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1. INTRODUCTION
India has a long history of organized edu-
cation. The Gurukul system of education is one
of the oldest on earth but before that the guru-
shishya system was extant, in which students
were taught orally and the data would be passed
from one generation to the next. Gurukuls were
traditional Hindu residential schools of learning;
typically the teacher’s house or a monastery.
Education was free (and often limited to the higher
castes), but students from well-to-do families paid
Gurudakshina, a voluntary contribution after the
completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the
teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scrip-
tures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft,
Mathematics, Medicine Astrology and “History”
(“Itihaas”).
The current system of education, with its
western style and content, was introduced &
funded by the British in the 19th century, follow-
ing recommendations by Macaulay. Traditional
structures were not recognized by the British
government and have been on the decline since.
After independence, education became the
responsibility of the States. The Central Govern-
ment’s only obligation was to co-ordinate in
technical and higher education and specifies
standards. This continued till 1976, when the
education became a joint responsibility of the
State and the Centre. In 1976, education was made
a joint responsibility of the states and the Centre,
© Kamla-Raj 2010 J Soc Sci, 22(1): 15-23 (2010)
Development of School Education Status in India
Vishal D. Pajankar1 and Pranali V. Pajankar2
1Department of Educational Survey and Data Processing, National Council of Educational
Research and Training, New Delhi 110 016, India
E-mail: vdp1234@rediffmail.com, vishal1819@gmail.com
2R.T.M. Nagpur University, Nagpur 440 010, Maharashtra, India
KEYWORDS Habitation. Enrolment. Gross Enrolment Ratio. Pupil Teacher Ratio
ABSTRACT India has a long history of organized education. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of
learning; typically the teacher’s house or a monastery. The current system of education, with its western style and
content, was introduced and funded by the British in the 19th century, following recommendations by Macaulay.
Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. Because of
these initiatives taken by the States and Centre, education system in India has expanded exponentially over the past
five decades, but its current achievements are grossly inadequate for the nation to realize its potential greatness.The
present study is an attempt to study the changing scenario of school education in India and educational needs at the
various schooling stages. The study also examines the salient features of school education on selected parameters
based on the seventh survey data. Tangible comparisons with sixth survey data will also be made to reveal the
temporal changes over two points of time covering a period of nearly one decade.
through a constitutional amendment. The Center
is represented by Ministry of Human Resource
Development’s Department of Education and
together with the States; it is jointly responsible
for the formulation of education policy and
planning (web site edition).
Natioanl Policy of Education (1986) and
revised Programme of Action (1992) envisioned
that free and compulsory education should be
provided for all children up to 14 years of age
before the commencement of 21st century.
Government of India made a commitment that by
2000, 6% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
will be spent on education, out of which half
would be spent on the Primary education. The
Article 45 of the Directive Principles of the State
Policy was committed to ensuring free and
compulsory education for all. This did not
significantly translate into action and school
enrolments and participation remained dismally
low for decades after independence. Further,
Elementary education being made a fundamental
right by the 83 Constitutional Amendment, and
the Supreme Court’s insistence on States to
provide hot cooked meals in schools, are improv-
ing enrolments, especially among girls. The
Government of India has assigned high priority
to the education sector not only to achieve the
Universalization of Elementary Education by 2010
but also to improve the quality of education at all
levels. Also due to policy of economic liberaliza-
tion and globalization it becomes all the more
16 VISHAL D. PAJANKAR AND PRANALI V. PAJANKAR
necessary to improve the quality of human capital
to face the new challenges and competition in
the world of work (Annual Report 2005-06,
National Council of Education Research and
Training, New Delhi, 2006).
Some of the initiatives such as District Primary
Education Programme (1994), the Mid Day Meal
Scheme (1995) and the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan
(2001) have led some positive impact in
elementary education, specifically in rural areas.
The 86th Amendment of the Indian
constitution makes education a fundamental right
for all children aged 6-14 years. The access to
pre-school education for children under 6 years
of age was excluded from the provisions, and the
supporting legislation has not yet been passed.
Because of these initiatives taken by the States
and Centre, education system in India has
expanded exponentially over the past five decades,
but its current achievements are grossly inade-
quate for the nation to realize its potential great-
ness. The net enrolment rate in primary schools
and in secondary schools is not satisfactory. The
drop out rate was 34.9 per cent at the primary level,
52.9 per cent at the upper primary level and 62.6
percent at High school level in 2002-2003 (Selected
Educational Statistics 2002-03, 2005).
