Available via license: CC BY-NC 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Intangible Capital
IC, 2017 – 13(5): 903-923 – Online ISSN: 1697-9818 – Print ISSN: 2014-3214
https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
Educational videos: After the why, the how
Manuel Rajadell , Federico Garriga-Garzón
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (Spain)
manuel.rajadell@upc.edu, federico.garriga@upc.edu
Received March, 2017
Accepted October, 2017
Abstract
Purpose:
The introduction of educational videos into university education is an indisputable
reality. Numerous scientific publications have outlined the advantages to students: flexibility,
motivation, encouraging self-learning, lower costs, etc. The aim of this paper is to explore the
steps required to make educational videos and highlight the need for educational institutions to
provide teachers with the means to enable them to improve the quality of their multimedia
material productions. Policies in this direction would help to improve the training of future
professionals and enhance the opportunities offered by podcasts.
Design/methodology:
A literature review and a survey have been conducted. Starting in the
first semester of the academic year 2012-2013, a questionnaire has been applied systematically
to students and the corresponding population parameters estimated with a 95% confidence
level.
Findings:
Students consider educational videos as supplementary material which complement
traditional methodologies and favour self-learning as well as offering flexibility at no additional
cost. Teachers can produce their own high-quality multimedia material, which in turn requires a
consistent evolutionary process in elaborating within the changing possibilities that information
technologies offer.
-903-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
Originality/value:
This work deals with the treatment of technical issues and based on our
studies suggests the process to be followed by teachers when making educational videos.
References to this subject in the literature were found to be somewhat limited.
Keywords:
Podcasting and education, Educational videos, Video in the learning process
Jel Codes:
A2
1. Introduction
The process of transferring information, whatever the content, has been changing due to the
convergence of three sectors: information technology, media and telecommunications. The users have
also changed and their desire for autonomy is growing as they choose what type of information they
are interested in and where to access it (Nagy & Bernschütz, 2015). Currently information, unlike other
economic resources, is not scarce and in fact especially via the Internet it is abundant and to some
extent excessive. University teaching and especially that oriented to the understanding of industrial
organization is not immune to this phenomenon. Therefore, the way to teach a class has changed, or
should have, with models incorporating the new types of resources available. This change can be
explained by the dynamic development of methods and tools in information technology. At the same
time, this development not only triggers flexible learning methods but also supports them through the
creation of a new type of knowledge transfer (Allen & Seaman, 2012) and video is a good example of
this. In this paper the term video refers to media files that are distributed through a digital format over
the Internet using personal computers or mobile devices (McGarr, 2009).
The increase in the wealth of audiovisual media presents interesting possibilities that allow for teaching
while economising attention. This work is underlain by the Principle of Attention Economy
(Davenport & Beck, 2001; Goldhaber, 1997; Simon, 1971) according to which, the more information
there is, the lower the attention span and time available to assimilate it. If this concept is transferred to
teaching, the teacher is increasingly becoming a mere manager of knowledge who should strive to focus
students’ attention. In general, interest and attention in knowledge presented in master classes is
progressively being lost as new technologies allow students to obtain such knowledge by other means
and capture their attention (Rué, 2009). The objective is an improvement in performance through self-
-904-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
learning training and an increase in its effectiveness and flexibility within the framework of a society
that organizes itself on the net through a process of both technical and cultural transformation
(Castells, 2003).
On the other hand, the tendency towards a reduction in hours devoted to master classes or lectures
requires the application of new technologies in order to introduce flexibility in teaching (McGarr,
2009), with greater emphasis made on learning activities than on teaching, not forgetting the overall
development of the human being contemplating both ethics and personal development (Fernández,
Fernández & Ortiz, 2003). Reducing class sessions favors the introduction of video distributed from
streaming video channels through a data stream over the Internet, direct playback on a web page in real
time without having to first download the file to your computer (Shephard, 2003).
This article describes the production process of multimedia assemblies whose aim is to harness the
potential of audiovisual language and increase class attention and efficiency by reducing the zapping
effect in which a high percentage of students who attend class are immersed. Given that the current
trend is to emphasize learning rather than learning tasks, the videos point in this direction.
2. Educational videos
Videos began to enter teaching in the 20th century during the 1980s. Rapid advances in communication
and information technology have made them a resource with unlimited possibilities (Nagy &
Bernschütz, 2015; Pink, 2007) accessible to non-professional users (Shrun, Duque & Brown, 2005).
With the development of computer technology, the possibility to create, edit and share videos has
increased the use of videos in university teaching as outlined by Kay and Kletskin (2012).
Many researchers have recognized the usefulness of video in the learning process, emphasizing its
effectiveness as a training tool. Cabero (2007) summarizes the possibilities of videos accentuating the
high number of alternatives to visualise them and their adaptation to any educational level, as well as
pointing out their limitations such as favoring passive attitudes. With the evolution of digital technology
and fast access streaming video channels via the Internet, video has moved from being an important
element to being considered as teaching methodology, with the increase in the number of settings
which use dynamic image as a captivating element for students’ attention (Simó et al., 2009), to the
point that some authors (Choi & Johnson, 2007; Shyu, 2000; Wisher & Curnow, 1999) argue that it is
much more efficient than other methodologies based on books or text material. Hallett and Faria’s
-905-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
study (2006) concludes that multimedia material that integrates audio, video, animations, graphics and
text enables greater content memorization than traditional Power Point slides.
