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Water Crisis: Issues and Challenges in Punjab
... The agricultural state of India, Punjab is also known as the breadbasket of India (R. Kumar, Vaid, & Mittal, 2018). Punjab lies between 29°30'N and 32° 30'N latitudes, 73°30' E and 77°00'E longitudes with a geographical area of approximately 50,000 sq.km (A. ...
... Punjab has been facing shortage in its water resources due to the state's requirement of large amounts of water for irrigation purposes (R. Kumar et al., 2018). The heavy need for water resource is fulfilled from water through rivers, groundwater, canal water and rainfall(R. ...
... The heavy need for water resource is fulfilled from water through rivers, groundwater, canal water and rainfall(R. Kumar et al., 2018).The increased exploitation of ground water due to depletion of water resources when accompanied with declining rainfall in Punjab threatens the maintenance of agricultural productivity(R. Kumar et al., 2018). ...
The study endeavours to understand the role of moral disengagement in unethical decision-making among emerging adults and how it is central to the process of sense-making by individuals high on Machiavellianism in the context of general unethical decision-making. The study uses a cross-sectional, covariance-based research design for examining if moral disengagement mediates the relationship between Machiavellianism and unethical decision-making via structural equation modelling. Finding indicates that Machiavellianism positively influences unethical decision-making and that this relationship is significantly mediated by moral disengagement. The results extend the significance of moral disengagement in decision-making, thereby demonstrating the role of personality and cognitive mechanisms in an individual’s decision to act unethically or not. The paper provides an understanding of the personality factor that contributes to the unethical decision-making of the Indian youth and the role of moral disengagement in this process. The paper’s originality lies in its interdisciplinary nature. By combining the two theories–The theory of Planned behaviour and Consequentialism, the paper tries to explain why individuals tend to make unethical decisions and how cognitive processes are involved in it.
... Water demand is increasing gradually with the increasing world population. Although 71% area of the planet is covered with water but the percentage of the fresh water available for drinking and irrigation is very low [1]. Further, due to difference in geological and hydrological conditions, the available fresh water is unevenly distributed across the globe, consequently, several parts of the world are facing issue of water scarcity. ...
The study’s goal is to analyze the suitability of the sub-surface water of Una district for drinking and agriculture purposes. The data related to physico-chemical parameters of groundwater of district Una was obtained from Central Groundwater Board’s website and compared to the BIS standard (10500:2012). The values of Ca ²⁺ , Cl ⁻ , F ⁻ , and SO 4 ²⁻ were found to be below the acceptable limit. pH, TDS, Alkalinity, Mg ²⁺ , TH, and NO 3 ⁻ had values that were above the acceptable limit at a few sites, but within the maximum permissible limit. Furthermore, as per the observed values of Total dissolved solids (TDS), Electric conductivity (EC), Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Percentage sodium (Na%) and Permeability Index (PI), the groundwater of Una district is suitable for irrigation purposes. However, Kelly’s Ratio (KR), Magnesium ratio (MR) and Residual sodium-carbonate (RSC) values revealed that groundwater is unfit for irrigation at few sites only. The value of Corrosivity Ratio (CR) was more than 01 for 11 sites indicating that the groundwater of these sites is corrosive in nature and can be transported only via non-corrosive pipes in these locations.
... The situation is more serious in India because the country ranks second in the world in terms of population and it is challenging to meet the needs of such a sizable population in terms of drinking water. Consequently, many people in India pass away every year as a result of drinking tainted water [2]. There is a severe lack of freshwater resources. ...
Human activities, use of fertilizers and chemicals in agricultural fields are the main causes of ground water contamination. Therefore to protect and improve the natural eco system, water quality analysis is essential. The main goal of this work is to study the criteria governing the groundwater quality in the nearby wells of Peth Seer, Sopore J&K. Total 12 groundwater samples and 15 water quality parameters for each sample are considered in this study. The ground water samples of all the selected stations were collected for a physiochemical analysis. For calculating present water quality status, following 16 parameters have been considered Viz. pH, TDS, EC, Chloride concentration, Nitrate concentration, Sulphate concentration, Alkalinity, Fluoride concentration, Total hardness, Magnesium, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, Temperature, Turbidity, Residual chlorine. The obtained results are compared with WHO (2017). The study reveals that the concentrations of all the constituents are well within the permissible limits of WHO (2017). Groundwater in the study area is suitable for drinking purpose as prescribed by WHO (2017) and irrigation purposes as prescribed by IS-11624(1986).
... Punjab is an agriculture dominant state of NW India and major amount of groundwater is employed for irrigation requirements (Kumar et al., 2018). Aquifers in the region are exploited in terms of both groundwater quantity and quality (Bonsor et al., 2017;Baweja et al., 2017;CGWB, 2017b;MacDonald et al., 2016). ...
Occurrence of uranium (U) in the groundwater of south-west Punjab is a matter of great concern due to the rise of contaminant levels at an alarming rate, its spatial and vertical variability and poor understanding of uranium mobility with depth. Present study has been conducted to investigate the vertical extent of contamination and geochemical factors controlling U mobilization in the groundwater of semi-arid Punjab. Out of total 140 samples collected and analyzed, 76% samples have uranium levels greater than the chemical toxicity limit of World Health Organization (WHO, 30 μg.L⁻¹) and 34% samples have concentration higher than the radiological toxicity limit given by Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB, 60 μg.L⁻¹). Water at shallow depth (<60 m) is found to be more contaminated than water at deeper depth (>60 m) and concentration lies in the range of 4.26–318.03 μg.L⁻¹. Spatial distribution graphs are used to identify the hotspots of contamination and concentration is higher in the flow direction of groundwater towards southwest. In both the aquifers, groundwater is alkaline and oxic in character with carbonate weathering as dominant hydrogeochemical process affecting chemical composition of water. Higher uranium concentration is seen in the oxidizing, alkaline and carbonate-rich water. Alkali earth metals (Na⁺ & K⁺) are also strongly correlated with the uranium in groundwater at both the levels. Use of environmental stable isotopes (δ¹⁸O & δ²H) shows the evaporation signature in both the aquifers. Health risk assessment is carried out and values higher than permissible limit give indication towards the health risk to the population exposed due to the consumption of uranium contaminated water from long time. This study provides a strong base for better understanding the source of uranium in the aquifer system of region and the results would be useful for further studies in quaternary alluvial aquifers of semi-arid regions.