These high drop-out rates from both primary
and secondary school, combined with low
enrolment rates at the higher levels deprive tens
of millions of children of their full rights as citizens.
Out of approximately 211 million children in the
age group 6-14 years on Sept. 30, 2002, nearly
82.5 per cent were enrolled in schools. Further,
less than 7 per cent of the children ever pass the
10th standard public examination. Apart from
addressing the needs of a large illiterate popu-
lation, India’s knowledge strategy must also
develop innovative approaches to enhance
knowledge acquisition among the large commu-
nity of school drop-outs. Unless something is
done to drastically reduce drop-out rates, by the
year 2016 there will be approximately 500 million
people in the country with less than five years of
schooling, and another 300 million that will not
have completed high school. In other words,
about two-thirds of the population will lack the
minimum level of education needed to keep pace
with and take advantage of the social changes
occurring within the country and worldwide
(Garry Jacobs Vision 2020).
In view to above, the present study is an
attempt to study the changing scenario of school
education in India and educational needs at the
various schooling stages. The present study will
examine the salient features of school education
on selected parameters based on the seventh
survey data to demonstrate conditions of school
education in the country. Tangible comparisons
with sixth survey data will also be made to reveal
the temporal changes over two points of time
covering a period of nearly one decade.
2. METHODOLOGY
The present study is an attempt to discuss
the change and development in the school
education in India. The study also focused on
the contemporary data on some key parameters
of school education in India. Many researchers
had conceptualized these parameters to measure
the changing profile of educational development
(Singh 2002).
In this study, secondary data has been taken
into consideration. The data has been collected
from Seventh All India School Education Survey
(AISES), National Council of Education Research
and Training, New Delhi - Reports 2005 on the
key parameters of school education in India. The
data on habitations and habitations with
schooling facilities, number of primary, upper
primary, secondary and higher secondary,
enrolment at different stages (Classes I-XII) in
schools, girls enrolment, GER for different school
stages, teachers in primary, upper primary,
secondary, higher secondary schools, and PTR
for primary, upper primary, secondary, higher
secondary schools, school buildings for primary,
upper primary, secondary, higher secondary
schools has been collected from the Survey
Reports (National Council of Education Research
and Training 2005).
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
In the present study, information was collected
on different key parameters like habitations and
habitations with schooling facilities, number of
primary, upper primary, secondary and higher
secondary, enrolment at different stages (Classes
I-XII) in schools, girls enrolment, gross enrolment
ratio (GER) for different school stages, teachers
in primary, upper primary, secondary, higher
secondary schools, and pupil teacher ratio (PTR)
for primary, upper primary, secondary, higher
secondary schools, school buildings for primary,
17
DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL EDUCATION STATUS IN INDIA
upper primary, secondary, higher secondary
schools.
Here, now, present major findings of study in
brief regarding changing profile of school educa-
tion in India. The data has been analysis by using
statistical techniques to study the status of
school education in India. The various finding
out on development of school education in India
are discuss below.
3.1 Habitations
The term habitation is belongs to the group
of houses occurs in a villages. The definition of
habitation as per Guidelines for Survey Officers,
National Council of Education Research and
Training, New Delhi (2002) is given below:
i. A habitation is a distinct cluster of houses
existing in a compact and continuous manner;
with a local name; and its population should
not be less than 25 in plain areas and not less
than 10 in hilly/desert/sparsely populated
areas. In case there exists more than one such
cluster of houses in a village, they will not be
treated as separate habitations unless the
convenient walking distance between them
is more than 200 meters.
ii. Any habitation with population less than 25
in plain areas or with population less than 10
in hilly/desert/sparsely populated areas may
not be given a separate status of a ‘habitation’
and its population be included in the nearest
habitation of the same village. But this
condition will not apply to a village with one
habitation only.
iii. A village may have one or more than one
habitation, except when it is a deserted/
Bechirag village.
According to the definitions of the habitation
as defined above, it has been found that there are
1231391 habitations in the rural parts of the
country (Table 1). Compare to the last sixth survey
report, the growth of 16.10 percent has been found
in the number of habitations. In last survey, there
was 528051 habitations had primary stage
schooling facilities within the area, these figure
increases to 653076 during the seventh survey.