It should be noted that it is proposed that videos are used as complementary components classroom
sessions. Some studies have shown that when used as a complement, positive results are obtained in
student performance (Dupuis, Coutu & Laneuville, 2013; Traphagan, Kusera & Kishi, 2010; Wieling &
Hofman, 2010; Williams, Birch & Hancock, 2012), whereas when used simply to replace class sessions
there is not the same improvement in learning outcomes (Giannakos & Vlamos, 2013; McKinney, Dyck
& Luber, 2008).
According to Caspi, Goirsky and Privman (2005), educational videos can be divided into three
categories depending on their use and purpose: demonstration videos, narrative videos and videos of
keynote lecture sessions. This paper belongs to the first category characterized by offering a learning
tool to further autonomous learning. Also, video is a motivating tool for learning (Fisher & Baird, 2006;
Marx & Frost, 1998), which could be justified by the power of attraction of audiovisual language and
its influence on emotions which can serve to reinforce other less attractive activities. This motivation
should result in an increase in the number of hours spent on various subjects, through viewing
multimedia content and using the opportunity to combine this with other resources such as text,
graphics, debates, etc. This phenomenon is described by the Premack principle coined by the American
psychologist David Premack whereby when two stimuli are linked together, the one that is most likely
to occur positively reinforces the one that is least likely to occur.
The potential of digital technologies help teaching innovation and autonomous learning (Steffens,
2001) as it is evident that students are very used to this type of technologies which enable good quality
visualization in different media and devices: computers, tablets, smartphones, iPods, etc., and are even
exchangeable via bluetooth. In this way students are ensured access to quality, low cost material and as
often as they wish (Foertsch, Moses, Strikwerda & Litzkow, 2002; Shantikumar, 2010; Winterbottom,
2007) from anywhere and via multiple platforms, which is a very interesting possibility in the context of
autonomous learning (Bolliger, Supanokorn & Boggs, 2010; Shantikumar, 2010; Simó et al., 2009). This
flexibility enables methodologies to be combined in a critical manner in order to develop a sea-change
transformation in students (Aiello & Willem, 2004). In this regard Dr.Dilleman of the Leuven Catholic
University proposes that education should be presented as on a menu, just as in a haute cuisine
restaurant: an easy menu to read (friendly interface), offering nouveau cuisine (modular and free choice)
open 24 hours (distance learning) and first class food and service (tutoring and student control).
-906-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
According to Peters (1998), autonomous learning not only provides students with the opportunity to
develop their initiatives and plan their training process, but forces them to do so. In fact they can decide
where, when, how long and how fast to study, which makes them assume a higher level of
responsibility. At this point we cannot avoid mentioning some practical factors such as the possibility
of enabling the monitoring of different subjects available which have complicated timetables (Foertsch
et al., 2002) and saving some trips to attend class (Mckinney & Page, 2009). For a review of how
autonomous learning is considered enhanced in different learning environments by technologies we
recommend texts by Steffens (2006).
3. Steps to be taken to in the development of educational videos
Once interest in the production of multimedia material has been justified the next step is to present
research work carried out in order to answer a fundamental question: How to tackle the challenge of
making educational videos. Initially, for the use of multimedia material in classes we propose to follow
an evolutionary process consisting of five phases (Rajadell & Garriga, 2013):
•For decades that has been possible to introduce audiovisual elements in teaching through the
recommendation of movies to students. Also, TV shows or documentaries can be introduced
by the teacher in the teaching and learning process (Fourcade, 2008).
•The selection of a set of sequences from Internet to divulge a topic or certain concept. These
sequences can be selected according to user requirements (Zhang, Zhou, Briggs & Nunamaker,
2006). This easy and affordable option from the huge range available on youtube enables the
teacher to bring interesting materials from the net, generate debate and provide examples.
There is also the possibility of adding subtitles to this material using a free, multiplatform,
manual and very precise tool such as Aegisub.
•Make low-cost video screencasts which consist of a digital recording to the computer screen
and includes an audio commentary. This simply takes advantage of the ease of using Microsoft
Producer for PowerPoint, Screencast-O-matic or Camtasia Studio which all easily enable
screenshot capture from a computer screen as well as Adobe Captivate. You can also take
pictures with a webcam or another video camera and attach an audio file. This format is easily
edited using tools suitable for beginners such as MovieMaker for Windows or iMovie for Mac,
which as well as being easier to use are also free. Editing lets you add text which in turn helps to
-907-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
highlight the structure and main concepts. The results obtained provide high educational value
and can be presented in different final resolution formats to enable access for all students
(Winterbottom, 2007). The files are shared as podcasts. While the term podcast initially referred
to audio recordings today it applies to a distribution method via Internet of any digital file or
collection of files, to be played back on portable devices such as personal computers, iPods,
smart-phones or tablets (Lazzari, 2009) for an audience that wants to play back on demand.
•Make a montage using video clips. Internet is an inexhaustible source of images and sound
resources, although only those that are free of copyright can be used. CreativeCommons
licenses allow you to use material created by others. After acquiring some knowledge it is
possible to work with Sony Vegas, Adobe Premiere or Final Cut to edit video clips using
material compiled from various sources, attach titles and add one or more audio tracks in order
to create an enjoyable and effective presentation.
