A comparison of individual qualities of resiliency in adolescents with mild intellectual disability and typically developing adolescents

Abstract

Intellectual disability (ID) is a chronic adversity that increases the likelihood of negative developmental outcomes. The aim of this research is to examine differences between adolescents with mild ID and typically developing (TD) adolescents in personal qualities which contribute to successful adaptation. The sample consisted of 92 adolescents with mild ID and 772 TD adolescents, 13-19 years of age, of both sexes. Resiliency was assessed using the Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents. In comparison to TD adolescents, adolescents with mild ID have significantly lower levels of sense of mastery and sense of relatedness and a higher level of emotional reactivity. In the subsample of adolescents with mild ID there were no age or sex differences for resiliency. Adolescents with mild ID have a lower level of resiliency than TD adolescents, which highlights the need to develop programs focused on personal qualities associated with positive developmental outcomes.

Full text

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Miroslav V. Pavlović1
Institute for the Improvement of Education, Belgrade
Vesna P. Žunić Pavlović
Faculty of Special Education and Rehabilitation,
University of Belgrade
Nenad P. Glumbić
Faculty of Special Education and Rehabilitation,
University of Belgrade
A COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL QUALITIES OF RESILIENCY
IN ADOLESCENTS WITH MILD INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
AND TYPICALLY DEVELOPING ADOLESCENTS2
Intellectual disability (ID) is a chronic adversity that increases the likelihood of negative
developmental outcomes. The aim of this research is to examine differences between
adolescents with mild ID and typically developing (TD) adolescents in personal qualities which contribute
to successful adaptation. The sample consisted of 92 adolescents with mild ID and 772 TD adolescents,
13–19 years of age, of both sexes. Resiliency was assessed using the Resiliency Scales for Children and
Adolescents. In comparison to TD adolescents, adolescents with mild ID have significantly lower levels of
sense of mastery and sense of relatedness and a higher level of emotional reactivity. In the subsample of
adolescents with mild ID there were no age or sex differences for resiliency. Adolescents with mild ID have
a lower level of resiliency than TD adolescents, which highlights the need to develop programs focused
on personal qualities associated with positive developmental outcomes.
adolescent, intellectual disability, resiliency
Introduction
Various definitions of resilience can be found in the literature. However, most con-
temporary authors describe resilience as positive adaptation despite significant adversity
(Luthar et al., 2015; Sameroff & Rosenblum, 2006). In the context of thus defined resilience,
intellectual disability (ID) can be observed as chronic adversity that impedes psychosocial
functioning or a high-risk condition that increases the likelihood of negative development
1 E-mail: miroslavpavlovic@zuov.gov.rs
2 This paper is a result of the project Social Participation of Persons with Intellectual Disability(No.
179017), which was financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development
of the Republic of Serbia.
UDK-159.913.072-056.313-053.6
DOI:10.5937/nasvas1702289P
Оригинални научни рад
НВ год. LXVI 2/2017
Abstract
Keywords:

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outcomes. Resilient outcomes are related to numerous factors which can be classified into
three domains: individual characteristics, family environment, and a wider social environ-
ment (Bonanno et al., 2015; Werner, 1990). This paper focused on the differences between
adolescents with mild ID and typically developing (TD) adolescents with regard to resil-
iency, i.e. individual qualities which contribute to positive development outcomes.
Developmental outcomes in individuals with intellectual difficulties
The results of longitudinal studies on the differences in the psychosocial functioning
of persons with borderline intelligence and mild ID compared to the normative popula-
tion, indicate a relation between lower intellectual abilities and negative development
outcomes. Maughan and colleagues (1999) reported that at the age of 33 persons with
ID had poorer living and material circumstances, more frequent difficulties in family and
marital relationships, and a higher level of affective symptomatology compared to per-
sons without ID. Vaillant and Davis (2000) found that in adulthood men with IQs of 87 or
below were more likely to complete fewer years of education, to be unskilled laborers and
to have lower earnings than persons with a higher IQ. In the study on development out-
comes in persons with IQs of 85 or below and their typically developing siblings, Seltzer
and colleagues (2007) determined that persons with a lower IQ had limited educational,
occupational and financial attainment, that they got married at an older age, that they
participated less in formal organizations, and that they had higher levels of depressive
symptoms and neuroticism and lower levels of sense of personal growth and life purpose.