The upper primary stage schooling facilities has
found in 227146 rural habitations. As per
observation found in the seventh survey, the
primary stage educational facilities has available
upto 1 km in 1070863 rural habitations and upper
primary educational facilities available upto 3 km
in 961899 rural habitations. The seventh survey
reported that coverage of rural habitations for
primary (upper primary) schooling facility upto 1
km (3 km) had increased by 21.13 percent (19.10
percent) in comparison to the sixth survey.
3.2 Schools in India
A school is an institution where students (or
“pupils”) learn while under the supervision of
teachers. Most countries have systems of formal
education, which is commonly compulsory. In
these systems, students progress through a
series of schools. The names for these schools
vary by country, but generally include primary
school for young children and secondary school
for teenagers who have completed primary
education. In addition to these core schools,
students in a given country may also have access
to and attend schools both before and after
primary and secondary education.
In India, a school is that in which the course(s)
of study followed is/are prescribed or recognized
by the Government (Central/State) or a University
or a Board constituted by law or by any other
agency authorized in this behalf by the Central or
State Government and which satisfies one or more
of the authorities, e.g. Directorate of Education,
Municipal Corporation/Committee, Board, etc. in
regard to its standard of efficiency. It runs regular
classes and sends candidates for public
examination, if any. (National Council of Education
Research and Training, New Delhi, 2002).
Table 1: Educational facilities in rural habitations
1 Total Number of Habitations 1060612 1231391 16.1
2 Number of Habitations having Primary stage within them 528051 653076 23.68
3 Number of Habitations having Primary stage within 1 km 884089 1070863 21.13
4 Number of Habitations having Upper Primary stage within them 147140 227146 54.37
5 Number of Habitations having Upper Primary stage within 3 km 807656 961899 19.1
Source: Seventh All India School Education Survey – Statistics (2005), National Council of Education Research and
Training, New Delhi.
S. No. Habitations 1993 2002 Growth (%)
18 VISHAL D. PAJANKAR AND PRANALI V. PAJANKAR
Due to the initiative of Central and State
Government of India as well as various NGO and
private agencies, the education in India moves in
the right direction. From the report of 7th All India
Educational survey conducted by National
Council of Education Research and Training, New
Delhi, it has been found that there had been
substantial expansion in the number of schools
during the period of 6th All India School Education
Survey to 7th All India School Education Survey.
According to the report of Seventh All India
School Education Survey, it has been found that
the total number of schools in the different stages
(primary, upper primary, secondary and higher
secondary school stage) is 1031367. Out of this,
853457 schools recorded in rural areas whereas
177910 schools in urban areas with different
stages of schooling. It has also noted that the
total growth in the schools at the different stages
compare to the last Sixth All India School
Education Survey increases 25.40 percent. This
picture of growth also found in rural and urban
area. In rural area, the growth has found of 22.57
percent and in urban area, 40.99 percents.
According to the of Seventh All India School
Education Survey’s report, the Primary schools,
the total enrolment in the 6th All India School
Education Survey was 570455 which increase
during the 7th All India School Education Survey
to 651381 (Table 2). The growth of 14.19 percent
has found during this survey as compare to last
survey. In the rural areas, the involvement of
students’ in the school education has found more
than the enrolment in the urban areas. In rural
areas, the enrolment has recorded 573091and in
urban areas, 78290. The growth in enrolment
during the last survey has found 12.91 percent in
rural areas whereas 24.52 percent growth in urban
areas.
The growth in the total enrolment in Upper
Primary Schools has found 245209 which is 50.66
percent more as compare to the last 6th All India
School Education Survey. In rural and urban areas,
growth has found to nearly 50 percent and 53.19
percent respectively.
From the study, it has been also found that
there are 90761 secondary schools and 43951,
higher secondary school in the country. The
growth in the secondary and higher secondary
schools has found to be increasing toward
positive direction. In the rural area, the total
number of secondary and higher secondary
schools has found to be 63633 and 22868 whereas
in urban area, it was 27828 and 21083 respectively
in the country.
The growth has analyzed as 38.43 percent and
85.75 percent in the secondary schools and higher
secondary schools respectively with respect to
6th All India School Education Survey. In rural
area, this growth has found 32.93 percent and
97.14 percent in the secondary and higher
secondary schools whereas in urban areas, 53.32
percent and 74.79 percent, respectively.