•Create your own multimedia montage production. This is undoubtedly the most complicated
and costly. It stems from an idea that answers specific training needs and establishes a script
organizing information sequentially. The visual style is then decided before passing to the
recording phase taking care of both sound and image, requiring the rehearsal of speech several
times. In the editing phase poor scenes are removed, the length of the sequences is managed
and special effects, titles, subtitles, transitions, music and narration are added. The process ends
with the publication of the video on a digital platform or on a video streaming channel on the
Internet.
We should note that there are tools to create lists of questions in order to gather information and
validate the knowledge acquired by students, so that videos become interactive. One of these tools is
Edpuzzle that as well as providing teachers with links to course materials and introducing video
questionnaires also provides feedback on each possible answer. An alternative, with similar
characteristics, is Educanon.
Teachers should undertake the evolutionary process described above in order to reach the last level,
that is, creating original multimedia productions, and be aware that with proper design it is possible to
provide tools to facilitate knowledge which does not have to be to the detriment of the role they serve
as trainers but rather the contrary. Through a combined use of classroom teaching and learning objects
such as multimedia materials, teachers reserve themselves for the most substantial part of the training
activity, which is to provide approaches and guidelines that need greater communication and empathy.
-908-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
The teacher should concentrate on what students cannot do for themselves and from this approach
some really relevant teaching competences emerge in relation to the activity of teaching (Rué, 2009).
We should also note that audiovisual resources are not intended to eliminate teachers (McKinney et al.,
2008) but rather intend to integrate into the educational system, given that multimedia montages allow
the use of real life cases to show examples of both good and bad practices or real-world illustrations
(Jarvis & Dickie, 2009), summarize a class lesson or chapter of the textbook (McGarr, 2009), visualize
an experiment before doing it, pose a problem or a video conundrum (Bartolomé, 2008), establish a
starting point for a debate or a class (Bennett & Glover 2008; Foertsch et al., 2002), present a method,
algorithm or way of working, intuitively present an idea, solve a problem graphically (Kay, 2012), create
stories, visual metaphors, etc.
Podcasts enable students to have higher quality notes (McKinney et al., 2008; Traphagan et al., 2010),
and they also offer the option to correct them (Cramer, Collins, Snider & Fawcett, 2007; Evans, 2008).
Fourcade (2008), states that these possibilities not only serve to motivate but also create participatory
dynamics and develop expressive and perceptual abilities. Podcasting has made distance education more
accessible to a wide diversity of students (Cebeci & Tekdal, 2006), proving effective in reducing
isolation and anxiety in students as it promotes a sense of belonging to a community (Lee & Chan,
2007), and also tightens the relationship between students and teachers (Fernández, Simó & Sallán,
2009). In the case of foreign students podcasts help them overcome language difficulties in the first
months of course due to the ease with which they can replay them (Evans, 2008).
Notably video is economically profitable in reducing costs by allowing reuse (Jung, 2005) and in
postgraduate training it decreases the number of class-based sessions. However, if all media are
bidirectional, video is no exception, so in order to maximize its broadcast capability it is not enough to
access the tools or heavily use the media but it is also necessary to master the language (Salinas, 2012).
The creative ability to communicate also gives students the possibility to critically receive messages
from the media, which is to say that video is a useful resource both in terms of means and content.
-909-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
4. How to make educational videos
Video production through your own material preparation can be done in a number of ways, always
based on the videographic language that has emerged from the effort to develop audiovisual messages
through the use of existing technical means of collection and reproduction. Although Ractham and
Zhang (2006) suggest that podcast production is simple for teachers, they will still have to face, when
producing a video, an obvious lack of training in carrying out such a project with a guarantee of
success and acceptable technical parameters: image quality, format explanations, cognitive load, tone of
voice, rhythm, length and scene segmentation, etc. In accordance with Kay (2012), despite the
importance of the technical characteristics of videos and its effect on learning, there are no studies to
evaluate this relationship.
The point is that if the widespread use of podcasting in education is a reality, practical concerns about
their production have to be properly addressed and this implies an improvement in the level of
institutional support as stated in research by Lonn and Teasley (2009). Our study suggests that there has
been very little research done which deals with the fundamental issues about the content and authoring
of podcasts in order stimulate a more innovative use of this technology. It rarely seems to be
considered for research or investigation. In our environment the development of this type of material
depends only on teachers’ vocation for education as they do not receive any encouragement to do so
and if they spend an excessive amount of time cannot then deal with the activities of their own
research which can end up penalizing them.
Ellis and Cohen (2001) published research which warned that although podcasts can be useful,
attractive and received with great enthusiasm by students, their use should be weighed up against the
cost of their production. Also, Brown and Green (2007) claim that producing a video is a difficult task
for most teachers. This is possibly still valid today although production costs are gradually getting lower.
The teacher's work should focus on the development of the script, which is the result of a creative
effort. All too often this is left in the hands of the director who ends up materializing the project and
who finally transforms it into a new project. For the director the technical script is an obligatory work
reference, outlining which must be achieved. In this sense the script is a starting point as well as a point
of arrival (Fernández and Martínez, 2007).
In our case, the scripts were created by including all the images and expressions of those concepts
likely to be disclosed. At the time of preparing the scripts the following points should be decided upon:
-910-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
•What to explain. Define the thematic focus to be addressed and the ideas you want to
communicate and then proceed to summarize (avoiding unnecessary terms or words) and
finally organize the text. As in the cinema a script should be developed to present ideas and
should be the basis for the final product to explain the target content with the necessary clarity.
The script requires an effort in documenting rationally, aesthetically and scientifically, in order
to then select the essentials.