Intellectual Abilities and Resiliency
In papers on resilience, intellectual abilities are often related to the quality of psy-
chosocial functioning. A higher IQ and more developed cognitive skills (e.g. problem
solving skills, executive functioning skills) are considered a protective factor which con-
tributes to positive development of children exposed to unfavorable living circumstanc-
es. This thesis was confirmed by the results of studies on diverse at-risk groups, such as:
children of people diagnosed as mentally ill (Rutter, 1985), maltreated children (Kaufman
& Zigler, 1989), children reared in poverty (Garmezy, 1993), and children with perinatal
complications and adverse rearing conditions (Werner, 1993). It is believed that children
with better intellectual and cognitive abilities can assess a stressful situation more accu-
rately, develop coping strategies, and obtain necessary help from others (Werner, 1990).
Similarly, a higher IQ can have a protective function due to its relation to better academic
achievement (Masten et al., 1990).
However, intellectual abilities do not predict positive adaptation consistently. Some
authors found that better intellectual abilities contributed to resilient outcomes when
stress was low, but at high stress levels, more intelligent children functioned similarly to
their peers with lower intellectual abilities (Luthar, 1991; Sameroff & Rosenblum, 2006). It
is hypothesized that high IQ children are more sensitive to their environments and there-
fore more susceptible to negative influences (Luthar, 1991).

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The results of some studies indicated that the relation between intellectual abilities
and individual qualities which contributed to resilient outcomes was negative or insig-
nificant (Avci et al., 2013; Friborg et al., 2005). Furthermore, the findings of the above-
mentioned longitudinal studies on psychosocial development of persons with ID pointed
to significant differences among them with regard to development outcomes. Individual
factors associated with more successful psychosocial functioning of persons with ID were
better social and emotional competence in terms of generativity, use of adaptive defenses
and capacity for warm object relations (Vaillant & Davis, 2000). Studies conducted on sam-
ples of adolescents with ID revealed that positive individual characteristics (e.g. optimism,
self-efficacy) were a good predictor of higher quality of life (Biggs & Carter, 2016) and life
satisfaction (Shogren et al., 2006).
The aim of this research was to determine the differences between adolescents with
mild ID and their TD peers in resiliency domains singled out and described by Prince Em-
bury (2007): sense of mastery, sense of relatedness, and emotional reactivity. Sense of
mastery includes three individual qualities: optimism, self-efficacy and adaptability. Indi-
vidual qualities included in the sense of relatedness are: sense of trust, perceived access to
support, comfort with others, and tolerance of differences. Emotional reactivity includes
sensitivity and recovery and impairment after emotional excitement.
The results of research by Gilmore and colleagues (2013) confirmed the presence of
differences between children with ID and their typically developing peers in the above-
mentioned resiliency domains, in terms of lower tolerance and higher sensitivity in chil-
dren with ID. This research examined the differences in resiliency between adolescents
with and without ID, as well as the relation of the described individual qualities to gender
and age.
Research Methodology
Participants
The sample included 864 participants of both genders, 13–19 years of age. The total
sample was divided into a subsample of adolescents with mild ID (55 boys and 37 girls)
and a subsample of TD adolescents (419 boys and 353 girls). Adolescents with mild ID
were recruited from four schools for students with disabilities. The research included ad-
olescents with intellectual functioning at the level of mild ID (IQ = 50–69), with adequate
verbal skills, who were assessed as capable of giving responses on a Likert-type scale.
Adolescents with dual diagnoses and multiple disabilities were not included. The sub-
sample of TD adolescents included students of eight regular elementary and secondary
schools. Every school participated with four randomly selected complete classes, ranging
from seventh to twelfth grades.
There was no statistically significant difference determined between participants
with mild ID and TD participants with regard to gender (Chi square=1,007; df=1; p=0,316)
and age(M=15,86; SD=1,843 against M=16,07; SD=1,464; t=1,067; df=105,132; p=0,289).

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Data collection
Data on participants’ age, gender, intellectual functioning, and health were taken
from school records.
