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Amphibian Diversity in Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kenya: A Comprehensive List of Specimens and Species
Abstract
We present the first annotated amphibian checklist of Shimba Hills National Reserve (SHNR). The list comprises of 30 currently known amphibians (28 anurans and two caecilians), which includes 11 families and 15 genera. In addition, individual records per species, distribution in the reserve and brief remarks about the species are presented. The checklist is based on information from museum collections, field guides, unpublished reports and newly collected field data. We are able to confirm the presence of two Eastern Afromontane species in the SHNR: Scolecomorphus cf. vittatus and Callulina cf. kreffti. The latter has not been recorded since the original collection of a single specimen over 50 years ago. SHNR contains the highest number of amphibian species of any known locality in Kenya (about 30% of the country's total number); therefore it is of national conservation importance. Finally, we briefly discuss the biogeography of the SHNR and its connections to nearby biogeographic regions.
... In Kenya, past studies focused mainly on amphibians but mainly in key biodiversity areas, such as Taita Hills (Malonza et al., 2010), Tana River forests, Cherangani Hills, Kakamega Forest (Lötters et al., 2007), Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Shimba Hills, and Mt. Kenya forest (Malonza et al. 2010;Bwong et al., 2009;Bwong et al., 2017;Ng'endo et al., 2011;Malonza et al., 2011;Malonza & Veith, 2012;Malonza et al., 2018). So far, the recorded number of amphibian species in Kenya is about 100 (Malonza & Bwong, 2023), but there are still significant gaps in our knowledge regarding the anuran species of Kingwal Swamp. ...
... This can be associated with the fact that species detected in these microhabitats are generalists who make use of modified habitats or habitat patchiness (Ndriantsoa et al., 2017;da-Silva & Rossa-Feres, 2007). Increased species richness and abundance can also be associated with the application of different modes of sampling methods and time of the day as suggested by other studies (Nyamache et al., 2017;Oda, et al., 2016). For the generalist species (utilizing both forest remnants and agricultural land as their habitat), the structure of the habitat could be associated with providing vocalization sites during breeding seasons. ...
Class amphibian comprises of bi-phasic life mode organisms sensitive to environmental changes. Anurans being among the class, are considered good indicators of functioning and non-functioning ecosystems (habitat quality). Globally, there has been a decline in anuran populations due to anthropogenic and abiotic factors, which include agricultural activities, wetland degradation, habitat loss, pollution, and climate change. Wetlands are considered the most preferable microhabitats as breeding sites for anurans, therefore surveys in tropical wetlands to understand anuran diversity and distribution patterns are desirable and justified for implementation of effective conservation actions. The aim of the study was to evaluate the biodiversity and functional concordance of anuran species in Kingwal Swamp, one of Kenya’s least studied swamps. Through the use of visual encounters and pitfall traps with an x-drift fence, data was gathered in the wet season, morning and evening sampling between April and June 2023 from six sites along the swamp. A total of 664 individuals were recorded, from 15 different anurans belonging to seven different genera and seven families. Ptychadena was the most abundant family, while Hoplobatrachus was the least. The swamp is diverse (H’= 2.271, D = 0.8626) in anuran species with low dominance (0.1374), but evenly distributed (E = 0.6457). Most species encountered preferred insects and frogs in their diet, terrestrial and aquatic microhabitats, specifically stagnant water, and were predominately ground/wet terrestrial dwellers breeding during wet season, and of least concern. The structural complexity of microhabitats along the swamp provided diverse niches and varieties of ways to explore environmental resources, thus species biodiversity is a function of habitat quality and diversity. However, due to increased disturbances, the study recommends nature-based non-governmental organizations and conservationists to engage local people in wetland protection to curb threats for the survival of anurans in Kenya.
... The Shimba Hills Ecosystem (SHE) are a dissected plateau that is located between 4°09′-4°21′S and 39°17′-39°30′E in Kwale County on the Kenyan coast. There are currently 30 known amphibians (28 anurans and two caecilians) in this ecosystem, which includes 11 families and 15 genera [8]. The area is one of the biodiversity hotspot with highest level of endemism, and face considerable threats relative to the remaining area [9]. ...
... About 194 frog species and 9 caecilians have been documented in East Africa [30] and over 100 species in Kenya [7]. Although most of these species occur elsewhere in Africa, about 20 are endemic to Kenya [8]. The largest of the species in Kenya is the huge African Bullfrog, P. e d u l i s , who inhabit areas around Tsavo National Parks and can weigh over 1 kg and Snout-Vent Length (SVL) is over 14 cm while the smallest species is the Unguja Puddle Frog, Phrynobatrachus ungujae who weigh less than 2 g and its SVL is only 1.6 cm [7]. ...
Although amphibians significantly contribute to energy flow in ecosystem, recent studies show that over 1800 amphibians are at risk of extinction globally and about fifth (235) of species in sub-Saharan Africa are threatened with extinction due to habitat destruction. The results show that coastal biodiversity hotspots including Shimba Hills National Reserve (30 species of anuras) and Taita Hill ecosystem complex (24 species) are leading in amphibian biodiversity and level of endemism. Moreover, the distribution of Afrixalus slylvaticus in Shimba Hills Ecosystem was almost equal in both land tenure types (51% in protected and 49% in community land). However, the species was more abundant during the wet season than dry (58 and 42%, respectively) which represented a statistical significant difference (t-value = −3.38, p-value = 0.002, DF = 30). However, the level of endemism declines drastically inland and towards the drier parts of the country. Most amphibian ecosystems in Kenya are facing perturbation from rapid human population growth, expansion of urban and agriculture areas, unplanned infrastructural and unregulated use of riparian zones. This pace of amphibian loss and decline calls for immediate collaborative actions. Reversing the trend requires dire commitment from conservationists and communities.