3.3 Enrolment in Schools
Enrolment means the number of pupils or
students enrolled in a particular class (viz.,
primary, upper primary, secondary and higher
secondary stages) of school education, regard-
less of age.
In 7th All India School Education Survey, it
has been noted that the total enrolment in diffe-
rent stages in the school education in the country
is 200820513 out of this, the girls enrolment at
different stages of the schools is 909955337. The
share of girls’ enrolment in the different stage of
schools has analyzed as 45.31 percent of the total
enrolment.
In rural and urban areas, the total enrolment
recorded as 139899946 and 61020467 at different
stages of the schools whereas the girls’ enrolment
in these areas has found to be 62761861 and
28233676 respectively (Table 3). The percentage
Table 2: Number of schools in urban and rural areas during 1993 and 2002.
S. No. Schools 1993 2002
Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total
1 Primary Schools 507581 62874 570455 573091 78290 651381
2 Upper Primary Schools 129246 33559 162805 193865 51409 245274
3 Secondary Schools 47870 17694 65564 63633 27128 90761
4 Higher Secondary Schools 11600 12062 23662 22868 21083 43951
5 Total Number of Schools 696297 126189 822486 853457 177910 1031367
Source: Same as Table - 1
19
DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL EDUCATION STATUS IN INDIA
of girls’ enrolment in the total enrolment in these
areas has 44.89 percent and 46.29 percent
respectively.
The growth in the total enrolment in the
school education has takes jump to the 32.31
percent from the last survey whereas girls’
enrolment increases to 44.68 percent. The growth
has also been seen in the rural and urban areas.
In rural areas, this growth has found 33.84 percent
(50.99 percent) and 67.29 percent (84.50 percent)
in urban areas.
In classes I – V, the total enrolment recorded
as 122397715 and girls’ recorded as 57313336. In
rural and urban areas, the total enrolment in the
classes I – V has found to be 92607800 and
29789915 whereas the girls enrolment in these
group of classes has recorded as 43289959 and
14023377 respectively. The share of girls enrol-
ment in the classes I – V has recorded 46.75
percent and 47.07 percent in rural and urban areas.
In total enrolment, the percentage of girls’ enrol-
ment recorded to 46.83 percent.
In the 7th All India School Education Survey,
the total number of students in the Classes VI-
VIII has been increased from 3,40,71,058 in Sixth
Survey to 4,68,45,845 in Seventh Survey. In rural
and urban areas, this enrolment has reported
nearly 3,05,34748 and 1,63,10,459 respectively. The
girls participation in the total enrolment in class
V – VIII has found 43.93 percent whereas 42.59
percent and 46.44 percent in rural and urban areas
respectively.
The percentage of growth in the enrolment in
classes VI – VIII has been increases in positive
direction. The growth in the total enrolment during
the 7th All India School Education Survey has
found to be 37.49 percent. The percentage of girls’
enrolment to total enrolment has also gone up to
52.5 percent in seventh survey. Besides, the
percentage growth of girls’ enrolment has move
towards positive pattern in the rural area, which
has been recorded as 66.23 percent in 7th All India
School Education Survey and 33.47 percent in
the urban areas.
The enrolment in the classes IX – X also
follows the trend of movement in upward direc-
tion. The total enrolment in the classes IX – X as
recorded in the 7th Survey has found 21795735
out of these, girls enrolment was recorded as
9032040. The ratio percentage of girls to the total
enrolment has found to be 41.44 percent. The total
enrolment of Classes IX-X has increased nearly
1,25,31,627 in rural (38.59 percent) and 92,64,108
in urban area (43.81 percent), respectively. The
growth in the girls’ participation has been record-
ed 62.73 percent shows an improvement over total
enrolment at the secondary stage in the country.
The study also focused on the enrolment of
students in higher secondary stage. It has been
noted that the total enrolment of Classes XI-XII
has increased from 54,65,154 in 6th Survey to
9781856 in 7th Survey. The enrolment also recorded
41,25,871 in rural area and 56,55,985 in urban area.
The girls’ enrolment has also found an
improvement over total enrolment with respect
to their participation in rural and urban areas.
Table 3: Enrolment in schools in the year 1993 and 2002
School Stages 1993
Rural Urban Total
Total Girls Total Girls Total Girls
Classes I - V 72472982 30410302 24556253 11470884 97029235 41881186
Classes VI-VIII 21475112 7823354 12595946 5675496 34071058 13498850
Classes IX-X 8419667 2713974 6799725 2836508 15219392 5550482
Classes XI-XII 2084271 620286 3380883 1343074 5465154 1963360
Classes I - XII 104452032 41567916 47332807 21325962 151784839 62893878
School Stages 2002
Rural Urban Total
Total Girls Total Girls Total Girls
Classes I - V 92607800 43289959 29789915 14023377 122397715 57313336
Classes IV- VIII 30534748 13004491 16310459 7575249 46845207 20579740
Classes IX - X 12531627 4875119 9264108 4156921 21795735 9032040
Classes XI - XII 4125871 1592292 5655985 2478129 9781856 4070421
Classes I - XII 139800046 62761861 61020467 28233676 200820513 90995537
Source: Same as Table - 1
20 VISHAL D. PAJANKAR AND PRANALI V. PAJANKAR
The share of girls’ enrolment to total
enrolment in schools for Classes XI-XII has gone
up to 41.61 percent in seventh survey in the
country. Besides, the percentage of girls’
enrolment in the total enrolment has a positive
growth in rural area, which has been recorded the
growth of 107.32 percent in the Seventh Survey.
3.3.1 Enrolment of Girls in School Education
The Enrolment of Girls in the school is the
major problem in the country. Compared to boys,
far fewer girls are enrolled in the school.
According to the National Sample Survey Data
of 1997, only the state Kerala and Mizoram have
approached universal female literacy rate.
According to majority of the scholars, the major
factor behind the improved social and economic
status of women I Kerala is Literacy. According
to a report by U. S. Department of Commerce, the
chief barrier to education of rural women in India
is inadequate schooling facilities.
According to the study, it has been found
that the girls enrolment in rural areas compared
to the urban is quite low. A positive thing has
been noted that from the period of Sixth All India
School Education Survey to Seventh All India
School Education Survey, there is progress in the
enrolment of girls in rural areas. In the Seventh
All India School Education Survey, the enrolment
of girls has been noted 44.89 percent which was
39.80 percent during in Sixth All India School
Education Survey in rural areas.
In primary stage (Classes I – V), the total
enrolment has been increases from 43.16 percent
in Sixth Survey to 46.83 percent in Seventh Survey
(Table 4). The girls’ participation has been
recorded an improvement of 41.96 percent to 46.75
percent in rural areas during the same period.
Besides this, the percentage of girls’ enrolment
has a positive upward pattern in the upper
primary classes (Classes VI – VIII) also. The
growth of enrolment in these Classes rises from
39.62 (36.43) percent to 43.93 (42.59) percent from
Sixth Survey to Seventh Survey.
In the same interval of Sixth All India School
Education Survey to Seventh All India School
Education Survey, the enrolment in Secondary
Classes (Classes IX – X) and Higher Secondary
Classes (Classes XI – XII) has also been increases
from 36.47 percent to 41.44 percent and from 35.93
percent to 41.61 percent respectively. In rural areas
also the percentage of girls’ enrolment takes jump
from 32.23 to 38.90 percent and 29.76 to 38.59
percent in Classes IX – X and Classes XI – XII,
respectively.
3.3.2 Gross Enrolment Ratio
Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is defined as the
percentage of the enrolment in the primary stage
(Classes I – V) and Upper Primary Stage (VI –
VIII) and/or Classes I – VIII to the estimated child
population in the age groups 6 to below 11 years
and 11 to below 14 and/or 6 to below 14 years
respectively. Enrolment in these stages included
under age and average children. Hence the
percentage may be more than 100% in some cases.
The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of all
children has found to be increased from the Sixth
All India School Education Survey to Seventh
All India School Education Survey. During Sixth
Survey, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at
primary stage (Classes I – V) and Upper Primary
stage (Classes VI – VIII) had been recorded 81.85
percent and 54.21 percent respectively whereas
girls’ Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) 73.1 percent
and 45.42 percent was recorded (Table 5). In the
Seventh Survey, it has found that there is some
development in the enrolment of children in the
school. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) jumps
to 92.92 and 58.42 percent at the primary stage
and upper primary stage respectively. At the same
time Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of girls also
increases to 90.93 percent at primary stage and
54.00 percent at upper primary stage.
Table 4: Percentage of girls enrolment in schools
School Stages 1993 2002
Total Rural Total Rural
Classes I-V 43.16 41.96 46.83 46.75
Classes VI-VIII 39.62 36.43 43.93 42.59
Classes IX-X 36.47 32.23 41.44 38.9
Classes XI-XII 35.93 29.76 41.61 38.59
Classes I-XII 41.44 39.8 45.31 44.89
Source: Same as Table - 1
Table 5: Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER)
Classes 1993 2002
Total Girls Total Girls
GER (I-V) 81.85 73.1 92.92 90.93
GER (VI-VIII) 54.21 45.42 58.42 54.00
Source: Same as Table - 1
21
DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL EDUCATION STATUS IN INDIA
3.4 Teachers in Schools
A teacher is someone acknowledged as a
guide or helper in processes of learning. A
teacher’s role may vary between cultures.
Academic subjects are emphasized in many
societies, but a teacher’s duties may include
instruction in craftsmanship or vocational
training, spirituality, civics, community roles, or
life skills. In modern schools and most contempo-
rary occidental societies, where scientific
pedagogy is practiced, the teacher is defined as a
specialized profession on the same level as many
other professions. In education, teachers facilitate
student learning, often in a school or academy or
perhaps in another environment such as outdoors.
A teacher who teaches on an individual basis
may be described as a tutor.
According to the Singh and Raju (2006), a
teacher is a person who is directly engaged in
instructing a group of students. Head of the
institution is counted as teacher even if he does
not teach. In this study, para-teachers has also
taken into consideration Full Time Teacher is a
person who engaged in teaching for a number of
hours of work statutorily fixed is regarded as a
full time teacher at a particular level of education
in a given year. A para teacher is full time employee
in the school who is not necessarily professionally
qualified as full time teachers but are generally
from amongst the same population/ community.
A para teacher is normally appointed on fixed
salary/honorarium, which is less than the normal
full time teacher. The para teachers are given
different nomenclature in India, e.g., contract
teacher, shiksha karmi, guruji, community
teacher, voluntary teacher etc.
During the sixth survey, there was 41,97,555
total teachers provided the teaching facilities at
different stages of schooling (Table 6). In the
seventh survey, a progress in the involvement of
teachers in schooling has been found. This
progress of 31.7 percent over the total involve-
ment of teachers. For rural and urban areas, the
development recorded as 28.98 percent and 37.43
percent respectively.
At the primary stage schooling, the participa-
tion of teacher during sixth survey has found
1623379. Out of which 79 percent teachers engag-
ed in schools of rural areas. In seventh survey,
this figure increases by 17.87 percent. In this
survey, it has been found that 1912931 teachers
engaged in primary schooling whereas 1503158
teachers engaged in rural areas. The total growth
of 17.84 percent has been recorded in seventh
survey in the participation of teachers at primary
schooling.
In the Upper Primary Schools, 1581739 teachers
involves in rural and urban schooling out of which
1113869 teachers involves in rural areas and 467870
teachers in urban areas. This involvement of
teachers from sixth survey to seventh survey has
found to be increases. The total growth has found
nearly 40.01 percent and for rural areas, the growth
recorded nearly 41 percent.
It is good indication that the development in
the participation of teachers in school has also
been seen in different stage of schooling. The
trend of primary and upper primary stage also
followed by secondary and higher secondary
stage schools. The total number of teachers
providing teaching facilities has found to 996054
and 1037455 at secondary and higher secondary
school respectively. The ratio of participation of
teachers in rural and urban areas has recorded as
62 : 38 and 42 : 58 at secondary and higher
secondary school respectively. The percentage
of teachers increases by 20.09 percent and 68.69
percent in respective stages of schooling.
3.4.1 Female Teacher
In the study, it has been found that the
percentage of participation of female teacher has
been increases from sixth survey to seventh
survey. In this study, the para-teachers also
considered. At the stage of primary schooling,
the involvement increases from 31.61 percent to
Table 6: Teachers in schools
S No Schools 1993 2002
Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total
Teachers in Primary Schools 1275218 348161 1623379 1503158 409773 1912931
Teachers in Upper Primary Schools 790271 339476 1129747 1113869 467870 1581739
Teachers in Secondary Schools 532328 297077 829405 614097 381957 996054
Teachers in Higher Secondary Schools 247584 367440 615024 438786 598669 1037455
Total Number of Teachers 2845401 1352154 4197555 3669910 1858269 5528179
Source: Same as Table - 1
22 VISHAL D. PAJANKAR AND PRANALI V. PAJANKAR
39.02 percent (Table 7). The same picture has also
been seen for rural areas. In rural areas, the
involvement increases to 31.38 percent. At
secondary and higher secondary stage, the
participation has recorded 38.17 percent and 41.64
percent respectively whereas in rural areas, this
progress recorded 25.79 and 26.99 percent
respectively.