The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Scale – PPVT-IV (Dunn & Dunn, 2007) was used for
the assessment of verbal abilities of adolescents with mild ID. Form A was applied in this
research, with 114 items divided into 16 sets which test the knowledge of nouns, verbs,
and adjectives from 20 different areas (e.g. plants, professions). Class teachers selected
students with adequate verbal abilities who were able to participate in the research. Also,
before giving out the questionnaires, assessment of receptive speech was conducted by
means of PPVT-IV. The participants with mild ID achieved standard scores in the range
94–185 (M = 137,35; SD = 22,794).
The Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents – RSCA (Prince Embury, 2007) con-
sisted of 64 questions distributed across the following three scales: the Sense of Mastery
Scale (MAS) consisting of Optimism, Self-Efficacy and Adaptability subscales; the Sense of
Relatedness Scale (REL) consisting of Sense of Trust, Perceived Access to Support, Comfort
with Others and Tolerance of Differences subscales; and the Emotional Reactivity Scale
(REA) consisting of Sensitivity, Recovery and Impairment subscales. Higher scores on the
MAS and REL scales, and lower scores on the REA scale point to greater resiliency. The
coefficient alpha values for the scales and subscales were as follows: MAS 0,832; Optimism
0,814; Self-Efficacy 0,885; Adaptability 0,662; REL 0,909; Trust 0,788; Support 0,793; Com-
fort 0,763; Tolerance 0,741; REA 0,901; Sensitivity 0,770; Recovery 0,706; Impairment 0,881.
Procedure
Informed consent was obtained from the school, parents, and participants for the
purpose of this research. Research aims were explained and instructions on the data col-
lecting procedure were given to each participant. The participants were informed that
participation in the research was voluntary and that their responses were confidential.
The questionnaire was given to TD adolescents in groups and they completed it during
school classes. The testing of adolescents with ID was conducted in a separate room in
the school. The questions were read as they were given in questionnaires, with additional
explanations where necessary. The participants were required to choose one of the given
answers. Cards with provided answers were made in order to make it easier for the partic-
ipants to answer the questions.
Research Results
The means and standard deviations for the RSCA are presented in Table 1.A high,
statistically significant difference between participants with mild ID and TD participants
was found on the MAS scale in total and its subscales. TD participants achieved signifi-
cantly higher scores on the MAS scale in total, as well as on the Optimism and Self-efficacy
subscales. Eta squared values indicate that the effect size was very high. On the other
hand, participants with mild ID achieved significantly higher scores on the Adaptability

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293
subscale, though with rather small effect size. There was no statistically significant differ-
ence determined between participants with mild ID and TD participants on the Trust sub-
scale. On all other subscales of the REL scale, including the scale in total, TD participants
achieved significantly higher scores. However, the effect size was small. No statistically
significant difference was found in mean values of the scores on the REA scale and its
subscales with regard to the level of intellectual functioning. The only exception was the
Recovery subscale, on which persons with mild ID achieved significantly higher scores.
However, the effect size was very small.