•How the videos will be used. The video concept of a television presenter, where the teacher is
in front of a blackboard or sitting in a seat, is rejected. The video must not turn into a talking
head. The unspoken rule about visual storytelling is that a gesture is preferable to dialogue. It is
advisable to look at videos which are similar examples to the proposed project and read articles
in magazines so as to exploit the unique properties of video (sound interface and image), which
invites you to create things differently than normally (Rea & Irving, 2002).
•How long. The benefits and challenges posed by the introduction of video in teaching is closely
related to their length (Kay, 2012), a two-minute video of has a different impact than a ten-
minute one. The attention span is a scarce resource in developed societies where some groups
offer time and others demand it, so we should take into account the law of supply and demand
when communicating with others (Núñez, 2007). Since the time of uninterrupted attention
lasts about ten minutes (Weinschenk, 2012), the videos that we have made are designed not to
ever exceed this time which has been set as a maximum. This feature makes them really
manageable via Internet and can easily be downloaded and played on any multimedia device.
Through adapting the written script a technical one is produced which contains the specific and
necessary indications for an effective production. The script is, for the producer, equivalent to a
blueprint for a project in building construction (Rea & Irving, 2002). The script dictates what needs to
be done in the same way that the building plans indicate where to place the bricks.
The descriptive language of the written script requires a translation into concrete audiovisual technical
solutions which will be found in the technical script. This code change can only be carried out by the
person who masters audiovisual language, its innate rules and who also knows the technical
possibilities. It is certainly work to be done by an expert who masters the media and all its complexity
(Fernández & Martínez, 2007), and for this reason requires the help of an expert in audiovisual
communication to take responsibility that the final product reflects all those indications considered
necessary at the time of its production and assembly (editing, soundtrack and post-production process).
-911-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
In our case, the initial text was segmented into sequences to facilitate the monitoring of video
production. By way of example Table 1 shows the written script developed for the first sequence of
one of the videos. The two-column format is commonly used in audiovisual documentary types, in one
column the sound is given and in the other the visual image. The first column refers to the sequence
number, the second column gives the text that will become the audio in the video while the third
indicates what should be displayed on the screen.
Nº Written script Technical script
1 The analysis of economic and financial
information is a basic tool in any decision
process which is why it is relevant to managers,
owners, advisors, and creditors, among others.
This video shows how to perform the analysis of
economic and financial information on a balance
sheet and the accounts statement of a company.
Keywords: Company, money, business people
(shareholders, managers, advisors, creditors, etc.)
Show the balance sheet and accounts statement
which are based on the financial information.
Table 1. Example script
In the editing stage scenes are selected and the final length is determined, titles are added as well as the
soundtrack. The link between auditory and visual information provides the student with a multisensory
experience (Hampton, 2002), improving their motivation more effectively than written text (Choi &
Johnson, 2007; Shyu, 2000). The inclusion of music, which can be created using free or professional
software, is entirely intentional in order to release dopamine when listening which acts as a
neurotransmitter in the central nervous system creating a pleasant feeling and a good mood (Salimpoor.
Benevoy, Larcher, Dagher & Zatorre, 2011), ideal to facilitate learning.
In our case, the end result is a set of videos that have been published on a digital Moodle type platform
with free access for students. This platform is a web application that allows the integration of a large
number and variety of online multimedia resources thanks to its design structure and the database it
uses. The insertion of the videos is a simple task that does not require the use of resources such as
forums or websites.
-912-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
5. Results
Since the first semester of 2012-2013 a questionnaire has been used with the aim of getting the
corresponding feedback in relation to the value added through the use of videos in the learning
process. Considering the objectives and the exploratory nature of the work a survey based on closed
questions was developed with to the aim of knowing students opinions. In addition, more specific
objectives were included:
•To determine whether the use of video as a teaching tool favors learning or not.
•To know the students’ assessment of the proposed content: presentation clarity and level of
difficulty.
•To know the degree of student satisfaction regarding the content and technical quality of the
multimedia material made available.
The anonymous surveys were conducted by teachers at the beginning of the last class session of the
course, which may introduce some bias as students who attend class regularly have higher motivation
and are more interested in the skills and educational activities carried out the teacher (Fjortoft, 2005). It
is worth noting there is research based only on paper to analyze the use of videos in teaching while
others, based on the mixed use of paper and online versions (Chester, Buntine, Hammond & Atkinson,
2011). The questionnaire was conducted based on two major ambits:
•Ambit 1 (questions 1 through 6 of the questionnaire). Rate the content, its level of depth and
informative clarity.
•Ambit 2 (questions 7 to 14 of the questionnaire). Rate the videos as a learning tool, both from
the perspective of their technical function and their contribution to the training process.
On concluding the period of research, of the 578 students enrolled 264 responses were obtained. The
questionnaire includes fourteen items to make it a quick survey, using an ordinal scale such as the Likert
scale, for its ease, low cost, and mainly because it intends to measure individual attitudes. Summers
(1982) defines attitude as the sum total of inclinations and feelings, prejudices or distortions,
preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats and convictions of an individual about any specific issue, and
attitude is expressed through opinions (Ávila, 2006).
-913-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
The scale has been designed according to a series of items that reflect a positive or negative opinion
about a question, each divided into five alternatives: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) indifferent (2)
disagree and (1) strongly disagree. These items have been drafted with criteria pr oposed by Weiers
(1986): less than twenty words, logical, simple and not compound sentences, avoiding the words:
everyone, always and nobody. Besides, an attempt has been made to avoid acquiescence (agreement
with any assertion) by introducing a negative item. To corroborate the content validity, consultation was
undertaken with a number of teachers in the department and some from other areas of knowledge
who use educational videos. The results obtained are shown in Table 2.