In this study, the percentage of primary school
with zero, one two, three, four and five or more
teachers has been recorded as 1.3, 14.99, 43.18,
16.62, 8.83 and 15.08 percent respectively (Table
9). In rural areas, the percentage recorded about
1.28, 16.41, 46.59, 17.03, 8.18 and 10.51
respectively. 4. CONCLUSION
Table 8: Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR)
School Stages 1993 2002*
Total Rural Total Rural
Primary Schools 40.00 40.94 42.01 43.75
Upper Primary
Schools 36.07 35.84 34.23 35.15
Secondary Schools 30.21 29.33 30.28 31.03
Source: Same as Table – 1
*Teachers include para-teachers
Table 7: Percentage of female teachers
School Stages 1993 2002*
Total Rural Total Rural
Primary Schools 31.61 23.5 39.02 31.38
Upper Primary 35.97 25.4 40.8 31.11
Schools
Secondary Schools 34.68 23.09 38.17 25.79
Higher Secondary 33.18 17.84 41.64 26.99
Schools
Source: Same as Table – 1
* Teachers include para-teachers
3.4.2 Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR)
The Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) has been
increases in the period of two surveys (Table 8).
In the seventh survey, the Pupil Teacher Ratio
(PTR) has recorded as 1 : 42 for primary stage.
This growth has also observed in rural areas where
Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) increases from 1 : 41 to
1 : 44 in seventh survey. This growth has also
continued in upper primary stage school and
secondary stage school. For upper primary
school Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) increases to 1 :
34 and 1: 30 in secondary schooling. Corres-
ponding development also occurs in rural areas
that 1 : 35 and 1 : 31 for upper primary schools
and secondary schools respectively.
3.4.3 Teachers in Primary School
According to the seventh survey, about 1.3
percent primary school having zero teacher where
this figure for rural areas recorded as 1.28 percent.
Table 9: Percentage of primary schools with num-
ber of teachers
School Stages 1993 2002*
Total Rural Total Rural
Zero Teacher 0.77 0.81 1.3 1.28
One Teacher 20.12 22.07 14.99 16.41
Two Teachers 41.92 45.11 43.18 46.59
Three Teachers 14.89 15.06 16.62 17.03
Four Teachers 8.05 7.24 8.83 8.18
Five or more Teachers 14.25 9.71 15.08 10.51
Source: Same as Table – 1
*Teachers include para-teachers
On the basis of above analysis, result and
discussion on some key parameters of
development of school education in India, a few
major conclusions are briefly discussed here.
The access of primary/upper primary
schooling facilities within a walkable distance of
one/three km had not been achieved for all rural
habitations in India. It requires a planned and
systematic intervention from the public agencies
involved in catering the school education facili-
ties, particularly, in hilly areas - thereby it had
been requiring an extensive review on distance
criterion. The expansion in number of rural
schools was quite slow and disparities among
and within States/UTs were prevailing. The
increase in number of primary schools was less
than 10 percent in majority of States/UTs. The
increase in number of upper primary, secondary
and higher secondary schools might have
appeared due to the up gradation of existing
schools. Efforts were required to create the pucca/
partly pucca school building infrastructure in the
country.
During 1993-2002, the gross enrolment ratio
(GER) in rural area to total enrolment of Classes I
to V and VI to VIII had increased. The PTR in
primary schools in rural area has gone up thereby
showing a poor achievement. On the other hand,
the Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) in upper primary
schools in rural area has gone down. The data
analysis showed that, despite relatively high
23
DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL EDUCATION STATUS IN INDIA
participation in increasing the enrolment at
elementary stages in schools, an effort would have
to be made to remodel the school education by
providing additional facilities such as school
building, school teachers etc. to accommodate the
school children in the secondary stages in order
to education for all upto higher secondary level in
the country, which might be a priority area in
coming decades for the Government of India.
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