Table 1. Results of the participants on RSCA with regard to the level of intellectual functioning
Scales and
Subscales
TD Adolescents Adolescents with ID t df Eta2
Mean SD Mean SD
MAS 57,96 11,997 50,65 8,249 7,597*** 141,589 0,063
Optimism 18,99 5,315 17,51 3,627 3,499*** 142,436 0,014
Self-efficacy 30,19 6,101 23,75 5,139 9,725*** 862 0,098
Adaptability 8,78 2,859 9,39 1,833 -2,829** 149,888 0,006
REL 76,33 14,164 71,50 10,242 4,082*** 136,375 0,019
Trust 21,37 4,821 20,72 3,329 1,670 141,120 –
Support 20,98 4,051 19,67 2,867 3,913*** 138,504 0,017
Comfort 12,61 3,080 11,47 2,351 4,243*** 131,377 0,020
Tolerance 21,38 4,877 19,64 3,859 3,963*** 128,384 0,018
REA 31,79 14,723 33,11 14,118 -0,814 862 –
Sensitivity 12,31 5,268 11,89 4,451 0,845 123,507 –
Recovery 4,57 3,563 5,50 3,080 -2,392*862 0,006
Impairment 14,91 8,635 15,72 8,582 -0,853 862 –
*p ≤ 0,05; ** p ≤ 0,01; *** p ≤ 0,001
Table 2 presents gender differences in the RSCA scores for both subsamples. On the
MAS scale in total, as well as on all subscales, TD girls achieved statistically significant-
ly higher scores than boys. Except on the Optimism subscale, where the effect size was
moderate to high (Eta squared = 0,06), the difference between the mean values of scores
on Self-efficacy (Eta squared = 0,018) and Adaptability (Eta squared = 0,032) subscales,
and the MAS scale in total (Eta squared = 0,022) was small. TD girls achieved significantly
higher scores on the REL scale and Trust, Support, and Tolerance subscales. The difference
between the mean values of the compared groups was moderate on the Support sub-
scale (Eta squared = 0,06), and low on the Trust (Eta squared = 0,01) and Tolerance (Eta
squared = 0,03) subscales, as well as on the REL scale in total (Eta squared = 0,03). TD girls
achieved statistically significantly higher scores than boys only on the Sensitivity subscale
of the REA scale. The difference between the mean values of scores was small (Eta squared
= 0,01).

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In the subsample of adolescents with mild ID, no statistically significant gender dif-
ferences were found in the mean values of scores on the RSCA scales and subscales.
Table 2. Results of the participants on RSCA with regard to gender
Scales and
Subscales
TD Adolescents Adolescents with ID
Boys Girls t Boys Girls t
MAS 56,36 59,87 -4,164*** 50,89 50,30 0,337
Optimism 18,60 19,46 -2,286*17,82 17,05 0,991
Self-efficacy 29,44 31,09 -3,772*** 23,45 24,19 -0,670
Adaptability 8,32 9,32 -5,020*** 9,62 9,05 1,456
REL 74,10 78,97 -4,943*** 71,29 71,81 -0,238
Trust 20,93 21,89 -2,803*** 20,60 20,89 -0,410
Support 20,07 22,05 -7,160*** 19,65 19,70 -0,079
Comfort 12,45 12,79 -1,528 11,35 11,65 -0,604
Tolerance 20,65 22,24 -4,657*** 19,69 19,57 0,150
REA 31,26 32,43 -1,113 34,76 30,65 1,378
Sensitivity 11,84 12,88 -2,767** 12,09 11,59 0,522
Recovery 4,48 4,68 -0,748 5,65 5,27 0,585
Impairment 14,94 14,87 0,115 17,02 13,78 1,794
*p ≤ 0,05; ** p ≤ 0,01; *** p ≤ 0,001
According to the results presented in Table 3, a statistically significant difference was
found in the mean values of scores on all RSCA scales and subscales among TD partici-
pants of different ages. The results of the Tukey post hoc test indicate that on the MAS and
REL scales and their subscales, 13-year-old participants had higher scores than all groups
of participants aged between 15 and 18, and that 14-year-old participants had higher
scores than all older participants. The effect size was moderate to high. A difference be-
tween younger and older participants was also determined on the REA scale, though with
rather small effect size. On the Sensitivity and Impairment subscales, 13 and 14-year-old
participants had higher scores than the oldest group of participants in the sample. On the
Recovery subscale, 13-year-old participants had higher scores than all older participants;
14-year-old participants had, on average, significantly higher scores than participants
who were 15, 16, and 18 years old.
On the other hand, in participants with mild ID, a statistically significant difference
in the mean values of scores among participants of different ages was found only on the
Optimism subscale of the MAS scale. The effect size was moderate to high. The post hoc
Tukey test determined that the youngest participants had lower scores than the oldest
participants.