... As far as mammals are concerned, the sable antelope subspecies, Hippotragus niger rooseveldti Heller, which has a unique haplotype (rocha et al. 2022) is currently restricted to the Shimba Hills National reserve although it historically had a wider distribution on the inland kenyan and northern tanzanian coast (Butynski et al. 2015). two frog species, Afrixalus sylvaticus Schiøtz and Hyperolius rubrovermiculatus Schiøtz, are endemic to the Shimba Hills National reserve (Bwong et al. 2017;Barrat et al. 2020) although their presence in the Gongoni Forest is unknown. In a study to assess the herpetofauna of the Shimba Hills, which included the Gongoni Forest, it was found that 13 species endemic to the coastal forests and seven species endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains constitute the richest herpetofauna area in kenya (Malonza et al. 2015). ...
A new species, Nothobranchius sylvaticus sp. nov. is described from ephemeral swamps in open areas of the Gongoni Forest in the seasonal Mkurumudzi system in south-eastern coastal Kenya. The species occupies a unique ecological niche as it inhabits small seasonal wetland habitats situated in a relict forest ecosystem. Nothobranchius sylvaticus sp. nov. is distinguished from all other members of the genus by: iridescent light blue scales on its trunk extending to cover the entire caudal peduncle; dorsal portion of head grey with distinct red lobes along the supraorbital canal; posterior scale margins on the postorbital portion of the opercle creating two pronounced brown-red oblique bars; dorsal and anal fins golden, marked with dark grey dots and stripes proximally and medially, merging into a uniform dark grey zone distally; caudal fin dark red to red proximally, plain red medially and with a slender black distal band. Phylogenetic analysis of sequences of the mitochondrial ND2 and COI, and the nuclear Glyt, MyH6 and SNX33 genes, retrieve the new species as a phylogenetically distinct lineage, in the so-called Coastal Inland clade sister to subgenus Aphyobranchius Wildekamp, 1977 and subgenus Adiniops Myers, 1924. Increasing impacts on land and water resources will continue to cause habitat degradation in the remnant forest ecosystem, exposing the ecologically vulnerable population of this newly described species to severe threats. Such changes may prevent the species from completing all stages of its annual life cycle in its ephemeral aquatic habitats, because these killifishes depend on a clay-rich substratum for embryonic development of the buried eggs through the dry season. This new species qualifies for a conservation status of Critically Endangered.
... This is significant because most other Anura lineages known from these highlands are not deeply divergent from lineages typical of East African highland forests elsewhere (usually belonging to the same genus). Brevicipitidae and Petropedetidae are the only other two truly Afromontane anuran groups with records from Kenya , Siu-Ting et al. 2014, Bwong et al. 2017). The discovery of K. vulcani corroborates the existence of old forest connections between the volcanic mountains of Kenya and the ancient crystalline mountains of Tanzania, thought to have shared only a recent biogeographical history. ...
Discoveries of new species can greatly impact our understanding of the biogeography of a region. For example, groups of amphibian lineages restricted to the Afrotemperate forests of Tanzania and Ethiopia are indicative of a shared biogeographical history of this highly discontinuous ecosystem. Curiously, many of these lineages are absent from the geographically intermediate Kenyan highlands. This phylogeographical interval is generally considered to be attributable to the younger, volcanic origins of much of the Kenyan highlands, and thus an amphibian fauna that is derived largely from recent colonization events rather than comprising older relicts. Contrasting with this view, here we report on the discovery of a single specimen of Bufonidae (true toad) from Mount Kenya. The specimen belongs to a species new to science and deserves recognition at the generic level owing to its notable molecular phylogenetic and morphological divergences from other described taxa. It is most closely related to the Tanzanian genera Churamiti and Nectophrynoides. The discovery of this new toad and its association with Afrotemperate species is significant because it links Kenya to the biogeographically more ancient Tanzanian mountains and supports the potential longevity of the Afrotemperate forests in Kenya. Broadly, it highlights that we are still adding major branches to the phylogeny of anurans.
... It is assumed that females lay eggs in burrows near water, and that larvae hatch and develop in water (Harper et al. 2010). In the last decade, this species has only been mentioned in the scientific literature in habitat surveys (e.g., Lawson and Moyer 2008;Menegon et al. 2008Malonza and Bwong 2010;Loader et al. 2011;Malonza et al. 2011;Ohler and Frétey 2014;Conradie et al. 2016a;Barratt 2017;Bwong et al. 2017), in searches for fungal disease (Conradie et al. 2016b), and in a taxonomic and nomenclatural revision of the genus (Gvoždík et al. 2014). To our knowledge, no information about the lifehistory traits of L. flavomaculatus has been reported. ...
... It is assumed that females lay eggs in burrows near water, and that larvae hatch and develop in water (Harper et al. 2010). In the last decade, this species has only been mentioned in the scientific literature in habitat surveys (e.g., Lawson and Moyer 2008;Menegon et al. 2008Malonza and Bwong 2010;Loader et al. 2011;Malonza et al. 2011;Ohler and Frétey 2014;Conradie et al. 2016a;Barratt 2017;Bwong et al. 2017), in searches for fungal disease (Conradie et al. 2016b), and in a taxonomic and nomenclatural revision of the genus (Gvoždík et al. 2014). To our knowledge, no information about the lifehistory traits of L. flavomaculatus has been reported. ...
ABSTRACT: Adult males of the African treefrog species Leptopelis flavomaculatus occur in either brown or green color morphs. In this study, we investigated whether the two color morphs of breeding males of L. flavomaculatus differ in traits other than color. We examined call differences (dominant frequencies and call durations), call-site selection, and body size. Our results show differences in the call durations, dominant frequencies, mean call intensities, as well as in size (body length and body mass) of the two vocally active color morphs of this species. The two morphs were similar in their choice of plant species used as calling sites and the heights of those sites. Given the sensitivity of mate recognition systems for most anurans, our results provide evidence of both call and morphological variation between the two color morphs of this species. Our findings establish a foundation for future phylogenetic and mating system studies to support the contention that the two color morphs of L. flavomaculatus might warrant taxonomic recognition as separate species.
... Previous species richness and endemism studies in the CFEA have recognized the existence of a biogeographic division situated between the northern (Zanzibar) and southern (Inhambane) Zanzibar-Inhambane ecoregions (Burgess et al. 1992(Burgess et al. , 1998(Burgess et al. , 2004Azeria et al. 2007). Together, our analyses across taxa lend support to this division, with congruent divergences between southern populations in Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Malawi, and the remaining CFEA regions in Tanzania The presence of range-restricted diversity in these areas has been documented for several taxonomic groups (Burgess et al. 1998;Burgess & Clarke 2000), including amphibian populations (Barratt 2017, Barratt et al. 2017a, 2017bBwong et al. 2017). In East Africa, such patterns are often associated with vicariant diversification through a forest refuge model ...
High‐throughput sequencing data have greatly improved our ability to understand the processes that contribute to current biodiversity patterns. The “vanishing refuge” diversification model is speculated for the coastal forests of eastern Africa, whereby some taxa have persisted and diversified between forest refugia, while others have switched to becoming generalists also present in non‐forest habitats. Complex arrangements of geographical barriers (hydrology and topography) and ecological gradients between forest and non‐forest habitats may have further influenced the region's biodiversity, but elucidation of general diversification processes has been limited by lack of suitable data. Here, we explicitly test alternative diversification modes in the coastal forests using genome‐wide single nucleotide polymorphisms, mtDNA, spatial and environmental data for three forest (Arthroleptis xenodactyloides, Leptopelis flavomaculatus and Afrixalus sylvaticus) and four generalist (Afrixalus fornasini, A. delicatus, Leptopelis concolor, L. argenteus) amphibians. Multiple analyses provide insight about divergence times, spatial population structure, dispersal barriers, environmental stability and demographic history. We reveal highly congruent intra‐specific diversity and population structure across taxa, with most divergences occurring during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Although stability models support the existence of some forest refugia, dispersal barriers and demographic models point toward idiosyncratic diversification modes across taxa. We identify a consistent role for riverine barriers in the diversification of generalist taxa, but mechanisms of diversification are more complex for forest taxa and potentially include topographical barriers, forest refugia and ecological gradients. Our work demonstrates the complexity of diversification processes in this region, which vary between forest and generalist taxa, but also for ecologically similar species with shared population boundaries. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Anuran species are some of the good environmental indicators of habitat quality and condition in ecosystems. This is due to their amphibious life modes and sensitivity to environmental change caused by rapid expansion of agricultural activities, advancement of forest destruction, climate change and emerging infectious diseases. Understanding their diversity and distribution patterns is crucial for the development and implementation of effective species and habitat conservation strategies. The study aimed at assessing and comparing anuran biodiversity and distribution patterns between a protected (North Nandi Forest Reserve) and a non-protected area (Kingwal swamp) to provide additional baseline information, both being among the underexplored areas in Kenya. Data were gathered in both dry and wet seasons, between October 2022 and June 2023 by employing standard sampling techniques for anurans(Visual encounter and pitfall traps with a drift fence) to maximise detection. Three habitat types-farmland, intermediate land and forest were exploited. A total of 1649 individuals from 21 different species, belonging to nine different genera and nine different families were recorded. Ptychadenidae was the most abundant family from the recorded anurans, while Dicroglossidae, Arthroleptidae, Pyxicephalidae and Ranidae were the least. High biodiversity was observed in the forest habitat (Protected) and least in the farmland (non-protected). The wet season had high species abundance, diversity and richness compared to the dry season. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in diversity between the habitats in wet season, but no significance difference during dry season (p > 0.05) except for forest and farmland (p < 0.05). There was a significant difference in species abundance between seasons (p < 0.05), and between habitats (p < 0.05) in all seasons except for farmland and intermediate (p > 0.05), as well as farmland and forest (p > 0.05) during the wet season. Habitat type and season had no influence (p > 0.05) on species richness. Anuran biodiversity is a function of habitat diversity and season, with the associated differences in microhabitat structure providing diverse niches and ways of exploring resources. The modest sampling indicates that Kingwal Swamp and North Nandi Forest Reserve are rich and support anuran species, and the differences in anuran biodiversity between the 3 habitats demonstrates that conservation efforts continue to be a priority.
Afrixalus sylvaticus Schiøtz, 1974 is a species of hyperoliid frog inhabiting coastal forest Kenya. It is classified as endangered under IUCN B2ab(iii) ver 3.1 and occurs in the Shimba Hills National Park and hinterlands. Habitat loss and other human activities are threatening the species. Therefore, understanding the breeding ecology and population dynamics is important for its conservation. This study assessed the breeding ecology and population dynamics of the species in the protected and community landscapes in Shimba Hills National Reserve in Kenya. Data was collected through ecological surveys conducted from June 2016 to July 2017 using a visual encounter surveys (VES) method. The results show that the species was more abundant during the wet season than dry (58% and 42%, respectively). The population estimate was 192 individuals and a density of 0.98 individuals/km2. Regarding the morphology, the mean snout-vent length (SVL) for males was 15.12 mm and females 15.96 mm, but there was no significant difference (t-test = 0.87, p = 0.390, df = 39). The mean weight of both gravid and non-gravid females was 6.05 g and males was 4.82 g. The weights were statistically different between both sexes (t-test = 3.50, p-value = 0.001, df = 39). The sex ratio was 1:2 (male: female). There was more activity in the wet season (April and May), and the breeding habitats were reeds and water lilies. The threats identified to their habitat include; human activities such as bush burning, livestock grazing, drainage, and plantation of exotic tree species (Eucalyptus sp.) that have led to habitat loss and degradation. The study recommends that the reforestation processes such as plantation of exotic species such as Eucalyptus sp. and Casuarina sp. and bush burning in the wetlands and species habitats must be discouraged among the stakeholders (community and park management). Moreover, more synchronized studies are necessary to highlight the driver(s) of imbalanced sex ratios and species habitat shifts.
The taxonomic validity of the East African reed frogs Hyperolius mitchelli Loveridge, 1953 and Hyperolius rubrovermiculatus Schiøtz, 1975 has been questioned in the literature, with the latter having been recognised as a distinct lineage, but also synonymised as a colour variant of H. mitchelli. The recent description of a new closely related congener from Mozambique, Hyperolius stictus (Conradie et al., 2018), along with evidence of genetic differentiation within H. mitchelli has suggested that this widely distributed species might be a species complex. In this study, we reassess the relationships of these closely related species with new field sampling, molecular, morphological and bioacoustics analyses with the aim to assign the correct taxonomic identity to H. cf. mitchelli from northern Tanzania. Our results demonstrate that there are four distinct lineages within this group: H. stictus from Mozambique; H. rubrovermiculatus from southern Kenya; H. mitchelli sensu stricto from central and southern Tanzania and Malawi and H. cf. mitchelli from north-eastern Tanzania. Based on our combined analyses we assign H. cf. mitchelli as a new population of H. rubrovermiculatus with distinct colouration, extending the range of this species from Kenya into northern Tanzania. We also clarify the genetic, morphological and acoustic variation within and between all lineages to further knowledge of this group and provide direction for future study into this fragmented and variable lineage.
Background. The current study applies both traditional and Diffusible Iodine Contrast Enhanced computed microtomography (DICE µCT) techniques to reveal the musculoskeletal anatomy of Phlyctimantis maculatus. DICE µCT has emerged as a powerful tool to visualise intricate musculoskeletal anatomy. By generating 3D digital models, anatomical analyses can be conducted non-destructively, preserving the in situ 3D topography of the system, therefore eliminating some of the drawbacks associated with traditional methods. We aim to describe the musculature of the spine, pelvis, and hindlimb, compare the musculoskeletal anatomy and pelvic morphology of P. maculatus with functionally diverse frogs, and produce 3D digital anatomy reference data.
Method. An adult frog was stained using an aqueous Lugol’s solution and scanned in a SkyScan1176 in vivo µCT scanner. Scan images were reconstructed, resampled, and digitally segmented to produce a 3D model. A further adult female frog was dissected traditionally for visualisation of tendinous insertions.
Results. Our work revealed three main findings: (1) P. maculatus has similar gross muscular anatomy to Rana catesbeiana (bullfrog) but is distinct from those species that exhibit ancestral traits (leopelmids) and those that are highly specialised (pipids), (2) P. maculatus’s pelvic anatomy best fits the description of Emerson’s walking/hopping pelvic morphotype IIA, and (3) a split in the semimembranosus and gracilis major muscles is consistent with the reported myology in other anuran species.
Discussion. While DICE µCT methods were instrumental in characterising the 3D anatomy,traditionaldissectionwasstillrequiredtovisualiseimportantstructuressuch as the knee aponeurosis, tendinous insertions, and fasciae. Nonetheless, the anatomical data presented here marks the first detailed digital description of an arboreal and terrestrial frog. Further, our digital model presents P. maculatus as a good frog model system and as such has formed a crucial platform for further functional analysis within the anuran pelvis and hindlimb.
The toad species
Sclerophrys capensis
Tschudi, 1838 was erected for a single specimen from South Africa which has never been properly studied and allocated to a known species. A morphometrical and morphological analysis of this specimen and its comparison with 75 toad specimens referred to five South African toad species allowed to allocate this specimen to the species currently known as
Amietophrynus rangeri
. In consequence, the nomen
Sclerophrys
must replace
Amietophrynus
as the valid nomen of the genus, and
capensis
as the valid nomen of the species. This work stresses the usefulness of natural history collections for solving taxonomic and nomenclatural problems.
Typically small body size and similar external anatomy have made it difficult for researchers to distinguish between species of two distantly related, but often sympatric, African ranoid frog genera: Arthroleptis (Arthroleptidae) and Phrynobatrachus (Phrynobatrachidae). We define a suite of external morphological characters, extending beyond the traditionally used secondary sexual characteristics, that can be used to definitively distinguish between adult Arthroleptis and Phrynobatrachus. Photographs comparing absence, presence, and variation of morphological characters are included for clarification. Significant differences between body proportions (head width/snout–vent length) are also observed between these genera. Although smaller species might be more difficult to identify, larger species (. 30 mm snout–vent length) of Arthroleptis can be distinguished from Phrynobatrachus because of their relatively wider heads. We intend this to serve as a heuristic guide for both field-and museum-based researchers.
As a step towards setting conservation priorities for declining moist forests in southeast Kenya, we assessed for small mammal diversity and distribution. These habitats are under severe pressure due to increased demand an forests products and arable land, yet there is a dearth of information an impacts an biodiversity. Over an eight-month period, we used a combination of box and pitfall traps with drift fences to study 13 forest fragments in five geographic areas ranging between 3°28′−4°10′ S and 38°28′−39°2b′ E. We recorded 12 species including 10 soricids and two macroscelids in 31440 trap nights. Diversity estimates using rarefaction method indicate a species richness of 12, consistent with our collection. There were six unique species, each limited in distribution to one forest fragment. Our record of Crocidura cf. selina in Kyulu Hills is the first outside Mabira forest in Uganda where it is considered endemic and endangered. We also report the first record of C. fuscomurina in Kenya, white those of C. Luna and Suncus megalura are first in the southeast of the country. By providing new ranges to four species, our study is of significance to the biogeography and conservation of forest small mammals in the region.
Bennun, L. & Njoroge, P. 2000. Important Bird Areas in Kenya. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 164–167.The process of defining Important Bird Areas in Kenya has been underway since January 1995, with financial support from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Literature review has proceeded in parallel with field surveys, which are still ongoing. Some 65 globally Important Bird Areas have so far been identified, and this total is likely to increase. Sites were intitially selected using the criteria of threatened species (37 sites) and congregatory species (15 sites). Additional sites were then identified for biome-restricted and restricted-range species, using information from the Bird Atlas of Kenya; these sites must form part of a regional set. Threatened species sites are concentrated in forests (on the coastal strip, in the central highlands and in western Kenya) and papyrus swamps. Congregatory-species sites are concentrated along the Rift Valley and the coast. The remaining sites are concentrated in semi-arid areas to the immediate north and east of the central plateau, and in highland forest on each side of the Rift Valley. No IBAs have yet been identified in the flat, arid north-eastern sector of the country. A large number of sites require additional protection and/or improved management. Particular priorities include several papyrus IBAs around Lake Victoria, among them Lake Kanyaboli and Yala and Sare Swamps, grassland pockets in Mungatsi and Nambale, Western Province; the Kakamega, South Nandi and North Nandi Forests; the increasingly fragmented coastal forests, including Arabuko-Sokoke Forest; and the Taita Hills. Information on the IBA process and its results is being distributed to decision-makers through a high-level IBA Advisory council, with encouraging intitial results.
Forest and woodland cover and change were calculated for the Zanzibar-Inhambane biogeographical region of Tanzania and Kenya from 1990 to 2000. A cover and change map was derived from high-resolution satellite imagery from Landsat and supplemental data from aerial overflights, field surveys, and local knowledge. Analyses showed that around 6820 km2 of coastal forest habitat remained in 2000 (2260 km2 in Kenya and 4560 km2 in Tanzania). In terms of change, a total of 424 km2 (6%) of forest was cleared between 1990 and 2000; 53 km2 in Kenya and 371 km2 in Tanzania. Rates of forest loss were 8 times higher in unprotected areas than in protected sites such as Forest Reserves and National Parks. Key Biodiversity Areas had forest loss rates 2.5 times faster than protected areas while Alliance for Zero Extinction sites had the slowest rates of forest loss for the region. These baseline forest cover and change estimates along with future updates can contribute to national and sub-national carbon emission baselines and assessments of species threat within the global Red List.
The group of forested mountains known as the Taita Hills are the northern-most montane blocks of the Eastern Arc Mountains, a globally recognized biodiversity hotspot. They are surrounded by the dry Tsavo plains. Until the present study no comprehensive survey of the amphibian fauna of Taita Hills covering the entire altitudinal gradient had been conducted. In this study details on the distribution and life history of amphibians associated with montane forest are provided. The biodiversity importance of the Taita Hills lies with the number of endemics per unit of area of remaining forest, which is one of the highest among the Eastern Arc Mountains. Presented herein are data for these endemics and other amphibian species associated with montane forest based on our field surveys from 2005 to 2007. In addition we have included published data and those from previous collections housed at the National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. The results indicate that the majority of the twenty-six amphibians species recorded from the Taita Hills are those of the widespread East African lowland fauna. Only six are those associated with montane forest, including three threatened endemics. Concern is raised for the protection of this endemic amphibian fauna associated with montane forest because of ongoing habitat degradation.
Amphibians of the Eastern Arc Mountains are poorly known, apart from those of the East Usambara, Uluguru, and Udzungwa Mountains. Here, we detail specimens collected in the northwestern Eastern Arc Mountains (West Usambara, South Pare, and North Pare) over the past 100 years. Although not comprehensive, the list is compiled from specimens held at institutions in Europe and the United States and in personal collections; it includes most of the specimens known from this area. From these specimens, we describe one new species of the frog genus Arthroleptis and discuss other specimens that may represent new species. We add substantially to the known diversity in these areas. Using the compiled species list, we assess species diversity and relate the differences to sampling bias and possible biogeographic differences among the mountains. The future preservation of amphibians across this area is of concern given the increasing loss of forest.
Despite the vicinity of a major road, the rainforests of the South Nguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania were virtually unexplored until 2004, particularly from a herpetological point of view. Several surveys were conducted between 2004 and 2006 with the aim of providing a comprehensive list of the amphibian and reptile species of this overlooked hotspot of biological diversity. The surveys resulted in this assess-ment of the herpetofaunal diversity, with 92 species recorded, of which 15 represent new records for this area, and the discovery of 16 species new to science, all of which are likely to be strictly endemic to the Nguru Mountains. Pressure on the forests, par-ticularly the lowland forests, remains high. A conservation planning process is now underway that is attempting to address the loss of these critically important forests. These results, documenting the high species richness and the outstanding number of putative endemics of the forests, strongly highlight the biological importance of the South Nguru Mountains and place them among the most important sites for the con-servation of herpetofauna in Africa.
INTRODUCTION In theory there is no disagreement about the neces-sity to standardize ecological field methods and data acquisition in order to guarantee comparability be-tween different studies, as well as to enhance the power of predictions resulting therefrom. The need for standardization of techniques across and within studies has continuously been emphasized by several authors (e.g., Heyer et al. 1994, Adis et al. 1998). Those who are involved in community ecological field research know well that this is a crucial factor when it comes to generalizing results in order to make them accessible to those who urgently need scientific guide-lines to back up their practical efforts. This becomes especially important when looking at phenomena such as the well known world-wide amphibian de-cline, which seems to have affected even populations in pristine habitats and continues to affect or even wipe out whole populations with terrifying rapidity (Houlahan et al. 2000, Kiesecker et al. 2001, Pounds 2001). In these cases synergistic efforts are urgently needed, calling for unified methods and data output (Alford & Richards 1999, Parris 1999, DAPTF 2002). However, in reality there still is a lack of studies that can be compared without reservations, especially studies that were conducted in different parts of the world, although precisely this kind of comparison is ECOTROPICA 10: 1–14, 2004 © Society for Tropical Ecology Abstract: The need for standardization of field methods within and across studies has been recognized by the majority of ecologists throughout the world. However, comparable studies based on a standardized protocol are still scarce. We provide a guideline for effectively sampling and monitoring tropical forest amphibians and give recommendations for standardization. Based on a four-year study on amphibians in Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, we evaluate commonly used techniques, and offer a catalogue of efficient techniques, along with suggestions for improvement of particular methods, with regard to study objectives and specific amphibian guilds. For simple short-term surveys we recommend visual and acoustic encounter surveys, accompanied by opportunistic trapping. The transect design introduced here proved to be most adequate for representative sampling and appeared to be appropriate for most studies that involve multivariate data. It is especially useful for long-term studies. Transects furthermore provide an effective method of investigating at least leaf litter frogs, not only at their breeding sites but also throughout the whole range of habitats used by them, thus generating a much more complete picture of an amphibian community than is possible with other methods. Accepted 4 February 2004.
This study highlights the species diversity of Odonata from coastal forests in southern Kenya, identifying indicator species for certain habitat types and emphasising the importance of conserving the last remaining coastal forest areas. A total of 78 species were recorded from coastal habitats in southern Kenya in this study; five species for the first time in eastern Africa. Dragonfly communities relative to different habitat types from indigenous forest to cultivated landscapes are described and compared. The forest species are often confined to coastal forests of East Africa. They are stenotopic and highly sensitive to disturbance. With increasing habitat disturbance the species richness increases at first, but most of the colonisers are eurytopic species that are common and widely distributed in Africa. The species assemblages between different habitat types in the disturbed landscape are more or less the same; the -diversity is much lower than in different habitat types of the natural coastal landscape. In the end, management implications are briefly discussed.
The evidentiary basis of the currently accepted classification of living amphibians is discussed and shown not to warrant the degree of authority conferred on it by use and tradition. A new taxonomy of living amphibians is proposed to correct the deficiencies of the old one. This new taxonomy is based on the largest phylogenetic analysis of living Amphibia so far accomplished. We combined the comparative anatomical character evidence of Haas (2003) with DNA sequences from the mitochondrial transcription unit HI (12S and 16S ribosomal RNA and tRNA(Valine) genes, 2,400 bp of mitochondrial sequences) and the nuclear genes histone H3, rhodopsin, tyrosinase, and seven in absentia, and the large ribosomal subunit 28S (approximate to 2,300 bp of nuclear sequences; ca. 1.8 million base pairs; x ($) over bar = 3.7 kb/terminal). The dataset includes 532 terminals sampled from 522 species representative of the global diversity of amphibians as well as seven of the closest living relatives of amphibians for outgroup comparisons.
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/57149/1/OP713.pdf
Eastern African rain forests are remarkable in their high level of endemism. Miocene uplift of the central African plateau separated these montane and coastal forests from the main Guineo-Congolian forest of west and central Africa. Since then, stable Indian Ocean temperatures maintained a region of high rainfall throughout Pleistocene droughts that devastated forest elsewhere on the continent. Relics of the former Pan-African rain forest survived here, the study of which provides a unique insight into tropical evolutionary processes. This book brings together research on the animals, plants and geography of this intriguing residual forest, and highlights the need for effective management practices to conserve its exceptional biodiversity in the face of increasing pressure for land for cultivation.
The East African caecilian genera Afrocaecilia and Boulengerula were systematically reviewed. Cladistic analyses of the available morphological data do not support Taylor's (1968) generic classification. It is concluded that Afrocaecilia Taylor is a junior synonym of Boulengerula Tornier. The range of Boulengerula changamwensis is extended to Malawi, nearly 1,350 km to the south of its known range in eastern Kenya. This is the first record of the family Caeciliaidae in Malawi. A new species of Boulengerula is reported from western Rwanda, extending the range of the genus to the west by about 1125 km. This is the first caecilian record for Rwanda. Five species of Boulengerula are recognized: B. boulengeri (northeastern Tanzania), B. changamwensis (eastern Kenya and southern Malawi), B. taitanus (eastern Kenya), B. uluguruensis (northeastern Tanzania), and B. sp. nov. (western Rwanda). The monotypic South American genus Brasilotyphlus may be the sister genus of the African Boulengerula.
Some of Pickersgill's (2005) taxonomic proposals regarding an “A. stuhlmanni group” are reviewed; it is considered that Afrixalus delicatus, A. stuhlmanni, A. brachycnemis and A. sylvestris are better treated as separate species. New localities are provided.
This manual details standard field methods for qualitative and quantitative sampling of amphibian biological diversity. An introductory chapter is followed by an overview of amphibian diversity and natural history. Essentials of standardization and quantification are then covered. Next research design for quantitative amphibian studies is outlined. Chapter five looks at project planning and data acquisition and handling. Chapter six covers standard techniques for inventory and monitoring. Supplementary approaches are examined in the next chapter: artifical habitats; acoustic monitoring; tracking; night driving; GIS; and group activities/field trips. The ninth chapter looks at mark-recapture and removal sampling as methods of population estimation, followed by a chapter on data analysis. A conclusions and recommendations chapter is followed by seven appendices: handling live amphibians; techniques for marking amphibians; recording frog calls; specimen preparation; collecting tissue for biochemical analysis; vendors; and random number table. -S.R.Harris
Eastern African coastal forests are located within the Swahili regional centre of endemism and Swahili-Maputaland regional transition zone in eastern Africa, between 1° North and 25° South, and 34–41° East. Approximately 3167 km2coastal forest remains: 2 km2in Somalia, 660 km2in Kenya, 697 km2in Tanzania, 16 km2in Malawi, 3 km2in Zimbabwe and perhaps 1790 km2in Mozambique. Most forests are small (≤20 km2), and all but 19 are under 30 km2in area. Over 80% of coastal forest is located on government land, principally Forest Reserves; only 8.3 km2is found in National Parks (6.2 km2in Kenya (Arabuko-Sokoke), 2 km2in Tanzania (Mafia Island) and tiny patches in Zimbabwe). Coastal forests are an important and highly threatened centre of endemism for plants (c550 endemic species), mammals (6 species), birds (9 species), reptiles (26 species), frogs (2 species), butterflies (79 species), snails (>86 species) and millipedes (>>20 species). Endemic species are concentrated in the forests of the Tana River, between Malindi in Kenya to Tanga in northern Tanzania, and in southern Tanzania. Forests with highest numbers of endemics are: lower Tana River, Arabuko-Sokoke, Shimba Hills (Kenya); lowland East Usambara, Pugu Hills, Matumbi Hills, Rondo and Litipo and other plateaux near Lindi (Tanzania); the Tanzanian offshore island of Pemba; Bazaruto archipelago (Mozambique), and tiny forest remnants of southern Malawi, eastern Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Most coastal forest endemics have a narrow distributional range, often exhibiting single-site endemism or with scattered or disjunct distributional patterns. They are best interpreted as relicts and not the result of recent evolution. Relictualization probably started with the separation of the ancient Pan African rainforest into two parts during the Miocene. The coastal forests are interpreted as a «vanishing refuge» with the endemic species gradually becoming more and more relict (and presumably extinct) due historically to climatic desiccation and more recently to human destruction.
Specimens from across the range of the Hyperolius nasutus species group were sequenced for two mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene. Advertisement calls were recorded from the same specimens where possible, and morphological characters were compared. Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood produced a tree indicating 16 clades. The clades show little or no overlap in combinations of 16S sequence difference, shared tyr haplotypes, advertisement call parameters, snout profiles and webbing. On the basis of these data we recognise H. acuticeps, H. adspersus, H. benguellensis, H. dartevellei, H. igbettensis, H. nasutus, H. nasicus, H. poweri, H. viridis and describe six new species: Hyperolius friedemanni sp. nov. Mercurio & Rödel, Hyperolius howelli sp. nov. Du Preez & Channing, Hyperolius inyangae sp. nov. Channing, Hyperolious jacobseni sp. nov. Channing, Hyperolius rwandae sp. nov. Dehling, Sinsch, R6del & Channing, and Hyperolius lupiroensis sp. nov. Channing. Hyperolius lamottei is confirmed to be outside the H. nasutus group clade. Hyperolius granulatus, H. oxyrhynchus, H. punctulatus and H. sagitta are assigned as junior synonyms. As our results are based on a small number of specimens, these hypotheses await testing with larger sample sizes and more characters. A species distribution model suggests where outlier populations might be found.
Material ascribed to the genus Callulina from north-east Tanzania and south-east Kenya is assessed. Three new species of Callulina are described from the North (Callulina laphami sp. nov.) and South (Callulina shengena sp. nov. and Callulina stanleyi sp. nov.) Pare Mountains in Tanzania. The species are diagnosed based on morphological, acoustic, and molecular data. A new key to the species of Callulina is provided. Based on an interpretation of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list, we suggest that the three species will qualify as critically endangered, because of their small distributions and the ongoing threat to their habitat. We reveal the high local endemism of Callulina in the northern part of the Eastern Arc Mountains, with each species restricted to no more than one mountain (fragment) block. This high local endemism in Callulina is probably widespread across the Eastern Arc, raising further conservation concern for this group of amphibians. Based on new molecular phylogenetic data for Callulina, we discuss biogeographical relationships among north-east Tanzanian mountains, and evolutionary patterns in Eastern Arc breviciptids.
© 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 160, 496–514.
Species richness, diversity and composition of butterflies in two Kenya coastal forest remnants, Muhaka and Mrima hill, were investigated. Sixty-three species were recorded from each forest remnant from a total of 1329 individuals. Species accumulation curves for both forests did not reach an asymptote. High species similarity was recorded between the forest interior and the surrounding matrix, primarily due to invasion of the forest interior clearings by the savanna species. Despite their small sizes, these forest remnants were found to maintain viable populations of true forest butterflies. However, the number of species was less than half that recorded from the larger forest reserve of Arabuko-Sokoke, located in the same geographical area. Records from Muhaka forest show species unique to it, not found in the larger forest reserves, underscoring the importance of small remnants in the preservation of forest biodiversity. The high species similarity between the forest remnants implied that if habitat corridors were created, gene flow between these remnants and other larger forest reserves would be possible. This would reduce the isolation of true forest butterfly populations within the remnants and potential local extinction.
Little is known about genetic variation in the 6-8 subspecies of Colobus angolensis, currently distinguished by pelage differences. We present a comparative genetic analysis of one of these subspecies, C. a. palliatus, in Kenya and Tanzania that assesses evolutionary relationships and patterns of mitochondrial genetic diversity in 103 individuals across its geographic range. Fecal samples from approximately 156 individuals were collected in four localities: (1) Diani Forest, Kenya; (2) Shimoni, Kenya; (3) Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Eastern Arc Mountains, Tanzania; and (4) Mount Rungwe, Southern Highlands, Tanzania. These samples represent at least six groups, with 5-15 samples from each. Comparative sequence analysis of a 1,795 base pair mtDNA fragment revealed 19 unique haplotypes in four populations. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that sampled Kenyan haplotypes are paraphyletic, with one Kenyan haplotype basal to all other sampled haplotypes. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) suggests high levels of genetic variation among populations (Phi(ST) 0.72, P<0.001). Genetic data are concordant with a subspecies level differentiation between C. a. palliatus populations in Kenya and those in Central and southern Tanzania, as earlier suggested based on pelage differences. This study highlights the evolutionary distinctiveness of Kenyan populations of C. a. palliatus relative to Tanzanian populations. Although C. a. palliatus habitat in Tanzania is currently better protected than in Kenya, our results suggest Kenyan and Tanzanian populations should be considered distinct units, and the protection of C. a. palliatus habitat in Kenya, as well as habitat connectivity between Kenyan populations, should be prioritized for conservation and management.
Conservationists are far from able to assist all species under threat, if only for lack of funding. This places a premium on priorities: how can we support the most species at the least cost? One way is to identify 'biodiversity hotspots' where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are undergoing exceptional loss of habitat. As many as 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of all species in four vertebrate groups are confined to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the land surface of the Earth. This opens the way for a 'silver bullet' strategy on the part of conservation planners, focusing on these hotspots in proportion to their share of the world's species at risk.
Description and phylogenetic relationships of two new species of miniature Arthroleptis (Anura: Arthroleptidae) from the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania
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