characterization is presented. For the three-terminal device, a simple PSpice macromodel is developed and a new figure of merit for switching speed improvement is given. A practical chaotic synthesis method is proposed for this device in a third-order autonomous feedback circuit. The success of this synthesis approach leads to a prediction of possible chaotic behavior in switching co gurations
This article presents an overview of the solid‐state devices that are now being used in telecommunication systems. We discuss several families of microwave and millimeter‐wave diodes and transistors. For each device type, we briefly describe the physical operation, discuss the properties and frequency limitations, and outline the main application areas.
The rectifier and matching circuit play an important role in converting the microwave signal into DC power. To maximize conversion efficiency, the antenna impedance should be perfectly matched with the rectifier impedance, which can be achieved by properly designing the matching circuit. The reflection coefficient is defined by the following relation.
Several alternative techniques for improving the transport properties of delta-doped quantum well structures have been investigated. The most successful have used edge delta-doping and compositional grading to produce significantly enhanced electron transport characteristics in AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs, AlxGa1-xAs/InyGa1-yAs, and Al xIn1-xAs/InyGa1-yAs quantum well structures. This compositional grading has been achieved using the digital alloying growth technique—which has been confirmed as a viable method of producing good quality, delta-doped material. Improvements of up to 100% in mobility (to 2630cm2/Vs) and 67% in electron saturation drift velocity (to 1.7 × 107 cm/s) have been achieved using these techniques. The dependence of electron saturation drift velocity (vsat) on mobility (μ) has been determined as vsat α μ0.8±0.3. In addition, we present our investigations of the free-carrier loss observed in a series of highly Si delta-doped AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs quantum well structures. We interpret the results of Hall measurements and self-consistent Poisson Schrodinger modelling in terms of a model of DX centre formation which includes Coulomb interactions, a result of the charged nature of the DX state. Our interpretation implies a strongly growth dependent DX centre energy—which explains the range in published values for the GaAs DX centre energy. The data allows investigation of the DX centre distribution between 214 and 249 meV above the F minima, and confirms a considerably broadened DX centre density of states ≥35 meV).
As the technology that has been created for the cold war becomes more generally available the millimeter band will be more accessible. A number of applications can be developed based on the MILSTAR system, BCIS and similar systems. It is possible to develop everything from fixed, to multipoint, to mobile. Applications can be both indoor and outdoor. Areas that are being explored currently are short haul, wireless ATM, wireless cable, wireless local loop and collision avoidance radar.
Seit seiner Erfindung durch Shockley, Bareen und Brittain im Jahr 1948 hat der Bipolartransistor (BJT: Bipolar Junction Transistor), das erste verstärkende Halbleiterbauelement, eine ungeahnte Entwicklung erlebt und seine Bauform hat nur noch eine ganz entfernte Ähnlichkeit mit dem ursprünglichen Element. Auch beim Bipolartransistor hat die technologische Entwicklung mit der Miniaturisierung gleichzeitig eine wesentliche Erhöhung der Leistungsfähigkeit, sowohl bezüglich Betriebsfrequenz und Verlustleistung wie auch um Grössenordnungen reduzierte Fabrikationskosten gebracht. Wesentlicher Motor dieser Entwicklung war die digitale Elektronik, die sich aber heute nur noch bei Anwendungen mit höchsten Ansprüchen an die Schaltgeschwindigkeit auf die Bipolar-technologie stützt.
Nanoscale supramolecular structures and their transformations under exposure to microwaves in hydrogen-containing ferroelectric,
i.e., triglycine sulfate (TGS), were studied by atomic-force microscopy. It was shown that prolonged (2–5 h) irradiation of
TGS crystal at a frequency of 40 GHz results in changes in the cleavage surface, which can be interpreted as radiation-induced
“annealing” of the crystal with simultaneous generation of new defects. An exposure mechanism based on the effects of commensurability
of the time of flight of quasifree dipole particles (protons) with the high-frequency field’s period is proposed.
Microwave occupies a glorious position in the electromagnetic spectrum and in that there are a number of devices in this frequency regime which are capable of high power operations. Among them, gyrotron has proven to be an efficient source for radio frequency (RF) generation at high power level and up to very high frequency. The gyrotron consists of several components like electron beam source, interaction structure, quasi-optical launcher, collector, RF window, magnet system, etc. All the components have their distinct role in the function of the device. Among them, electron beam source also called magnetron injection gun (MIG) is the generator of electron beam and it is very essential that MIG should produce and provide electron beam suitable for the beam-wave interaction at the interaction structure for the effective power growth. The paper presents the introduction of a microwave tube, gyrotron and its components alongwith review of the previous work, the background and the applications. The functions of various components of a gyrotron are discussed with particular highlighting on the electron beam emission from the electron beam source and the beam-wave interaction for power growth in the device. A review on different types of gyrotron electron beam sources is also presented.
The design and performance of a stepped slot printed monopole antenna in the ultrawideband is presented in this article. Multiple resonances generated by the stepped slot geometry are matched in the ultrawideband using a modified microstrip feed. The impedance bandwidth (SWR < 2) of the antenna is from 3 to 11 GHz. Radiation patterns are stable and omnidirectional with appreciable gain throughout the band. Performance of the antenna is also analyzed in the time domain, which reveals good pulse handling capabilities. Compact geometry of the antenna allows easy commercial deployment. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microwave Opt Technol Lett 51: 1126–1129, 2009; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/mop.24262
We have designed and fabricated a low cost digitally controlled precision broadband PIN diode attenuator that provides an accuracy of +/-0.06 dB from 500 MHz to 2.5 GHz. This represents an improvement by about a factor of 10 over commercially available existing PIN diode attenuators. In addition, it leads to the possibility of the development of low cost electronic fast response noise figure meters based on the Y-factor procedure for noise figure measurement with a noise figure measurement precision of +/- 0.1 dB. By placing a digitally controlled precision attenuator both before and after the device under test, the Y-meter provides the additional benefit of minimizing the effect of impedance mismatch on the measurement accuracy
As the technology that has been created for the cold war becomes
more generally available the millimetre band will be more accessible,
The applications that can be developed are based on the successful
system MILSTAR. It is possible to develop everything from fixed, to
multi-point, to mobile. Applications can be both indoor and outdoor.
Areas that are being exploited currently are short haul, wireless ATM
and collision avoidance radar
This work presents an accurate approximation of the length of
velocity saturation region (LVSR) based on the calculation of
one-dimensional (1-D) electric field distribution near the drain region
of MOSFET's. Results show that for short-channel devices (<1 μm),
the LVSR values calculated with the new model are much smaller than the
conventional approach. The new model agrees well with the MINIMOS
simulation results. According to the simulation and theoretical results,
the length of velocity saturation region increases gradually with the
drain bias and channel length
We report on an investigation of an abrupt negative differential
resistance (NDR) observed in the I-V characteristics of ungated GaAs
FET's with submicron gate recess trenches. The NDR is a sensitive
function of drain voltage, and its magnitude on the current axis and
position on the voltage axis are functions of gate recess depth. The
effect is attributed to fast intervalley scattering because of a
modified electric field as etching proceeds, and it is possible that it
can be used to implement high-speed logic circuits
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