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Table 3. Results of the participants on RSCA with regard to age
Scales and Subscales
TD Adolescents
df = 5,766
Adolescents with ID
df = 4,87
F Eta2F Eta2
MAS 32,273*** 0,21 2,202 –
Optimism 25,919*** 0,17 3,159*0,06
Self-efficacy 25,528*** 0,17 1,381 –
Adaptability 9,782*** 0,06 0,527 –
REL 24,770*** 0,16 0,507 –
Trust 17,697*** 0,12 0,316 –
Support 13,284*** 0,09 1,361 –
Comfort 12,307*** 0,08 0,549 –
Tolerance 23,115*** 0,15 1,663 –
REA 6,867*** 0,04 1,380 –
Sensitivity 2,850*0,02 0,375 –
Recovery 7.512*** 0.05 1.662 –
Impairment 5.393*** 0.03 1.722 –
*p ≤ 0,05; *** p ≤ 0,001
Discussion
The results of this research indicate that adolescents with mild ID differ from TD ad-
olescents with regard to individual characteristics which contribute to resilient outcomes.
In general, adolescents with mild ID reported a lower sense of mastery and sense of relat-
edness and elevated emotional reactivity compared to their TD peers.
With regard to sense of mastery, a significantly lower level of optimism and self-ef-
ficacy, and a significantly higher level of adaptability, were observed in adolescents with
mild ID compared to TD adolescents. The results of previous studies indicated that there
was a positive correlation of intellectual and cognitive abilities with optimism (Klaczynski
& Fauth, 1996; Nonis & Wright, 2003) and self-efficacy (Chamorro Premuzic et al., 2010;
Paunonen & Hong, 2010) in TD adolescents. The obtained findings are in accordance
with the results of other comparative studies which confirmed that persons with ID were
less optimistic (Biggs & Carter, 2016) and felt significantly less self-efficacious than their
non-disabled peers (Forte et al., 2011). Zigler and associates (1999) reported that persons
with ID were more dependent on adults, that their expectations of success in solving tasks
were low, and that they were less interested in new situations. The/A lower level of sense
of mastery in persons with ID is usually related to a past history of failure experiences
(Gresham et al., 1988; Zigler et al., 1999). Bearing in mind that Gilmore and colleagues
(2013) did not find significant differences in the sense of mastery level between children

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with and without ID, it can be assumed that these differences become conspicuous at an
older age and that they are related to accumulated failure experiences, limited possibili-
ties for acquiring new experiences, and more objective self-assessment. The results which
refer to differences in adaptability deviate from the general pattern of a lower sense of
mastery in adolescents with mild ID, although a very small effect size was determined.
Adolescents with mild ID also significantly differ from their TD peers with regard to
individual qualities in the sense of relatedness domain. The results which indicate a lower
level of perceived access to support in adolescents with mild ID can be compared to the
findings of comparative studies on significantly lower levels of perceived access to social
support in persons with ID compared to persons without ID (Victorian Population Health
Survey of People with an Intellectual Disability 2013, 2015; Mithen et al., 2015). Results of
studies on samples of TD adolescents which show a positive correlation between intel-
lectual abilities and perceived access to social support (Hogan et al., 2010; Sameroff et
al., 1993) should also be mentioned. The findings which refer to a lower level of comfort
with others in adolescents with mild ID are in accordance with the observations of other
authors on the difficulties which persons with ID have in social relations. On the basis of a
systematic review of literature in this area, Verdonschot and colleagues (2009) concluded
that persons with ID had less contact with family and friends, and that their social net-
works were relatively small, mainly consisting of persons with ID. Furthermore, research
on peer interactions of students with ID in regular schools indicated that they socialized
with peers with ID more than with TD peers (Cutts & Sigafoos, 2001), that they were poorly
accepted by their peers (Smoot, 2004), that they were less popular, had fewer friends, and
were rarely included in friend groups (Koster et al., 2010). A lower level of tolerance of
differences was determined in adolescents with mild ID, i.e. a belief that they can safely
express differences in relationships. Gilmore and colleagues (2013) also reported on the
lower level of tolerance in participants with ID, and explained that it was as a complex skill
which required a high level of social competence. In support of this explanation, we can
cite the results of studies on the lower social competence of children and adolescents with
ID compared to their TD peers (Bramlett et al., 1994; Kucuker & Cifci Tekinarslan, 2015).