... Punjab is an agriculture dominant state of NW India and major amount of groundwater is employed for irrigation requirements (Kumar et al., 2018). Aquifers in the region are exploited in terms of both groundwater quantity and quality (Bonsor et al., 2017;Baweja et al., 2017;CGWB, 2017b;MacDonald et al., 2016). ...
Natural radionuclide levels are studied along the soil profile of alluvial sediments. Eighteen soil profiles have been selected from agricultural soil and undisturbed (uncultivated) areas and gamma-ray spectrophotometer has been used for the analysis. Vertical distribution of radionuclide was evaluated up to the depth of 900cm and levels were found to significantly vary with depth. Higher radionuclide levels are observed in the agricultural sites than the undisturbed land area till the depth interval of 600cm and values are comparable at both the sites after this depth, indicating the role of anthropogenic activities on radionuclide enrichment in agricultural areas. However, the value is higher than the global average at all sites, indicating the geogenic presence of radionuclides. Elemental ratio and multi-statistical analysis are utilized to assess the behaviour of radionuclides involved. Radiological hazard risk assesment is carried out and levels exceed the permissible limit which is a matter of concern for public health.
... A regional-scale study on groundwater depletion using GRACE showed that 109 km 3 of groundwater had been lost across India's northern states, such as Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan, from 2002(Rodell et al., 2009. Water levels in Punjab, particularly in central and southern regions (also known as Malwa region), have been facing severe decline for the past 20 years (Dhillon et al., 2019;Kumar et al., 2018a;Sidhu et al., 2021). Therefore, a study on the spatio-temporal scenario of groundwater resources and estimation of the long-term groundwater levels trend is essential for groundwater resource management. ...
Due to spatial unevenness in rainfall, groundwater dependency for irrigation has increased exponentially, which poses a challenge for its sustainability. Hence, the long-term behaviour of groundwater level (GWL) fluctuations needs to be understood for better management of water resources and formulating a new action plan. Due to semi-arid climatic condition, most of the agricultural lands in Malwa region of Punjab in India depend on the groundwater for irrigation. The present study focuses on multi-decadal trend estimation and spatio-temporal variations of GWL changes using geostatistics and analyzing the groundwater fluctuations using the standardized depth to water level index (SDWLI) method over the Malwa region. For this study, GWL data for 90 observation wells/piezometers for 21 years (1997–2018) were analyzed. The wells were classified into different clusters according to the fluctuation rate using hierarchical cluster analysis. The trend for each well's GWL changes was analyzed with the Modified Mann–Kendall (MMK) test and Sen's slope. The trend analysis results show that most of the wells over the Malwa region possess a significantly declining trend of GWL during 1997–2018. The spatio-temporal variation maps reveal that more than 30 % of tubewells in the eastern part of the study region have seen an average depletion rate of about 40 cm/year in both seasons (pre- and post-monsoon). In contrast, GWL in southwestern part of the Malwa region shows an evident rise in water level during the last two decades; this rising water level causes severe waterlogging problems during the monsoon period. Over 21 years, we observed that more than 20 % of wells had increased GWL in the southwestern part of the Malwa region. The present study's result raises concern about groundwater resources' future in the highly groundwater-dependent Malwa region.
... The groundwater of this state is facing a serious crisis of contamination (Hundal and Khurana 2013;Mittal et al. 2014;Kumar et al. 2018;Pacheco et al. 2018a & b;Sharma et al. 2019;Kumar et al. 2020aKumar et al. , 2020bSharma et al. 2020aSharma et al. , 2020b. Both geogenic and agricultural sources have reported as the sources of anions [nitrate (NO 3 ) -, sulfate (SO 4 2-), fluoride (F -), phosphate (PO 4 3-)] and heavy metals [(arsenic (As), uranium (U), lead (Pb)] in groundwater of Punjab (Sharma and Singh 2016;Suthar 2018, 2019;Kaur et al. 2021;Kumar et al. 2020aKumar et al. , 2020bMittal et al. 2020). ...
Shivalik region is one of the agri-intensive regions in Punjab, India, wherein groundwater quality is a major human health concern. In this study, a total of 57 groundwater samples were collected from the Rupnagar district of this region (one sample per 36 km2) to evaluate its quality, the role of hydrogeochemical processes in its contamination, and further their potential human health hazards. The results indicate that the major water chemistry is governed by carbonate weathering followed by silicate weathering. The Fe, Mg, Mn, Se, and HCO3- concentrations exceeded the BIS drinking water standards in 86, 51, 11, 9, and 79% of the samples, respectively. Piper and Durov plots indicated the dominance of Ca-HCO3- water types, followed by Ca-Mg-Cl- and Ca-Cl-. Furthermore, multivariate analyses indicated the geogenic origin for Fe, Mg, Mn, Se, SO42-, and anthropogenic sources (agrochemicals, cement factories, and fly ash) for NO3-, Cu, and Cr. The estimated carcinogenic risk of As and Cr falls under the very low (10-6) to low (10-5) risks category. Furthermore, the cumulative risk of non-carcinogenic contaminants (F-, U, NO3-) (HI-0.93) is at an alarming level and also close to the boundary line of USEPA limits (HI-1). There is an urgent need to undertake suitable policy measures for sustainability of groundwater quality.
... The quality of both river and groundwater is deteriorating at a rapid pace, making water scarcity more severe. Even toxic heavy metals like uranium, lead, cadmium, selenium, and so on are also reported in groundwater samples from various states (Chowdhury et al. 2016;Kumar et al. 2018Kumar et al. , 2020Sharma et al. 2020). This may lead to severe consequences for water resources. ...
India, the second‐most populous country in the world, and with a booming economy, is now facing difficulties in ensuring water security in terms of both quantity and quality. It is an outcome of the increased pressure on water recourses due to rapid growth in population, industrialization, rampant urbanization, and extensive agricultural practices. Trends indicate that India will become “water‐stressed” by 2025 and “water‐scarce” by 2050. Climate change has affected the quantity of surface water and groundwater resources in India by the melting of glaciers and narrowing of the rainfall pattern with several flood and drought events. Also, the water quality of available surface and groundwater resources is being deteriorated by contaminants like arsenic, fluoride, iron, nitrate, lead, cadmium, and uranium. Further, climate change is also increasing the rate of deterioration of water quality by affecting the level of dissolved oxygen, carbon, nitrate, and other parameters of water due to increased temperature. Climatic warming and the unpredicted rainfall pattern have also increased the frequency of both water‐borne (like cholera, diarrhea) as well as vector‐borne diseases (like malaria and dengue). The Government of India has taken several successful initiatives like rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge projects, the construction of arsenic‐free wells in arsenic‐affected areas, and launched several other schemes such as National Rural Drinking Water Mission, Namami Ganges, and River Basin Management. In this direction, to improve the quality of river water, the government has also established “River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation” under the ministry of Jal Shakti. India can turn these challenges into opportunities by good governance, proper management, hydro‐diplomacy with neighbor countries, adopting new technologies (deficit irrigation, detection of pipe leakage Danish technology), and making stringent rules and regulations. This chapter provides an overview of India's water‐related issues including scarcity, water quality, and water‐related diseases, their influence by climate change, and possible mitigation measures for water security.
... Punjab is a major wheat-and rice-cultivating area, and hence it is one of the highest water depleted regions in India 2 (Alisjahbana, 2020). It is predicted that Punjab will have water scarcity in a few years (Kumar et al., 2018). Diminishing water resources and soil toxicity increased the pollution of underground water. ...
Food production has seen various advancements globally in developing countries, such as India. One such advancement was the green revolution. Notably, the World Bank applauds the introduction of the green revolution as it reduced the rural poverty in India for a certain time. Despite the success of the green revolution, the World Bank reported that health outcomes have not been improved. During the post-green revolution period, several notable negative impacts arose. Exclusive studies were not conducted on the benefits and harms before the introduction of the green revolution. Some of such interventions deviate from the natural laws of balance and functioning and are unsustainable practices. To avoid the adverse effects of some of these developments, a review of these interventions is necessary.
... The scenario is more critical in India as the country ranks second in the world as per population and it is difficult to meet the drinking water demands of such a huge population. Hence, due to consumption of contaminated water, many people die every year in India [7]. The groundwater is considered as clean and safe for the drinking purposes in comparison with surface water because when it percolates through ground, majority of the pollutants get degraded [8]. ...
Present research aims to assess the suitability of groundwater of Dera Bassi town (Punjab) and its surrounding agricultural area for drinking as well as irrigation purpose. Thirty groundwater samples were collected (in February 2020) and analyzed for various physicochemical parameters. Results of physicochemical analysis were compared with Indian (IS 10500:2012) as well as WHO (2006) standards to ascertain the suitability of the groundwater samples for drinking purpose, and it has been found that results for almost all the parameters except alkalinity (at few sites) are within the permissible limit. The pattern of ionic dominance was observed in the order of Ca ²⁺ > Mg ²⁺ > Na ⁺ > K ⁺ for cations and Cl ⁻ > NO 3 ⁻ > SO 4 ²⁻ > F ⁻ for anions. Further, according to the observed Kelly’s ratio, sodium adsorption ratio, sodium percentage, corrosivity ratio and permeability index, the groundwater samples were found to be fit for irrigation purpose. However, the magnesium ratio and residual sodium carbonate revealed that groundwater of the area under study is not fit for irrigation purpose at some sites. The plot of SAR values versus EC values in the US Salinity Laboratory diagram revealed that the majority of the samples fall under water type C3-S1 (high salinity—low SAR) and 36.77% samples fall under water type C2-S1 (medium salinity—low SAR). Gibb’s diagram revealed that all samples fall under rock dominance category. The values of index of base exchange (CAI 1 and CAI 2) indicate that both direct ion and reverse ion exchange processes are taking place in the region.
... Approximately, 100 and 66 million population has a threat from groundwater contaminated with As and F À , respectively (Bindal and Singh 2019;Kadam et al. 2019). Other major groundwater contaminants like U, NO 3 À , Fe, HCO 3 À etc. have also been reported with elevated levels in several parts of India (Shankar et al. 2011, Lapworth et al. 2017, Rao et al. 2017, Ahada and Suthar 2018, Kumar et al. 2018a. The continuous exposure of carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic contaminants even in low concentrations for long periods can cause human health effects (carcinogenic risk, hypertension, skin lesions, respiratory effects, diabetes, cardiovascular, neurological problems, etc.) either individually or synergistically on human health (Villanueva et al. 2014, Ali et al. 2019. ...
The present study investigates the groundwater suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes in the Shivalik region of Punjab, India. The results revealed that the concentration of Se, U, and F⁻ exceeded BIS acceptable drinking water standards in 18%, 9%, and 16% samples, respectively. Multivariate analyses indicate the geogenic origin for As, U, Fe, F⁻ and SO4 ²⁻, and anthropogenic for NO3 ⁻, Cu, and Cr. The carcinogenic risk of drinking water is in very low (10⁻⁶) to low (10⁻⁵) category, while cumulative non-carcinogenic risk (HI-1.2) is slightly higher than USEPA limits (HI-1). The groundwater quality was found suitable for irrigation purpose.
... The fertilizer consumption of Punjab state is significantly higher (247 kg/ha) as compared to Indian (165.8 kg/ ha) and world average (140.5 kg/ha) (World Bank collection 2016; ENVIS Centre Punjab 2018). Agriculture-based pollution in groundwater is a severe concern in this state Kumar et al. 2018b). ...
The quality of drinking water and agricultural soil significantly affects the health of residents of the area. The quality of groundwater used as drinking and irrigation water along with agricultural soil of an agri-intensive region of the Sutlej River Basin (SRB), Punjab (India), has been investigated in the present paper to further access their impacts on human health. The quality parameters studied are pH, conductivity, cations, anions and trace elements/heavy metals. The spatio-distribution maps of major contaminates have been made. The distribution of major existing groundwater and agricultural soil contaminants has also been illustrated using inverse distance weighting interpolation technique. Further, the Pearson correlation matrix and principal component analysis (PCA) have been applied to explore the correlation and source apportionment analysis for the contaminants. Finally, the health risk assessment study has also been performed. The results showed elevated levels [compared to BIS acceptable limits] of bicarbonate and total hardness in more than 90% groundwater samples, while the concentration of Se and U exceeded in around 25% samples. Spatial distribution maps showed a non-homologous distribution pattern for most of the heavy metals except Zn, indicating their different origins. The significant existence of Se and U in groundwater and low content in soils indicated their geogenic origin. The Gibbs diagram suggested that rock–water interaction is the primary process controlling the chemical evolution of the groundwater in the region. The PCA indicated that Cu, Mn, Pb, NO3− and SO42− in groundwater have an anthropogenic origin, whereas Fe, As and U are mainly of geogenic origin. Significant positive correlations of heavy metals with Fe and Al in soils indicated scavenging of these elements by Fe/Al-oxyhydroxides minerals. Based on SAR, Na%, PI and corrosivity ratio analysis, it can be concluded that groundwater of the region is suitable for irrigation purposes Further, health risk assessment study indicated Cr and As are the possible cancer risk posing elements from both soil and groundwater. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment showed that cumulative exposure (hazard index—1.98) of U (HQ 1.21), NO3− (HQ 0.37) and F− (HQ 0.34) might pose harmful impacts to residents through groundwater ingestion in the long term. Although currently the contaminants in the groundwater–soil system may not pose any human health risks, continuous long-term monitoring is required to keep a check on the changes in their quality with time.
... Naturally high levels of As in groundwater cause various diseases in human and constitutes a highpriority water quality problem, particularly in Asian countries, including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Iran (Kumar et al. 2018;Nickson et al. 2005;Rahman et al. 2011;Keshavarzi et al. 2011). On the other hand, it is generally accepted that soil-plant transfer of As is a principal pathway of human exposure to As, particularly in regions where drinking/ground water As levels do not exceed the WHO drinking water standard of 10 lg As/L. ...
Following earlier reports of water contamination and arsenic (As) toxicity symptoms in residents of Kurdistan Province, As was determined in rock, soil and plant samples to investigate its fate from rock to crops and its potential effects on human health. Total As content ranged from 4.9 to 10,000 mg/kg, 7.7–430 mg/kg and < 0.05–25,079 µg/kg (dry weight) in rock, soil and plant samples, respectively. The Qorveh–Bijar region data indicated that magmatic differentiation has enriched late magmatic fluids in As. High rare earth elements concentration, dissociation coefficient, and positive Eu anomaly in volcanic rocks, indicated the prevalence of intermediate to felsic composition. The highest As concentration was measured in travertine. In soil, As average level in Qorveh and Bijar was 48.5 and 107 mg/kg, respectively. Higher pollution index and geoaccumulation index (Igeo) were also calculated for Bijar County. The As concentration in crop samples was greater than the recommended maximum permissible concentration for foodstuff. Mann–Whitney U test revealed significant differences between As concentration in different plant species and no difference between plants in Bijar and Qorveh. Also, alfalfa displayed the highest biological accumulation coefficient among the investigated plants. The calculated chronic daily intake of As in Bijar County was higher than the recommended levels for wheat and barley grains. Moreover, the hazard quotient (HQ) and incremental lifetime cancer risk assessments revealed high non-cancer (HQ > 1 for both adults and children) and cancer (particularly for barley in Bijar) risks for inhabitants via consumption of As contaminated crops cultivated in the study area.
... If we consider the significant independent parameters, then Densadeck technology has given the maximum significant independent variables, i.e., BOD, TSS and Phosphates in predicting the dependent variable and the model is a good fit as it is contributing 52.5% in bringing the change in the variance of the dependent variable. Although both BOD and COD are considered as the pollution indicator of water body, but still BOD is widely taken as the prime most factor while assessing the performance of wastewater/STP than COD (Sharma et al. 2013;Singh et al. 2014;Kumar et al. 2017). It is, hence, recommended that the parameters affecting the performance of BOD in this Plant should be taken into consideration in future. ...
Among the various modeling techniques applied to dataset, multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis is the most efficient way to figure out the relationship between the response variable and the predictive variables. This study emphasizes on establishment of multiple linear regression models to analyze Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) removal efficiency for technologies, namely Densadeck, Extended Aeration and Activated Sludge Process. Assumptions of multiple linear regression like linear relationship, multivariate normality, multicollinearity and Homoscedasticity were examined. The data that verify the assumptions were analyzed with multiple linear regression. Time series plots indicate drastic decline in BOD removal efficiency in the month of Feb and March during the years 2012 and 2013. This study was significant as it gives the technology having the best-fit regression equation based upon multiple correlation coefficient (R), coefficient of determination (R2), standard error, residual and F-ratio value. Societal benefits include enhancement in the performance of sewage treatment plants.
... India, the world's 2nd largest populous country, is also facing a serious crisis of clean and potable water, especially in rural areas (Chakraborti et al. 2011). Punjab is one such Indian state, facing serious groundwater quality issues due to its contamination by several toxic chemicals (Shrivastava 2015;Dhillon and Dhillon 2016;Kumar et al. 2016Kumar et al. , 2018. Malwa region (commonly known as a breadbasket, food bowl and granary of India) the southwestern part of Punjab, is one such region having a high dependency on groundwater resources for drinking, domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes. ...
The groundwater quality of southwestern Punjab, India, is a serious cause of concern due to the presence of chemical contaminants in it. However, limited studies of groundwater quality, sources of chemical contaminants and their health risks are available for the region. Hence, this study was conducted to investigate the source, distribution and potential health risk assessment of groundwater quality in three districts of southwestern Punjab, India. The spatial distribution of groundwater chemical contaminants and their potential health risks have been illustrated using inverse distance weighting interpolation technique. The concentration of fluoride (F⁻; ranged from 0.08 to 4.79 mg L⁻¹) exceeded the WHO limit (1.5 µg L⁻¹) in 80 and 50% samples collected from Bathinda and Ludhiana districts, respectively. The uranium (U) concentration ranged from 0.5 to 432 µg L⁻¹ and shows ~ 85%, 75% and 10% of samples collected from Bathinda, Barnala and Ludhiana districts exceeded the WHO drinking water limit (30 µg L⁻¹), respectively. The groundwater quality of the Bathinda district is a matter of concern due to elevated levels of alkalinity, hardness, fluoride, uranium and nitrate (NO3⁻). The principal component analysis shows close association between F⁻ and U, which indicates their geogenic origin. Further, they also seem to be subordinately influenced by diffuse anthropogenic activities. The clustering of Cu and Pb with NO3⁻ and SO4²⁻ indicates their anthropogenic origin. The non-carcinogenic health risk assessment indicates that F⁻, NO3⁻ and U are the major health risk pollutants in the study area. The carcinogenic health risk of As and Cr exceeded the USEPA limits (10⁻⁶) in the entire study area, but observed to be more serious for the district Bathinda (10⁻³–10⁻⁵). The spatial distribution maps illustrate that the health risk for Bathinda district inhabitants is higher than Barnala and Ludhiana districts.
... The discussion with the community before the installation of RO drinking water treatment plant identified water and sanitation as their priority need. The RO plant was installed on the request of villagers by a non-government organization after the complaints of high salinity (Kumar et al. 2011), fluoride, nitrate, and some heavy metals in groundwater (CGWB 2013; Kumar et al. 2018), including informal complaint of rise in non-communicable diseases by the villagers. Hence, the stakeholder needs assessment identified water quality as a major concern and demand-driven process led to the installation of the community RO system in the Machhrai Khurd village of Punjab. ...
Consumption of contaminated water may result in adverse health effects to the general public. A major source of drinking water in Punjab is groundwater, but there is increasing concern about the heavy metal contamination. To address the public health concern, government and private organizations installed several community reverse osmosis (RO) treatment plants to provide safe drinking water. The current study aims to assess the community perception before and after the installation of a community water treatment plant at a village in Punjab. Most of the study participants (83%) were found to be aware of the adverse health effects of unsafe drinking water but lack knowledge of metal toxicity leading to non-communicable diseases. Majority of the households (62%) use RO-treated water, whereas 38% of households prefer to use other water sources. Cost of RO water, taste, and increased distance of household from RO plant were identified as major barriers in the choice of safe drinking water. The issues can be addressed through proper information, education, and communication activities. Hence, there is a need to aware communities about water quality and sanitation, including sustainable uses of water. The study also highlights how to increase the sustainability of community RO water filtration plant. This will aid in achieving sustainable development goal six, which focuses on providing safe and affordable drinking water to all.
... The sustainable utilization of water resources is the basis for the sustainable development of society and the economy. However, problems of water crisis and the deterioration of the water environment due to population and economic growth have been severe in some developing countries (Cheng et al. 2009;Yao et al. 2016;Kumar et al. 2018;Maxmen 2018). Therefore, the sustainable development and utilization of water resources is a challenge issue facing current water management research (Giupponi and Sgobbi 2013). ...
Investigation into water resources sustainability (WRS) is vital for a regional sustainable development strategy. This paper aimed to quantitatively evaluate the WRS in mainland China using a three-layer indicator system. Three important factors significantly affecting WRS are: water resources quantity (WRQ), water intensity (WI) and water efficiency (WE). Assessment of the three indicators was carried out in 356 cities where each indicator was graded from “very low” to “very high” according to the value magnitude. China was then classified into four zones to differentiate regional variations of the impact of water intensity and efficiency on sustainability. Results showed that 34% of the areas had “medium” to “high” WI indicator values and 58% of the areas had “low” to “very low” WE indicator values. The indicator values of WI were ordered as Zone I > Zone II > Zone III > Zone IV; whereas the WRS were ordered as: Zone I < Zone II < Zone III < Zone IV. It is recommended that water resource policies be turned to a more sustainable management strategy in areas with high WI and low WE. Zone I regions should be focused on particularly with limited resources and extreme exploitation. The results provide a valuable basis for macro-level decision-making concerned with regional sustainable development strategy for the entire mainland China.
Dairy farming is being practiced on commercial lines by a large section of farmers in Punjab, India and other states in India. Present study aims at identifying the persisting challenges and lucrative strengths of dairy farming in the state of Punjab, India. The primary data were collected from the farmers through personal interview. Desensitized data was subjected to statistical analysis. The results revealed dairy farmers of state preferred buffalo over cattle and preferred breeds of cattle and buffalo are Holstein Friesian 65.82% crossbred and Murrah 81.42%. Insurance protection of livestock is negligible 0.32%, due to lack of awareness. Grazing facility 13.39% has been shrunken due to seasonal crops. MilkFed is a major milk cooperative; 57.64% farmers sell milk to MilkFed. Further, 56.22% of farmers use animal excreta for manure purposes and 19.84% use it for fuel purpose. Moreover, 69.45% of farmers have specified that the major problem in dairy farming are less profits due to low milk-price, and production cost is higher. Study revealed that inadequate facilities for dairy farmers such as high cost of feed, fodder, low economic gains, loan outsourcing, and inadequate veterinary services are the stumbling blocks in the way of dairy farming business in the state.
Central Asia (CA) is one of the most severe water crisis areas on earth, which has seriously limited the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs) in the region. However, a multi-perspective analysis on the process and driving factors of the water crisis in CA has not been conducted. Therefore, we assess the water crisis from multiple perspectives using the water stress index (WSI), safe drinking water and water pollution indicators, and quantitatively analyze the impact of climate change, population growth, poverty, urbanization and transboundary river management on the water crisis. Results show that the water crisis in CA is intensifying. Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan belong to the “severe water stress” category, and the WSIs are increasing in both countries. Tajikistan is classified as “high water stress”. Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan both exhibit “moderate water stress”. Moreover, the proportion of the rural population with access to safe drinking water is significantly lower than that of the urban population in all the CA countries. The impact of human activities on water crisis in CA is more significant than that of climatic factors. Both cultivated land area and population are significant factors affecting the water crisis in CA (p < 0.05), with the regression coefficients of 0.62 and 1.62, respectively. Our research provides an essential reference for the sustainable management of water resources and warns that the water security situation in CA will worsen if no effective action is taken.
Water has always been regarded as a low-cost and abundant resource. It was viewed as a limitless resource, with little motivation to conserve it. Recently, perception has shifted. The rapid increase in population growth, industrial and commercial development, and provincial draughts are making it difficult for drinking water supply systems to keep up with rising demand. Many new technologies have been created in recent decades to improve the efficiency of water supply and consumption. A water audit is a rigorous study of all water appurtenances, equipment, fixtures, and processes at an organization/facility. The water conservation and effective use management plan begins with a complete water audit and serves as the foundation of the collaborative effort. The selected campus for the water audit is Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh. The results of this study showed that a structured and orderly conducted water audit helps an educational institute to conserve water and make certain of its optimum usage. The university campus assures ongoing financing for fixture and appurtenance replacement, which helps to reduce water losses. Improving interdepartmental communication aids in the development of an effective management plan, and a welldesigned water recycling and reuse system ensures a decrease in net water usage.
Heavy metal contamination of soil and water bodies has been recognized as a potential threat to the entire biosphere, which accelerated after the industrial revolution and is presumed to be one of the major environmental challenges worldwide in the 21st century. The major health hazards associated with heavy metals include various types of cancers, organ damage, cardiovascular disease, nervous system disorders, etc. Several conventional techniques have been used for decades for the remediation of these noxious elements, but they have their own setbacks. The physical and chemical techniques are associated with high cost, intensive labor requirement, and ecologic destructive effect, which demand the search for alternative remediation techniques. Recently, biological remediation techniques, such as phytoremediation, bioremediation, biosorption, and microbial fuel cell-based techniques have come up as strong contenders and attracted more attention from researchers. Most of these techniques are considered as sustainable methods because of being cheaper, eco-friendly, and safer as compared with conventional methods. This chapter is an effort to provide an update on various remediation techniques and their advantages and disadvantages, with special focus on sustainable methods. This was carried out using the online database of Scopus, Web of Science, PupMed, Medline, ScienceDirect, Springer, Wiley Online Library, and Google Scholar, and all the available information from the past three decades were summarized and discussed. Also, effective sustainable technologies and their future prospects were highlighted.
In rural areas, there is limited monitoring of drinking water quality. Reliable water quality monitoring stations are expensive and require high costs for maintenance and calibration process. In this paper, the development of a sustainable water quality monitoring system is proposed. The green analytics principles were considered for developing the proposed system to reduce the measurement’s time consumption and labor cost. Five water quality parameters [pH, oxidation reduction potential (ORP), dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), and temperature] have been measured using the developed system. The overall drinking water quality is measured by the proposed partial least squares regression (PLSR) model. The developed system’s performance is determined by mean average percentage error (MAPE), root-mean-square error (RMSE), and R2. The traceability of water quality sensors is defined with required uncertainty in water quality parameters. The measured uncertainty is 0.002, 0.892, 0.015, 0.029, and 0.017 for pH, EC, DO, ORP, and temperature, respectively. The relation between estimated and predicted water quality parameters (R2 > 0.93) shows that the developed system can be a suitable replacement for traditional water quality monitoring techniques.
In Punjab, a northwestern state of India, groundwater is depleting at a fast rate because of its excessive use and mismanagement. Contamination of groundwater and water bodies from geogenic and anthropogenic sources is also becoming a serious problem. Selenium (Se) toxicity is prevalent in 1,000 ha in Hoshiarpur and Nawanshahar districts where about 11 and 4% of groundwater samples were found unfit for drinking and irrigation purposes, respectively. About 9 and 66% groundwater samples of the Ludhiana and Bathinda districts, respectively, had fluoride concentration more than the safe limit of 1 mg l −1. In the Bathinda district, 15–44% of groundwater samples had boron more than the maximum permissible limit of 2 mg l −1. Arsenic concentration in alluvial aquifers of Punjab ranged from 4 to 688 μg l −1, and the majority of them were found unfit for human consumption considering maximum permissible limit of 10 μg l −1. Excessive applications of fertilizers, manures, and agrichemicals to field and vegetable crops lead to nitrate and phosphate leaching and contamination of groundwater and water bodies. In certain situations, nitrates exceed the dangerous level of 10 mg l −1. Industrial effluents, released without any treatment to sewage drains, contain potentially toxic elements in concentrations that are several folds higher than those in domestic sewage water and exceed the maximum permissible limits for their disposal onto agricultural lands. The mean concentrations of Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni in sewage water were, respectively, 21, 133, 700, and 2200 times higher than those in tubewell water. In one study, water of several shallow hand-pumps installed in vicinity of a sewage-water drain had 18, 80, 88, and 210 times higher concentration of Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni, respectively, than in deep tubewell water. A large number of pathogens were observed in tubewells installed for domestic water supply. Possible remediation options for such deplorable situations are discussed in this article.
The mass concentration of uranium in water samples collected from the Bathinda district of Punjab state, India, was estimated using the laser fluorimetric technique. The study region has shown a pronounced number of cancer cases in the recent period. The study aims to calculate the human radiological risk and chemical toxicity associated with uranium consumption through drinking water. The mass concentration of uranium was found to vary from 0.48 to 571.7 mu g/l with a mean value of 84.70 mu g/l. The radiological risk due to consumption of uranium through contaminated drinking water was observed to be in the range of 1.34 x 10(-6) to 1.60 x 10(-3) with a mean value of 2.37 x 10(-4). The chemical toxicity was found to vary from 0.04-43.11 mu g.kg(-1).day(-1) with a mean value of 6.38 mu g.kg(-1).day(-1).
The present study involves the investigation of drinking water taken from existing hand pumps/submersible pumps, tube-wells, dug wells (underground water), and municipal water supply from the south-western districts of Punjab for the presence of arsenic. Many of the samples analyzed were found to have high Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), pH, electrical conductivity, hardness, and high content of arsenic beyond their permissible limits set by WHO along with high variability, which is a matter of great concern. The study has revealed that 80% of the total samples analyzed were having arsenic concentration above the safe limit (10g/L). Out of all the districts analyzed, Faridkot showed maximum contamination of 92% followed by Sangrur 88%, Bathinda 86%, Ferozepur 74%, and Muktsar 60%. The mean arsenic level in water samples obtained from municipal water supply of Ferozepur, Faridkot, Bathinda, Muktsar, and Sangrur is 14.14, 25.171, 23.75, 21.86, and 21.21 with SD 5.177, 5.976, 5.30, and 7.59. The mean arsenic concentration in water samples obtained from public hand pumps is 15.36. An attempt to correlate the physical parameters like pH, TDS, and bore depth of water source was also made. A positive correlation between pH and As concentration was observed with r(2)=0.94. The present study suggests the regular monitoring of arsenic content and the seasonal variation, if any, in future.
In the present investigations, Laser Fluorimetry technique has been used for the microanalysis of uranium content in drinking water samples collected from different sources like the hand pumps, tube wells of various depths from wide range of locations in the four districts of SW-Punjab, India. The purpose of this study was to investigate the uranium concentration levels of ground water being used for drinking purposes and to determine its health effects, if any, to the local population of this region. Corresponding radiological and chemical risks have also been calculated for the uranium concentrations in ground water samples. Some other heavy elements have also been analysed using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. In this region, uranium concentration in 498 drinking water samples has been found to vary between 0.5 and 579 μgl−1with an average of 73.5 μgl−1. Data analysis revealed that 338 of 498 samples had uranium concentration higher than recommended safe limit of 30 μgl−1 (WHO, 2011) while 216 samples exceeded the threshold of 60 μgl−1 recommended by AERB, DAE, India, 2004.
The Malwa region of Punjab, India, is facing an unprecedented crisis of environmental health linked to indiscriminate, excessive, and unsafe use of pesticides, fertilizers, and poor groundwater quality. The region has been described as India's “cancer capital” due to abnormally high number of cancer cases, which have increased 3-fold in the last 10 years. Studies of this region have also highlighted a sharp increase in many other pesticide-related diseases, such as mental retardation and reproductive disorders. The most affected individuals are the agricultural workers who are directly exposed to pesticides. The Malwa region of Punjab, India, is less than 15% of the total area of Punjab (only 0.5% of the total geographical area of India), but it consumes nearly 75% of the total pesticides used in Punjab. The high use of pesticides, along with environmental and social factors, is responsible for the high concentration of pesticide residues in the food chain of this region. Moreover, many banned and restricted pesticides are still in use in this region, warranting strict periodical health checkups and other interventions. The present review describes occupational, environmental, and social factors associated with pesticide use in the Malwa region of Punjab, India, and proposes some risk reduction interventions.
The cancer prevalence in the Malwa region of Punjab (1089/million/year) is much higher than the national average cancer prevalence in India (800/million/year). The participants in the present study were 50 healthy individuals and 49 cancer patients all living in the Malwa region of Punjab, with the healthy people being selected from the same household as the cancer patients. High concentrations of several potentially toxic elements were found in hair samples from people living in Punjab. Compared to standard reference ranges, the metals in excess in both the control and patient groups were aluminium (Al), barium (Ba), manganese (Mn), strontium (Sr) and uranium (U). The most significant findings were high lead (Pb), U and Ba concentrations. The maximum values for Ba, Mn, Pb and U were found in hair from breast cancer patients. The mean concentration of U in hair from the breast cancer patients was 0.63 μg U/g, which is more than double the value found in the control group and over six times higher than the reference range of 0.1 μg U/g. Water, soil, and phosphate fertilizers all seem to play a potential role, causing an increased metal burden in Punjabi people living in the Malwa region. The present study indicates that metals, and especially U, may be a factor in the development of breast cancer among Punjabi women.
Chemical quality and radon activity of ground water along with F, NO 3 , SO 4, U, Pb, Cr and Ni was monitored in certain parts of SW Punjab to assess the role of these elements in causing cancer in Jajjal and Gyana villages of Bhatinda district, Punjab. The work shows that contents of U, Pb, Cr, Ni, F and SO 4 are above the permissible limits. The interaction of groundwater with soils formed by the weathering of high heat producing granites of Tosham area and with evaporites including foetid limestone/dolomite is responsible for high contents of radon and other elements. Indiscriminate use of pesticides and the air and water pollution caused by the effluents of thermal plant are also responsible for the degradation of quality of water in the area.
Fission track technique has been used for uranium estimation in drinking water samples collected from some areas of Amritsar District, Punjab, India. The uranium concentration in water samples is found to vary from 3.19 to 45.59 microg l(-1). Some of the physico-chemical properties such as pH, conductance and hardness and the content of calcium, magnesium, total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium, potassium, chloride, nitrate and heavy metals viz. zinc, cadmium, lead and copper have been determined in water samples. An attempt has been made to correlate uranium concentration with these water quality parameters. A positive correlation of conductance, nitrate, chloride, sodium, potassium, magnesium, TDS, calcium and hardness with uranium concentration has been observed. However, no correlation has been observed between the concentration of uranium and the heavy metals analysed.
Groundwater is the primary source of drinking water for more than 95% of the population in Punjab. The world health organization and US Environment Protection Agency recently established a new maximum contaminant level of 10 ppb for arsenic in drinking water. The arsenic concentration of deep water tube wells located in Amritsar city used for domestic supply for urban population ranged from 3.8 to 19.1 ppb with mean value of 9.8 ppb. Arsenic content in hand pump water varied from 9 to 85 ppb with a mean value of 29.5 ppb. According to the safe limit of As, 54% and 97%, water samples collected from deep water tube wells and hand pumps, respectively, were not fit for human consumption. Arsenic content in canal water varied from 0.3 to 8.8 ppb with a mean value of 2.89 ppb. Canal water has got higher oxidation potential followed by deep tube well and hand pump water. The present study suggests the regular monitoring of arsenic content in deep tube well and shallow hand pump waters by water testing laboratories. The consumption of water having elevated concentration of As above the safe limit must be discouraged. In south-western districts of Punjab, it recommends the use of canal water for drinking purposes and domestic use by rural and urban populations than ground water sources.
Groundwater is being used for drinking and irrigation purposes in the agricultural dominated Indian state of Punjab. Fifty-six groundwater samples were collected from Bathinda, a south-western district of Punjab, during the pre-monsoon (March 2010) and post-monsoon (October 2011) seasons. These samples were tested for major cations, anions and contaminants. Various classification systems were used to study the groundwater quality with respect to drinking as well as irrigation purposes. Total dissolved solids (TDS) and total hardness (TH) are generally used to determine the suitability of groundwater for drinking purpose. Considering TDS as a parameter, 54 and 57 % groundwater samples were found to be unsuitable for use during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons. A wide range of TH values were observed in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon waters samples (mean 250 and 270 mgL−1). About 75 % of pre-monsoon and 79 % of post-monsoon samples exceeded the maximum permissible limit (MPL) of TH (150 mg L−1) proposed by WHO. In terms of contaminant ions, 40 % and 55 % of the pre- and post-monsoon water samples were unfit for drinking purposes w.r.t. fluoride (MPL 1.5 mg F L−1), 29 and 36 % were unfit w.r.t arsenic (MPL 10 μg L−1) and 33 and 45 % were unfit w.r.t nitrate (MPL 45 mg NO3− L−1), respectively. To determine the suitability of groundwater of Bathinda for irrigation purpose, three classification systems proposed by different research workers were used. The parameters electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio, and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) were calculated on the basis of chemical data. Considering EC and RSC together, 32 % samples collected during pre-monsoon season were fit, 19 % were marginal and 49 % were unfit for use. However, during post-monsoon, samples fit for irrigation decreased to 17 % and samples unfit for irrigation increased to 70 %. Increases in the percentage of unfit samples for irrigation after monsoon indicates addition of salts along with the rain water percolated into the groundwater. The other two classification systems, i.e. US Salinity diagram and Wilcox diagram also showed the similar results.
Arsenic (As) is a deadly poison at high concentrations. It is mysterious in the
sense that people are exposed to it most of the time through drinking groundwater, fortunately
at much lower concentrations than the deadly levels, and usually without
knowing it. Arsenic content in alluvial aquifers of Punjab varied from 3.5 to
688 mg L21. Arsenic status of groundwater is classified into low (,10 mg L21),
moderate (�10 to ,25 mg L21), high (�25 to ,50 mg L21), and very high
(.50 mg L21). In zone I, the concentration of As in groundwater varied from 3.5 to
42 mg L21 with a mean value of 23.4 mg L21. On the basis of these limits, only 8%
of samples were low, whereas 51 and 41% of the total samples collected from this
region fall in the moderate and high As categories. The concentration of As in groundwater
of zone II varied from 9.8 to 42.5 mg L21 with a mean value of 24.1 mg L21.
Arsenic concentration in the alluvial aquifers of the central plain of zone II is 2 and
52% in the low and moderate limits. In this region, 46% of groundwater sites
contain high As concentrations. Arsenic concentrations in the aridic southwestern
parts are significantly different from other two provinces. The As concentration
ranged from 11.4 to 688 mg L21 with average value of 76.8 mg L21. Eleven percent
of the aquifers of the southwestern region of zone III are in the moderate category,
54% in the high, and 35% in the very high. According to safe As limits
(,10 mg L21), only 3 and 1% of the groundwater samples collected from zones I
and II were fit for dinking purposes with respect to As content. In the aridic
southwest, zone III, all water samples contained As concentrations greater than the
safe limits and thus are not suitable for drinking purposes. The presence of elevated
As concentrations in groundwater are generally due to the results of natural occurrences
of As in the aquifer materials. The concentration of other competitive oxyanions in waters such as phosphate, sulfate, and borate also depressed the adsorption of As on the
sorption sites of aquifer materials and thereby eventually elevate the As concentration
in groundwaters. In groundwater of alluvial aquifers of Punjab, released from sulfide
oxidation and oxyhydroxide of iron, elevated (.10 mg L21) concentrations of As
were widespread because of high pH (.8.0) and higher concentrations of phosphate,
borate, sulfate, and hydroxyl anions. It is conclusively evident that geochemical conditions,
such as pH, oxidation–reduction, associated or competing ions, and evaporative
environments have significant effects on As concentration in groundwater. These
conditions influence how much As is dissolved or precipitated into the water and how
much is bound to the aquifer materials or the solid particles in water.
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