Nº Question 5 4 3 2 1
1 They have helped me to have a clearer view of the subject 3 55 154 41 1
2 They increased my expectations about the subject 12 93 79 67 13
3 They have only been supplementary 14 89 92 42 27
4 They have led me to not give importance to other media 0 13 26 106 119
5 I prefer the videos to PDF files 0 40 119 79 26
6 The technical quality of a teaching video is fundamentally important 120 95 46 2 1
7 They have been relevant to my learning 18 90 142 14 0
8 They have been motivating for my learning 0 132 119 11 2
9 They have helped me to discover things about the subject 26 53 132 53 0
10 They have helped me in a different way than the class notes 15 52 158 0 39
11 They are a more harmful than positive tool 0 14 39 53 158
12 They have improved our collaborative work 0 53 91 79 41
13 They have allowed me to learn in a different way 26 133 66 26 13
14 Their quality can be as important as their content 110 115 18 15 6
Table 2. Results obtained from the student survey
Below, the values obtained from the statistics of central tendency and dispersion (Table 3) are shown.
Nº Question Mean SDeviation Mode
1 They have helped me to have a clearer view of the subject 3.1 ± 0.75 3
2 They increased my expectations about the subject 3.1 ± 0.99 4
3 They have only been supplementary 3.1 ± 1.06 3
4 They have led me to not give importance to other media 1.7 ± 0.83 1
5 I prefer the videos to PDF files 2.7 ± 0.85 3
6 The technical quality of a teaching video is fundamentally important 4.3 ± 0.79 5
7 They have been relevant to my learning 3.4 ± 0.70 3
8 They have been motivating for my learning 3.4 ± 0.61 4
9 They have helped me to discover things about the subject 3.2 ± 0.87 3
10 They have helped me in a different way than the class notes 3.0 ± 1.01 3
11 They are a more harmful than positive tool 1.7 ± 0.92 1
12 They have improved our collaborative work 2.6 ± 0.98 3
13 They have allowed me to learn in a different way 3.5 ± 0.97 4
14 Their quality can be as important as their content 4.2 ± 0.94 4
Table 3. Statistical results
-914-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
The results show the extent to which students feel that the videos are appropriate to their training
needs. They show an overall student satisfaction for their production and positive perceptions in
relation to the impact on their learning. This is possibly due to the connection with current culture,
transmitting content accessible from technological tools used every day.
The sample has not taken into account student profile, which implies a limitation of the study given the
existence of at least two types of students: idealists and pragmatists. The idealists enjoy traditional type
conferences while the pragmatists simply look for enough information to pass, so for the latter group
videos fit well with their profile (Dolnicar, 2005). Another issue which is not analyzed is the influence
of age on the perception of satisfaction about using teaching videos. In our case this had little effect as
the students in the study are mostly aged between twenty and twenty-eight.
The answer to the question of whether the videos have helped to discover new things is conditioned by
the fact that they follow the pedagogical strategy of presenting information and therefore do not
require an active attitude on behalf of the students. It might be worth considering the strategy of
involving students in creating their own videos, because they learn through working, collaborating and
possibly developing academic videos. With this approach the perception students expressed that the
videos contributed little to collaborative work videos could be improved.
With regard to the opinion of whether the videos have helped in a different way than traditional notes,
the results obtained strengthen McKinney and Page’s (2009) theory as they back the new learning
opportunities provided and contradict the results presented by Hew (2009) because students do not
declare that they use them to retrieve or clarify any doubts generated in class. However, Hew’s (2009)
work only analyzed eleven items and they were mostly descriptive studies.
Most students say the videos help them to have a clearer view, or that they have only been a new
addition to the subject or that have helped in a different way than notes. Lonn and Teasley’s (2009)
results lead in the same direction stating that podcasts constitute complementary or refresher material
when preparing for evaluations. This all shows that for podcasts to be truly beneficial students have to
keep doing the same things they always have, which is fully consistent with the findings of research by
McKinney et al. (2008).
Quality is a fundamental attribute in the same way that the content is, so you need to allocate resources
to technical aspects. However, possibly in any educational institution, there is limited teacher
involvement in the development of digital educational content. According to Martínez and G arcía-
Beltrán (2003), the reasons for this are that, on the one hand, teachers are not usually an experts in
-915-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
content generation computer tools, and on the other hand, these developments represent more work
without any financial or professional incentive.
It’s worth mentioning that if podcasts help students as we have upheld, it is not so clear if podcasting
contributes to the improvement in the quality of education as a number of teachers simply limit their
contribution to capturing, displaying and transmitting content without modifying the teaching method
in class (Lonn & Teasley, 2009), although there are studies which position themselves against this
affirmation (Campbell, 2005; Cebeci & Tekdal, 2006). If teachers do not find a way to change their
teaching methodology by using different forms of podcasting, students perceive this as just another
educational resource and teachers will not succeed in the introduction of innovative and interactive
activities to their lectures.
The survey results support the conclusion that the videos produced are welcome, there is an increase in
student satisfaction rates and that they are considered useful for training, in line with other studies
(Dupuis et al, 2013;. Evans, 2008; Kay, 2012; Nagy & Bernschütz, 2015; Williams et al, 2012). In
addition, the characteristics of flexibility, ease of access and cost are valued, so there should be
diversification and expansion to the supply of content. The results obtained do not establish that
videos will allow increasing educational independence away from textbooks or teachers, which
coincides with the view of Salinas (2012), nor has there been detected a decline in class attendance
which is also consistent with studies of Evans (2008), Kay (2012) and Lonn and Teasley (2009). It is
also not possible to conclude from the study that the use of educational videos helps to improve
students' marks in exams, in agreement with work by Chester et al. (2011) and Foertsch et al. (2002).
Home Educational Centre Work Other
123 85 38 18
Table 4. Results in terms of place of use
Control over the place of learning provided by videos has been discussed in the literature in numerous
works (Chester et al, 2011; Hill & Nelson, 2011; Winterbottom, 2007). The results obtained (Table 4)
reveal the flexibility provided by multimedia material as it can be used mainly at home (46.6%),
educational centers (32.2%), work (14.4) and elsewhere such as on journeys by public transport (6.8%).
With this data we can conclude that 67.8% of students access outside the educational institution.
-916-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
Students mostly watch the multimedia material in classical learning situations, as only a minority (18%)
make the most of other times.
6. Conclusions
This paper has reached its proposed objective of establishing the necessary steps to produce
educational videos and has highlighted the need for educational institutions to devote resources to
further improving the quality of multimedia material which teachers can produce. Also, it can be seen
that with podcasts students have material which perfectly complements class notes, and the declining
use of textbooks and PowerPoint presentations. The results of the survey highlight the need to
diversify and expand the range of content. However, for greater integration of the videos in the
university lectures rooms it would be advisable to increase teachers’ motivation through the use of
some professional incentives or recognition. Consideration should also be given to training teachers to
produce multimedia content enabling them to fulfill the required technical quality.
Finally, it should be noted that it is not the instrument which improves teaching, but rather the way, the
predisposition and topics presented by the teacher, not forgetting that improvement in teaching starts
with the resolve and interest of teachers. As stated by the famous biologist Edward Wilson (2007)
passion is the engine of knowledge, the teacher’s commitment is much more effective if it is expressed
both in the art of teaching and personal love for the subject... students need find tutors in whom to
trust, heroes to emulate and tangible and lasting success. Teachers with this profile feel in their element
(Robinson & Aronica, 2011) and in relation to the development of educational videos, their goal will go
beyond the educational objectives and achieve the status of art.
References
Aiello, M., & Willem, C. (2004). El blendedlearning como práctica transformadora. Pixel-BitRevista de
Medios y Educación, 23, 21-26.
Allen, I.E., & Seaman, J. (2012). Changing course: Ten years of tracking online education in the United States.
London: Babson Survey Research Group and Quahog Research Group, LLC. Pearson Foundation.
Ávila, H.L. (2006). Introducción a la metodología de la investigación. México: Instituto Tecnológico. Cd.
Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua.
-917-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
Bartolomé, A. (2008). Entornos de aprendizaje mixto en educación superior. Revista Iberoamericana de
Educación a Distancia, 11(1), 15-51.
Bennett, P., & Glover, P. (2008). Video streaming: Implementation and evaluation in an undergraduate
nursing program. Nurse Education Today, 28(2), 253-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2007.04.005
Bolliger, D.U., Supanokorn, S., & Boggs, C. (2010). Impact of podcasting on student motivation in the
online learning environment. Computers & Education, 55(2), 714-722.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.03.004
Brown, A., & Green, T.D. (2007). Video podcasting inperspective: the history, technology, aesthetics,
and instructional uses of a new medium. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 36(1), 3-17.
https://doi.org/10.2190/ET.36.1.b
Cabero, J. (2007). El vídeo en la enseñanza y formación. Nuevas Tecnologías aplicadas a la educación. Madrid:
McGraw-Hill.
Campbell, G. (2005). There’s something in the air: Podcasting in education. Educause Review, 40(6),
32-46.
Caspi, A., Gorsky, P., & Privman, M. (2005). Viewing comprehension: Students’ learning preferences
and strategies when studing from video. Instructional Science, 33(1), 31-47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-
004-2576-x
Castells, M. (2003). La era de la información. Tomo I: La sociedad red. Barcelona: Alianza Editorial.
Cebeci, Z., & Tekdal, M. (2006). Using podcasts audio learning objects. Interdisciplinary Journal of
Knowledge and Learning Objects, 2, 47-57. https://doi.org/10.28945/400
Cramer, K.M., Collins, K.R., Snider, D., & Fawcett, G. (2007). The virtual lecture hall: Utilisation,
effectiveness and student perceptions. British Journal of Education Technology, 38(1), 106-115.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00598.x
Chester, A., Buntine, A., Hammond, K., & Atkinson, L. (2011). Podcasting in Educational: Student
Attitudes, Behaviour and Self-Efficacy. Educational Technology & Society, 14(2), 236-247.
Choi, H.J., & Johnson, S.D. (2007). The effect of problem-based video instruction on learner
satisfaction, comprehension and retention in college courses. British Journal of Educational Technology,
38, 885-895. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00676.x
Davenport, T.H., & Beck, J.C. (2001). The attention economy: understanding the new currency of business.
Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press.
-918-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
Dolnicar, S. (2005). Should We Still Lecture or Just Post Examination Questions on the Web? The
nature of the shift towards pragmatism in undergraduate lecture attendance. Quality in Higher
Education, 11(2), 103-115. https://doi.org/10.1080/13538320500175027
Dupuis, J., Coutu, J., & Laneuville, O. (2013). Application of linear mixed-effect models for the analysis
of exam scores: Online video associated with higher scores for undergraduate students with lower
grades. Computers & Education, 66, 64-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.02.011
Ellis, T.J., & Cohen, M.S. (2001). Integrating multimedia into a distance learning environment: Is the
game worth the candle?. British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(4), 497-500.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8535.00218
Evans, C. (2008). The effectiveness of m-learning in the form of podcast revision lectures in higher
education. Computers & Education, 50(2), 491-498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.09.016
Fernández, F., & Martínez Abadía, J. (2007). Manual básico de lenguaje y narrativa audiovisual. Barcelona:
Ediciones Paidós Ibérica, S.A.
Fernández, M., Fernández, M.M., & Ortiz, S. (2003). Las nuevas tecnologías en la enseñanza de
“Organización y gestión de la producción”. Nuevas Tecnologías en la Innovación Educativa, (72).
Fernández, V., Simó, P., & Sallán, J.Mª. (2009). Podcasting: A new technological tool to facilitate good
practice in higher education. Computers & Education, 53(2), 385-392.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.02.014
Fisher, M., & Baird, D.E. (2006). Making mlearning work: Utilizing mobile technology for active
exploration, collaboration, assessment, and reflection in higher education. Journal of Educational
Technology Systems, 35(1), 3-30. https://doi.org/10.2190/4T10-RX04-113N-8858
Fjortoft, N. (2005). Students’ motivation for class attendance. American Journal of Pharmaceutical
Education, 69, 107-112. https://doi.org/10.5688/aj690115
Foertsch, J., Moses, G.A., Strikwerda, J.C., & Litzkow, M.J. (2002). Revising the lecture/homework
paradigm using eTechR web-based streaming video software. Journal of Engineering Education, 91(3),
267-274. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2002.tb00703.x
Fourcade, A. (2008). Nuevas tecnologías aplicadas a la educación. Alicante: Universidad de Alicante.
Giannakos, M.N., & Vlamos, P. (2013). Using webcasts in education: Evaluation of effectiveness. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 44(2), 432-441. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01309.x
-919-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
Goldhaber, M.H. (1997). The attention Economy and the Net. First Monday, 2(4). Available at:
http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue2_4/goldhaber/ (Last access date: October, 2012).
Hallett, T.L, & Faria, G. (2006). Teaching with multimedia: Do bells and whistles help students learn?
Journal of Technology in Human Services, 24(2-3), 167-179. https://doi.org/10.1300/J017v24n02_10
Hampton, C. (2002). Teaching practical skills. In: A.K. Mishra & J. Bartram (Editors), Perspectives on
distance education: Skills development through distance education, commonwealth of learning. Vancouver:
Commonwealth of Learning.
Hew, K.F. (2009). Use of audio podcast in K-12 and higher education: A review of research topics and
methodologies. Education Technology Research and Development, 57(3), 333-357.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-008-9108-3
Hill, J.L., & Nelson, A. (2011). New technology, new pedagogy? Employing video podcasts in learning
and teaching about exotic ecosystems. Environmental Education Research, 57(3), 393-408.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2010.545873
Jarvis, C., & Dickie, J. (2009). Acknowledging the “forgotten” and the unknown”: The role of video
podcasts for supporting field-based learning. Planet, 22, 61-63.
https://doi.org/10.11120/plan.2009.00220061
Jung, I. (2005). Innovative and Good Practices of Open and Distance Learning in Asia and the Pacific Region .
APEID, UNESCO. Bangkok Occasional Paper Series, Paper No. 3. Available at:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001529/152961e.pdf (Last access date: October, 2013).
Kay, R.H. (2012). Exploring the use of video podcasts in education: A comprehensive review of the
literature. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(3), 820-831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.01.011
Kay, R.H., & Kletskin, I. (2012). Evaluating the use of problem-based video podcasts to teach
mathematics in higher education. Computers & Education, 59(2), 619-627.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.03.007
Lazzari, M. (2009). Creative use of podcasting in higher education and its effect on competitive agency.
Computers & Education, 52(1), 27-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.06.002
Lee, M.J.W., & Chan, A. (2007). Reducing the effects of isolation and promoting inclusivity for distance
learners through podcasting. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 8(1), 85-104.
Lonn, S., & Tesasley, S.D. (2009). Podcasting in higher education: What are the implications for
teaching and learning?. Internet and Higher Education, 12, 88-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.06.002
-920-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
McGarr, O. (2009). A review of podcasting in higher education: Its influence on the traditional lecture.
Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 25(3), 309-321. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.1136
McKinney, A., & Page, K. (2009). Podcasts and video streaming: Useful tools to facilitate learning of
pathophysiology in undergraduate nurse education?. Nurse Education in Practice, 9(6), 372-376.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2008.11.003
McKinney, D., Dyck, J.L., & Luber, E.S. (2008). iTunes University and the classroom: Can podcasts
replace professors?. Computers & Education, 52(3), 617-623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.11.004
Martínez R., & García-Beltrán, J. (2003) Experiencia en el uso de las nuevas tecnologías en la
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Jornada de Nuevas Tecnologías en la Innovación Educativa 2003 (41-48).
Marx, R.D., & Frost, P.J. (1998). Towards optimal use of video in management education: Examining
the evidence. Journal of Management Development, 17(4), 243-250.
https://doi.org/10.1108/02621719810210154
Nagy, J.T., & Bernschütz, M. (2015). The impact of webinar-webcast system on learning performance.
Educational Technology Research and Development, nº, 1-9.
Núñez, A. (2007). ¡Será mejor que lo cuentes! Los relatos como herramientas de comunicación Storytelling .
Barcelona: Ediciones Urano.
Peters, O. (1998). Learning and Teaching in Distance Education. London: Kogan Page Limited.
Pink, S. (2007). Doing visual ethnography. London: Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857025029
Ractham, P., & Zhang, X. (2006). Podcasting in Academia: A New Knowledge Management Paradigm
within Academic Sttings. Actas del Congreso 2006 ACM SIGMIS CPR, Claremont, California (USA) .
Abril 13-15, 314-317. https://doi.org/10.1145/1125170.1125241
Rajadell, M., & Garriga, F. (2013). Pasos para la elaboración de vídeos docentes en la formación universitaria. Libro
de capítulos FECIES 2013. X Foro Internacional sobre la evaluación de la calidad de la investigación y de la
educación superior (FECIES) (379-383). Asociación Española de Psicología Conductual (AEPC).
Facultad de Psicología. Universidad de Granada.
Rea, P.W., & Irving, D.K. (2002). Producción y dirección de cortometrajes y vídeos. Madrid: Instituto Oficial de
Radio y Televisión. RTVE.
Robinson, K., & Aronica, L. (2011). El Elemento. Descubrir tu pasión lo cambia todo. Barcelona: Debols!llo.
Rué, J. (2009). El Aprendizaje Autónomo en Educación Superior. Madrid: Narcea, S.A. de Ediciones.
-921-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
Salinas, J. (2012). I uploadeda@Youtube video? ¿Una nueva perspectiva de la televisión educativa?.
EDMETIC. Revista de Educación Mediática y TIC, 1(1), 8-28.
Salimpoor, V.N., Benevoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., & Zatorre, R. (2011). Anatomically distinct
dopamine release during abticipationj and experience of peak emotion to music. Nature Neuroscience,
14, 257-262. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2726
Shantikumar, S. (2010). From lecture theatre to portable media: Students’ perceptions of an enhanced
podcast for revision. Medical Teacher, 31(6), 535-538. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590802365584
Shephard, K. (2003). Questioning, promoting and evaluating the use of streaming video to support
student learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(3), 295-538. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-
8535.00328
Shyu, H.C. (2000). Using video based anchored instruction to enhance learning: Taiwan’s experience.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 31, 57-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8535.00135
Shrun, W., Duque, R., & Brown, T. (2005). Digital video as research practice: Methodology for the
millennium. Journal of Research Practice, 1(1), 1-19.
Simon, H.A. (1971). Designing organizations for an information-rich world. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins
Press.
Simó, J., et al. (2009). VideoStreaming: integració de vídeos docents de baix cost a ATENEA com a nova eina
d’ensenyament-aprenentatge per a l’estudiantat d’enginyeria. 12è Premi a la Qualitat en la Docència
Universitària. Consell Social Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya.
Steffens, K. (2001). Self-regulation and computer based learning. Anuario de la Facultad de Psicología de la
Universitat de Barcelona, 32(2), 77-94.
Steffens, K. (2006). Self-Regulated learning in Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments: Lessons
of a European peer review. European Journal of Education, 41(3-4), 353-379.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3435.2006.00271.x
Summers, G.F. (1982). Medición de actitudes. México: Editorial Trillas.
Traphagan, T., Kusera, J.V., & Kishi, K. (2010). Impact of class lecture webcasting on attendance and
learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(1), 19-37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-009-
9128-7
Weiers, R.M. (1986). Investigación de Mercados. Madrid: Prentice Hall.
Weinschenk, S.M., (2012). Presentaciones inteligentes. Madrid: Anaya Multimedia.
-922-
Intangible Capital – https://doi.org/10.3926/ic.1042
Wieling, M., & Hofman, W. (2010). The impact of online lecture recordings and automated feedback
on student performance. Computers & Education, 54(4), 992-998.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.10.002
Williams A., Birch, E., & Hancock, P. (2012). The impact of online lecture recordings on student
performance. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 28, 199-213. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.869
Wilson, E.O. (2007). La creación: Salvemos la vida en la tierra. Madrid: Katz Barpal Editores.
Wisher, R., & Curnow, C.K. (1999). Perceptions and effects of image transmissions during internet-
based training. American Journal of Distance Education, 13(3), 37-51.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08923649909527034
Winterbottom, S. (2007). Virtual lecturing: Delivering lectures using screen casting and podcasting
technology. Planet, 18, 6-8. https://doi.org/10.11120/plan.2007.00180006
Zhang, D., Zhou, L., Briggs, R.O., & Nunamaker, J.F. Jr. (2006). Instructional video in e-learning:
Assessing the impact of interactive video on learning effectiveness. Information and Management, 43(1),
15-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2005.01.004
Intangible Capital, 2017 (www.intangiblecapital.org)
Article's contents are provided on an Attribution-Non Commercial 3.0 Creative commons license. Readers are allowed to copy, distribute
and communicate article's contents, provided the author's and Intangible Capital's names are included. It must not be used for
commercial purposes. To see the complete license contents, please visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/.
-923-