In the emotional reactivity domain, the difference between adolescents with mild ID
and TD adolescents was determined only with regard to recovery skills. Adolescents with
mild ID had a lower capacity to return to normal functioning after a strong emotional reac-
tion. The obtained results differ from the results of Gilmore and colleagues (2013), which
indicated that participants with ID had a higher level of emotional sensitivity, but did not
differ with regard to recovery skills. However, Gilmore and colleagues (2013) pointed out
that their findings were unexpected, bearing in mind that emotional problems were more
frequent in persons with ID. The results obtained in this research are in accordance with
the findings of comparative studies on poorer self-regulation skills (Eisenhower et al.,
2007; Willson, 1999) and a generally higher incidence of emotional problems (Dekker et
al., 2002; Emerson, 2003) in adolescents with ID compared to their TD peers.
The results of this research indicated that gender differences in the examined indi-
vidual qualities were less pronounced in adolescents with mild ID than their TD peers. In
the subsample of TD adolescents, girls had a significantly higher level of sense of mastery
in general, as well as a significantly higher level of all individual qualities in this domain,

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than boys. Furthermore, TD girls had a significantly higher level of sense of relatedness
and a higher level of three out of four examined individual qualities in this domain –sense
of trust, perceived access to support and tolerance of differences, compared to TD boys.
With regard to emotional reactivity, TD boys and girls differed only in sensitivity which
was significantly higher in girls. Prince Embury (2007) found the same general direction
of gender differences in the standardization sample, manifested as higher scores on all
scales (MAS, REL, and REA) in girls, with significant differences only in adaptability and per-
ceived support at the ages 12–14. The findings which refer to gender differences in sense
of mastery in TD adolescents are consistent with the results of other studies on samples
of TD adolescents which indicated that girls had a higher level of self-efficacy (Banduraet
al., 2003; Britner & Pajares, 2001) and optimism (Wray et al.,2013; Yates, 2002). Bearing
in mind that the questions in the Adaptability subscale mainly referred to seeking help
when needed, the obtained results can be compared to the findings of research on coping
strategies in adolescence, which indicated that girls used this strategy more frequently
(Eschenbeck et al., 2007; Hampel & Petermann, 2005). The results regarding gender dif-
ferences in sense of relatedness in TD adolescents were confirmed by empirical data on
the higher level of attachment (Laible et al., 2000; Muris et al., 2003) and perceived social
support (Hogan et al., 2010; Malecki & Demaray, 2002), as well as the lower level of loneli-
ness (Cheng & Furnham, 2002; Chipuer & Pretty, 2007) in girls compared to boys from the
typical population. Also, the results which refer to a higher level of emotional reactivity,
i.e. sensitivity, in TD girls are in accordance with findings of other authors regarding higher
intensity and negativity of emotional reactions to stressful events in girls (Charbonneau et
al., 2009; Laible et al., 2010).
In adolescents with mild ID, no significant gender differences were determined in
sense of mastery, sense of relatedness, and emotional reactivity. Gilmore and colleagues
(2013) also examined the influence of gender on the RSCA scores and found no significant
differences except that girls reported higher sensitivity than boys. With regard to individ-
ual qualities in the sense of mastery domain, the obtained results are in accordance with
the findings of other authors indicating that there were no significant gender differences
in self-efficacy in persons with ID (Gresham et al., 1988; Payne & Jahoda, 2004). Nota and
associates (2010) explained the lack of differences in self-efficacy beliefs in male and fe-
male persons with ID by the fact that school and extra scholastic activities for individuals
with ID were rarely differentiated by gender, and thus girls and boys with ID mainly had
similar experiences. The results of this research which refer to individual qualities in the
sense of relatedness domain, are consistent with the findings of other authors indicating
that in children and adolescents with ID gender was not significantly related to peer ac-
ceptance and relations (Smoot, 2004; Wendelborg & Kvello, 2010) or social skills (Adeniyi &
Omigbodun, 2016; Heiman & Margalit, 1998). This is further supported by empirical find-
ings that academic competence, physical appearance and behavior problems had more
influence on the status of persons with ID in their peer group than gender (Baydik & Bak-
kaloğlu, 2009).In this research, there were no gender differences in emotional reactivity
in adolescents with ID, which corresponds to the findings of other studies indicating that
boys and girls with ID did not differ with regard to the incidence of emotional problems
(Dekker & Koot, 2003; Einfeld & Tonge, 1996). This is in accordance with observations of

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some authors that neurological impairments and deficits in basic skills had a more signif-
icant role than gender in the etiology of emotional problems in children and adolescents
with ID (Chadwick et al., 2000; Einfeld & Tonge, 1996).
Significant age differences were determined in the subsample of TD adolescents.
Younger TD adolescents reported more sense of mastery, sense of relatedness, and emo-
tional reactivity than older TD adolescents. The general direction of the determined age
differences is in accordance with the findings of Prince Embury (2007) for the standardiza-
tion sample. However, she reported on significant differences only with regard to the Im-
pairment score which is higher at a younger than at an older age. Results of other studies
conducted on samples of TD adolescents indicated that self-efficacy (Jacobs et al., 2002;
Pajares & Valiante, 1999) and optimism (Carvajal et al., 2002, Patton et al., 2011) decreased
with age, and that seeking help as a coping strategy occurred earlier than more complex
strategies requiring more developed cognitive abilities (Compas et al., 2001; Hampel &
Petermann, 2005). With regard to sense of relatedness in TD adolescents, previous studies
also indicated that younger adolescents had a higher level of attachment (Laible et al.,
2000; Muris et al., 2003) and perceived social support (Malecki & Demaray, 2002; Scholte
et al., 2001), as well as a lower level of loneliness (Brage et al., 1993; Chipuer & Pretty, 2007)
compared to older adolescents. The obtained results which point to age differences in
emotional reactivity in TD adolescents are consistent with findings of other authors ac-
cording to which emotional reactivity decreased (Silket al., 2003), and emotion regulation
increased (Silvers et al., 2012) with age.
On the other hand, in the subsample of adolescents with mild ID, significant age
differences were determined only in the level of optimism. However, the direction of these
differences was opposite to the one in TD adolescents, since younger adolescents with
mild ID had a lower level of optimism than older ones. In a meta-analytic review of studies
on self-serving attributional bias, Mezulis and colleagues (2004) concluded that, in the
general population, the level of positivity bias in attributions was the lowest in early ado-
lescence (12-14 years of age) when a person starts realizing that frequent failures can be
the result of lower abilities. The obtained findings indicating the absence of significant
age differences in self-efficacy are supported by the results of previous studies (Gresham
et al., 1988; Payne & Jahoda, 2004). Similarly, the results which refer to sense of relatedness
are consistent with the findings of other authors according to which, in persons with ID,
there were no significant age differences in social skills (Adeniyi & Omigbodun, 2016; Hei-
man & Margalit, 1998), peer acceptance and relations (Heiman & Margalit, 1998; Wendel-
borg & Kvello, 2010), and perceived social support (Lunsky & Benson, 2001).In interpreting
these findings, Nota and colleagues (2007) made a significant observation that the limited
experiences and opportunities that hinder individual qualities of people with ID override
any age-related effects. The findings which refer to emotional reactivity are confirmed by
the results of other studies which indicated that there were no age differences with regard
to emotional problems in children and adolescents with ID (Einfeld & Tonge, 1996). The
absence of age differences in the prevalence of emotional problems in this population is
associated with a slower development of behavioral regulation, as well as with the influ-
ence of neurological and genetic factors (Dekker & Koot, 2003).

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Limitations of the study
The current study has several limitations that should be taken into account. The ID
subsample size was relatively small and composed of ’special’ school students with mild
ID, so replication with a larger number of adolescents with different degrees of ID is de-
sirable. Data obtained from adolescents with ID were used in this research. Even though
special attention was given to assessing the verbal abilities of adolescents with ID and
adapting the assessment procedure accordingly, it is possible they were not able to, or
did not want to give correct answers to some questions. In the future, it would be import-
ant to replicate the present findings using multiple informants. This study included the
questions covered by the Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents, so we have no
data on other individual characteristics related to resilient outcomes. Apart from that, the
obtained results refer to individual characteristics which represent only one aspect of the
complex resilience construct. Thus, future studies should be directed at environmental
influences and the interaction of individual and environmental factors.
Conclusion
A general conclusion of this research is that adolescents with mild ID have a lower
level of resiliency than TD adolescents. It was found that adolescents with mild ID have
significantly lower levels of sense of mastery and sense of relatedness and a higher level
of emotional reactivity. In light of these findings, it can be stated that implementing ef-
fective interventions to promote resiliency may contribute to the positive adaptation of
adolescents with mild ID. The results of this research complement and extend earlier stud-
ies by highlighting domains of resiliency that are less developed in adolescents with mild
ID and providing impetus for attention to interventions that may address these areas. In
addition, our findings underscore the need for a more careful examination of the specific
constellations of individual qualities and for the development of multifaceted programs
that would provide interventions for different domains of resiliency, rather than focusing
on one aspect at a time. This study also provides new information indicating that the rela-
tionship between age and gender on the one hand, and individual characteristics, on the
other, happened to be different in the two subsets. The gender and age differences found
in all domains of resiliency in TD adolescents were not confirmed in adolescents with mild
ID. In this regard, our data provides a starting point for examining the existence of differ-
ent developmental pathways of resiliency in these two groups.
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КОМПАРАЦИЈА ИНДИВИДУАЛНИХ КВАЛИТЕТА РЕЗИЛИЈЕНТНОСТИ
АДОЛЕСЦЕНАТА СА ИНТЕЛЕКТУАЛНОМ ОМЕТЕНОШЋУ
И АДОЛЕСЦЕНАТА ТИПИЧНОГ РАЗВОЈА
Инелекуална омеенос (ИО) ресавља хронично неовољно сање које
овећава верованоћу неаивних развојних исхоа. Циљ ово исраживања је
уврђивање разлика између аолесценаа са лаком ИО и аолесценаа иично развоја (ТР)
у инивиуалним квалиеима који ориносе усешној ааацији. Узорак чини 92
аолесцена са лаком ИО и 772 аолесцена ТР, узраса 13–19 оина, оба ола. За роцену
резилијенноси коришћене су Скале резилијенноси за ецу и аолесцене. У оређењу са
аолесценима ТР, аолесцени са лаком ИО имају значајно нижи ниво осећања конроле на
власиим живоом и осећања овезаноси, као и виши ниво емоционалне реакивноси. У
оузорку аолесценаа са лаком ИО нису консаоване значајне узрасне и олне разлике у
резилијенноси. Аолесцени са лаком ИО имају нижи ниво резилијенноси у оносу на
аолесцене ТР, шо указује на оребу за развијањем рорама усмерених на инивиуалне
квалиее који су овезани са озиивним развојним исхоима.
аолесцени, инелекуална омеенос, резилијеннос
СРАВНЕНИЕ ИНДИВИДУАЛЬНЫХ КАЧЕСТВ РЕЗИЛИЕНТНОСТИ
У ПОДРОСТКОВ С ЗАДЕРЖКОЙ В ИНТЕЛЛЕКТУАЛЬНОМ РАЗВИТИИ
И ПОДРОСТКОВ ТИПИЧНОГО РАЗВИТИЯ
Задержка в интеллектуальном развитии (ЗИР) представляет собой постоянное
неблагоприятное условие, которое увеличивает вероятность отрицательных
результатов в развитии. Целью данного исследования является определение раз личий между
подростками с легкой ЗИР и подростками типичного развития (ТР) в индивидуальных
качествах, которые способствуют успешной адаптации. Исследование проведено на примере
92 подростков с легкой ЗИР и 772 подростков TР, в возрасте от 13 до 19 лет. Для оценки
резилиентности была использована Шкала резилиентности для детей и подростков. По
сравнению с подростками TР, подростков с легкой ЗИР характеризует более низкий уровень
чувства контроля над собственной жизнью, чувства привязанности и более высокий уровень
эмоциональной реактивности. В подгруппе подростков с легкой ЗИР значительных
возрастных и гендерных различий в резилиентности не обнаружено. По сравнению с
подростками TР, у подростков с легкой ЗИР обнаружен более низкий уровень устойчивости,
что указывает на необходимость разработки программ, ориентированных на
индивидуальные качества, которые связаны с положительными результатами в развитии.
подростки, задержка в интеллектуальном развитии, резилиентность
Апстракт
Кључне речи:
Резюме
Ключевые слова: