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Association Between Gross-Motor and Executive Function Depends on Age and Motor Task Complexity
Abstract
The objective was to examine associations between motor and executive function across the adult lifespan and to investigate the role of motor complexity in these associations. Young, middle-aged and older adults (n = 82; 19–83y) performed two gross-motor tasks with different levels of complexity and a Stroop-like computer task. Performance was decreased in older adults. The association between motor and cognitive performance was significant for older adults in the complex motor task (p = 0.03, rs = −0.41), whereas no significant associations were found for young or middle-aged groups, suggesting that the link between gross-motor and executive function emerges with age and depends on motor complexity.
... Interestingly, previous research has indicated that while interrelations between cognitive and motor functions found in young adults appear rather specific (but less strong), the connection between the two domains seems to be stronger at the extreme ends of the lifespan (Livesey et al., 2006;Stöckel and Hughes, 2016;Oberer et al., 2017;Spedden et al., 2017;Stöckel et al., 2017;van der Fels et al., 2019). As such, a first aim of the present study was to assess if, and how, the cognitivemotor functions of preschoolers differ from that of young adults, who served as a control group representing the upper bound of cognitive-motor development. ...
... However, given that EFs are not fully developed in preschool children (Lee et al., 2013;van der Ven et al., 2013;Monette et al., 2015) we also hypothesized that only the more early-developed core EFs (e.g., working memory, inhibitory control) would be linked to successful motor performance in preschool children (Senn et al., 2004;Livesey et al., 2006;Best et al., 2009;Shing et al., 2010;Stöckel and Hughes, 2016). In contrast, in young adults we expected that the associations between executive and motor functions would be weaker (if existent at all) than those observed in preschool children (Spedden et al., 2017), as cognitive-motor performance is likely automatized and does not require any top-down control in this age group. ...
... The emerging picture from this corpus of work is that working memory and motor functions (strength, speed, manual dexterity) are linked in preschool children, although the size of the effect may vary based on the studied sample and the task employed. Although only a few studies have investigated the interplay between motor and cognitive domains in young adults (Spedden et al., 2017;Stöckel et al., 2017;Stuhr et al., 2018), the present results support prior work demonstrating that the two domains have significantly fewer connections (or exhibit a weaker association) in young adults (e.g., Stöckel et al., 2017;Stuhr et al., 2018) than in children (e.g., Stöckel and Hughes, 2016;Oberer et al., 2017) or older adults (Spedden et al., 2017;Stöckel et al., 2017). ...
... Interestingly, previous research has indicated that while interrelations between cognitive and motor functions found in young adults appear rather specific (but less strong), the connection between the two domains seems to be stronger at the extreme ends of the lifespan (Livesey et al., 2006;Stöckel and Hughes, 2016;Oberer et al., 2017;Spedden et al., 2017;Stöckel et al., 2017;van der Fels et al., 2019). As such, a first aim of the present study was to assess if, and how, the cognitivemotor functions of preschoolers differ from that of young adults, who served as a control group representing the upper bound of cognitive-motor development. ...
... However, given that EFs are not fully developed in preschool children (Lee et al., 2013;van der Ven et al., 2013;Monette et al., 2015) we also hypothesized that only the more early-developed core EFs (e.g., working memory, inhibitory control) would be linked to successful motor performance in preschool children (Senn et al., 2004;Livesey et al., 2006;Best et al., 2009;Shing et al., 2010;Stöckel and Hughes, 2016). In contrast, in young adults we expected that the associations between executive and motor functions would be weaker (if existent at all) than those observed in preschool children (Spedden et al., 2017), as cognitive-motor performance is likely automatized and does not require any top-down control in this age group. ...
... The emerging picture from this corpus of work is that working memory and motor functions (strength, speed, manual dexterity) are linked in preschool children, although the size of the effect may vary based on the studied sample and the task employed. Although only a few studies have investigated the interplay between motor and cognitive domains in young adults (Spedden et al., 2017;Stöckel et al., 2017;Stuhr et al., 2018), the present results support prior work demonstrating that the two domains have significantly fewer connections (or exhibit a weaker association) in young adults (e.g., Stöckel et al., 2017;Stuhr et al., 2018) than in children (e.g., Stöckel and Hughes, 2016;Oberer et al., 2017) or older adults (Spedden et al., 2017;Stöckel et al., 2017). ...
Evidence suggests that executive and motor functions are functionally intertwined, with the interrelation between the two processes influenced by the developmental stage of the individual. This study examined executive and motor functions in preschool children (n = 41; 65–83 months), and investigated if, and how, preschoolers cognitive–motor functioning differs from that of young adults (n = 40; 18–31 years), who served as a control group reflecting the upper bound of cognitive–motor development. As expected, performance of young adults was significantly better than that of preschool children for all cognitive and motor domains tested. The results further showed differential associations among, and between, cognitive and motor functions in preschool children when compared to young adults. While similar correlations among motor variables are found in both groups, correlations among executive functions and between executive and motor variables are only found in preschool children. It thus appears that executive functions (especially working memory) contribute more to successful motor performance in preschool years than in young adulthood. The findings highlight the importance of considering the developmental stage and/or the proficiency level of the individual when examining cognitive–motor interactions or when drawing implications for childhood cognitive–motor training and interventions.
... On the other hand, the complexity of a motor task can be defined by the requirement of coordinating multiple muscle groups, application of precise timing and, often, a sequence of actions that need to be performed in the proper order for the correct outcome (Schmidt et al., 2019). Indeed, some authors define task complexity as a continuum, in which the number of task components and how they interact with each other determine the level of complexity (i.e., more components and more interaction would lead to more complexity; Serrien et al., 2007;Spedden et al., 2017). Therefore, a complex task requires a higher degree of information processing due to its inherent intricacy and the need for coordinating multiple components simultaneously. ...
... Comparing fine and gross motor skills can be challenging, as they may differ significantly in a variety of constraints, such as temporal, spatial, uni-or bi-manual, uni-or multi-articular, and body segments. However, if we consider the task complexity definition based on the number of components and their interaction (Serrien et al., 2007;Spedden et al., 2017), activities like serving in volleyball (jump serve) or throwing a stone into a target (gross motor skills) may be regarded as more complex than tasks like brushing teeth or using scissors to cut paper (fine motor skills), due to their requirements of major muscle groups coordination, temporal accuracy demand for timing of object manipulation, synergy of full-body stability muscles, and intensity of neural drive to perform the task. Nonetheless, preference was stronger for the fine tasks, which would be expected to display a less lateralized preference, being less complex tasks based on the mentioned parameters of motor control. ...
The traditional classifications of motor skills nature (open vs closed; fine vs gross) have not been considered in handedness investigations. Instead, previous research focused on comparing complex vs less complex motor behaviour, leaving a gap in the literature. We compared manual preference between different motor skill characteristics, namely: fine and closed (FC), gross and closed (GC) and gross and open (GO) tasks. The hand preference was assessed with the Global Lateral Preference Inventory in four hundred and forty participants (244 women) aged from 18 to 59 years old. By assessing the degree and direction of handedness in different motor skills, our results showed a stronger lateralization pattern for FC motor skills as compared to GC and GO, with GO also being less lateralized than GC. Our results expand those of previous investigations that used the motor skill complexity definitions by showing how handedness can also be modulated by the interaction between classic motor skills classifications. Future research should consider fine vs. gross and open vs. closed classifications when selecting tasks for analysis of asymmetries of preference.
... Physical function is critical for maintaining independence in older adulthood (Cesari et al., 2004), and its degradations are associated with myriad poor health measures, including loss of functional independence (Cesari et al., 2004), increased risk of hospitalization (Cesari et al., 2004), disability (Buchman et al., 2016), poorer cognitive function (Spedden, Malling, Andersen, & Jensen, 2017), and mortality (Nofuji et al., 2016). Emphasizing impairment prevention is important because it may reduce costly downstream outcomes such as falls (Mangani et al., 2008), everyday function disability (Gobbens & van Assen, 2014), and hospital length of stay (van Aalst, Oosterhof, Nijhuis-van der Sanden, & Schreurs, 2014). ...
... For example, brain regions associated primarily with processing speed and reasoning, for example, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, are activated when older adults walk (Holtzer, Epstein, Mahoney, Izzetoglu, & Blumen, 2014;Pelicioni, Tijsma, Lord, & Menant, 2019), indicating that cognitive and physical function are related, even when processing speed or other cognitive tasks are not explicitly performed. These associations are more pronounced in older adults (Spedden et al., 2017). It is assumed that as a result, cognitive training, especially processing speed and reasoning training, may confer benefits to physical function. ...
Objectives:
Poor physical function is associated with negative health and cognitive outcomes. Although nine studies demonstrate that cognitive training reduces age-related declines in physical function, only one has examined effects beyond immediate posttest changes. The current study assessed the impact of three cognitive training programs on physical function measures across 10 years. A second aim examined whether baseline cognitive self-efficacy or depressive symptoms moderated training effects.
Methods:
Using data from the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) randomized controlled trial, older adults in a no-contact control condition (n = 698) were compared to those receiving processing speed (n = 702), memory (n = 703), or reasoning (n = 694) training. Intention-to-treat (ITT) and dosage analyses were conducted for grip strength and Turn 360. Participants were followed up to 10 years posttest.
Results:
There were no significant ITT effects of processing speed, memory, or reasoning training assignment to any physical function outcome (p > .05). Dosage models indicated that there were small age-related attenuations effects in Turn 360 decline with more processing speed training (b = -.011, p < .001), memory training (b = -.011, p < .001), and reasoning training (b = -.012, p < .001). There was no significant transfer to grip strength. These training gains were greater for those with more baseline depressive symptoms who received more processing speed training (b = -.001, p < .001).
Discussion:
This is the first study to demonstrate effects of cognitive training to complex physical function across 10 years.
... In addition, the complexity of tasks also can differ, impacting the cognitive load and the strategies participants use to complete them. Tasks that are more complex or require multi-step problemsolving may show different effects compared to simpler tasks (Miyake et al., 2000;Spedden et al., 2017). Therefore, considering the task paradigm as a moderator may help explain heterogeneity in effect sizes across studies. ...
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are strongly associated with impaired cognitive control, yet research on ACEs’ effects across cognitive control domains—working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control—remains sparse. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the overall impact of ACEs on each of these cognitive control domains and explored moderating factors such as age, gender, cognitive control paradigms, and ACEs subtypes based on the dimensional model of adversity and psychopathology. A database search was conducted in SCOPUS, MedLine, PsycINFO, and Web of Science. Only prospective studies were included to ensure temporal order inferences, with at least two data collection points, assessing ACEs at baseline (T1) and cognitive control during follow-up (T2). Thirty-two studies ( N = 26,863) producing 124 effect sizes were analyzed. Three-level meta-analyses revealed small-to-medium negative associations between ACEs and overall cognitive control ( g = −0.32), and in each domain: working memory ( g = −0.28), cognitive flexibility ( g = −0.28), and inhibitory control ( g = −0.32). The negative associations between ACEs and cognitive control were consistent across age, gender, and cognitive control paradigms. ACEs subtypes moderated the association with cognitive flexibility ( p = .04) but not working memory or inhibitory control. Specifically, the deprivation subtype exhibited a stronger negative association with cognitive flexibility compared to threat and threat-and-deprivation subtypes. These findings highlight the pervasive negative impact of ACEs on cognitive control across ages and emphasize the need for targeted interventions. Implications, current gaps, limitations in research, and future study recommendations are discussed.
... Ageing people, however, naturally experience a loss of gross motor function. It broadly shows in the physical activities of daily life that are performed with less smooth and/or narrow movements e.g., self-dressing (Spedden, Malling, Andersen, & Jensen, 2017). Moreover, some gross motors cooperate with fine motors, via sensorimotor, to perform complicated tasks, such as eye-hand coordination as well as eye-foot coordination when dancing with partners, driving cars, or playing sports (Chuangchai & Siripakarn, 2018b). ...
Many ageing people are staying at home, whether they are self-isolating or social distancing, because of the current Covid-19 situation. Fall incidents at home among the ageing are significantly associated with a high level of mortality. Bathrooms are frequently reported as a major environmental hazard in connection with falls. This serious health risk raises the matter of interior architecture. In terms of preventing falls, more architectural research focuses on interior elements e.g., handrail design, and non-slip mat, whilst less attention is paid to the issue of how ageing causes falls. Therefore, this article sheds light on the normal ageing process through an executive function that helps in the fall prevention of ageing people via decision-making and problem-solving. Normal ageing gradually results in declining executive function, including cognitive and motor functions, which limits and reduces day to day activities. The cognitive function (as a system) involves processing speed, accuracy in response, and error response whereas the motor function (as a mechanism) defines both gross and fine motor functions. A combination of cognitive and motor functions reflects conditions that may lead to a fall. Regarding the executive function, interior architecture for preventing falls in normal ageing people is strongly encouraged e.g., clear layout, timesaving activity, simplicity of design, lighting uniformity, short walking distance, cased opening, lightweight fixtures, and fine texture flooring. This article reviews the literature to address the knowledge gaps between interior architecture and human-centred design through ageing ergonomics, and employs a behaviour-focused aspect to interpret results for interior architects. Electronic databases, including Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar, were searched to specify appropriate papers, which were restricted to those in the English language. To improve the quality of the elderly’s life, this article provides recommendations that could assist interior architects in this challenge.
... Specifically, the negative correlation in the somatomotor cortex may indicate a refined circuit, where local fluctuations in neural activity can be supported by lower cerebral blood flow. This aligns with previous studies where a strong link exists between motor and executive functioning throughout youth (Livesey et al., 2006;Stöckel and Hughes, 2016;van der Fels et al., 2015), but that no such relationship is present in young adults (Spedden et al., 2017;Stuhr et al., 2020). Higher correlation of executive functioning with neurovascular coupling in regions of the DMN could suggest that this system is undergoing developmental tuning and is therefore not at maximal metabolic efficiency. ...
The functions of the human brain are metabolically expensive and reliant on coupling between cerebral blood flow (CBF) and neural activity, yet how this coupling evolves over development remains unexplored. Here, we examine the relationship between CBF, measured by arterial spin labeling, and the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) from resting-state magnetic resonance imaging across a sample of 831 children (478 females, aged 8–22 years) from the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort. We first use locally weighted regressions on the cortical surface to quantify CBF-ALFF coupling. We relate coupling to age, sex, and executive functioning with generalized additive models and assess network enrichment via spin testing. We demonstrate regionally specific changes in coupling over age and show that variations in coupling are related to biological sex and executive function. Our results highlight the importance of CBF-ALFF coupling throughout development; we discuss its potential as a future target for the study of neuropsychiatric diseases.
... In addition, given that according to the literature, motor practice and repetitions of a task reduce its novelty, making it easier and more familiar, and decreasing the involvement of EF in its execution (Mededović et al., 2018); and (2) given that certain motor patterns can be learned very quickly, even with only two trials (Maurer and Roebers, 2020), it was decided that the child only had a single trial in each task. In this way, we tried to make sure again that the tasks was new and challenging for children and therefore, they implied recruitment of EF (Spedden et al., 2017;Stuhr et al., 2018Stuhr et al., , 2020. ...
Fundamental motor skills (FMS) of children can be affected by different variables, such as executive functions (EF), gender and relative age. However, the effects of these variables on FMS have been scarce studied, especially in early childhood, and show inconsistent results. To clarify these relationships, this study was carried out. Its aim was to analyze whether EF, gender and relative age influenced FMS in 43 Spanish kindergarteners. A multimethod and mixed methods approach was used. Kindergarteners’ teachers completed the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory to know the children level of EF (working memory and inhibition control). Kindergarteners’ parents complimented ad hoc questionnaire reporting the children gender and birth data (to know their relative age). A Nomothetic/Punctual/Multidimensional observational design was used to observe children FMS in their habitual motor sessions at school. Two-way ANOVAs were performed to know the independent and interactive effects of working memory level (lower/higher), inhibition control level (lower/higher), gender (boys/girls) and relative age (according to the birth semester in the year) on FMS. Results showed these variables have independent and interactive effects on some FMS, but not on others. FMS influenced by these variables vary depending what independent variable(s) is/are considered. Therefore, it can be concluded that the influences of teacher-rated EF, gender and relative age on observed FMS in kindergarteners are complex and specific. Results obtained must be taken into to design and implement instructional and intervention strategies, as well as educational and sport policy changes, especially in early childhood, when FMS are more malleable.
... Ageing people, however, naturally experience a loss of gross motor function. It broadly shows in the physical activities of daily life that are performed with less smooth and/or narrow movements e.g., self-dressing (Spedden, Malling, Andersen, & Jensen, 2017). Moreover, some gross motors cooperate with fine motors, via sensorimotor, to perform complicated tasks, such as eye-hand coordination as well as eye-foot coordination when dancing with partners, driving cars, or playing sports (Chuangchai & Siripakarn, 2018b). ...
Many ageing people are staying at home, whether they are self-isolating or social distancing, because of the current Covid-19 situation. Fall incidents at home among the ageing are significantly associated with a high level of mortality. Bathrooms are frequently reported as a major environmental hazard in connection with falls. This serious health risk raises the matter of interior architecture. In terms of preventing falls, more architectural research focuses on interior elements e.g., handrail design, and non-slip mat, whilst less attention is paid to the issue of how ageing causes falls. Therefore, this article sheds light on the normal ageing process through an executive function that helps in the fall prevention of ageing people via decision-making and problem-solving. Normal ageing gradually results in declining executive function, including cognitive and motor functions, which limits and reduces day to day activities. The cognitive function (as a system) involves processing speed, accuracy in response, and error response whereas the motor function (as a mechanism) defines both gross and fine motor functions. A combination of cognitive and motor functions reflects conditions that may lead to a fall. Regarding the executive function, interior architecture for preventing falls in normal ageing people is strongly encouraged e.g., clear layout, timesaving activity, simplicity of design, lighting uniformity, short walking distance, cased opening, lightweight fixtures, and fine texture flooring. This article reviews the literature to address the knowledge gaps between interior architecture and human-centred design through ageing ergonomics, and employs a behaviour-focused aspect to interpret results for interior architects. Electronic databases, including Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar, were searched to specify appropriate papers, which were restricted to those in the English language. To improve the quality of the elderly’s life, this article provides recommendations that could assist interior architects in this challenge.
... 95% CI = [.2, .38]), consistent with (Spedden, Malling, Andersen, & Jensen, 2017). There was also an effect of hand dominance on task performance (β dominantHand = −8.62, ...
COVID-19 has impacted the ability to evaluate motor function in older adults, as motor assessments typically require face-to-face interaction. One hundred seventy-seven older adults nationwide completed an unsupervised functional upper-extremity assessment at home. Data were compared to data from an independent sample of community-dwelling older adults (N = 250) assessed in lab. The effect of age on performance was similar between the in-lab and at-home groups. Practice effects were also similar. Assessing upper-extremity motor function remotely is feasible and reliable in community-dwelling older adults. This test offers a practical solution for telehealth practice and other research involving remote or geographically isolated individuals.
... According to previous research on handedness, more complex motor tasks are primarily performed with the preferred hand, even in environmental settings that would facilitate using the nonpreferred hand (Bryden, 2016;Marcori & Okazaki, 2020). Motor complexity can be defined based on the number of task components (sequential elements) and how they are connected (coordinative elements) (Serrien, Ivry, & Swinnen, 2007;Spedden, Maling, Andersen, & Jensen, 2017). From the ecological dynamics approach, the less complex tasks would provide an optimal scenario for multi-stability, as more stable states of coordinative patterns can emerge to provide the motor solution since the gap between the individual dynamics and the task demand is small (Seifert et al., 2013). ...
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare hand selection and accuracy of technical skills between low- and high-pressure games of the National Basketball Association (NBA) in the 2018–2019 regular season and playoffs. Method: A notational analysis was conducted on 24 games of four teams (12 low-pressure games and 12 high-pressure games, six of each team, three in each condition). One- or two-handed actions were recorded for dribbling, passing, catching, and shooting (layups, dunks, hooks, and tips) skills. Results: During high-pressure games, players significantly increased the frequency of right-handed passing. High-pressure games also increased the frequency of left-handed catching. For dribbling and shooting, no differences were observed in hand frequency between conditions. The success rate of all analyzed skills was similar between the hands in both low- and high-pressure conditions.Conclusion: Our results showed that game pressure could selectively modulate hand preference for passing and catching skills in elite-level basketball while presenting no significant effect on performance between hands.
... Disease severity was assessed using the Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) and used to describe the study population [26]. In addition, healthy reference values (n = 39) based on data from an age and sex matched healthy cohort were extracted without any knowledge of their other characteristics [27]. ...
Background
Parkinson’s disease is characterized by motor dysfunctions including bradykinesia. In a recent study, eight weeks of daily transcranial stimulation with bipolar pulsed electromagnetic fields improved functional rate of force development and decreased inter-hand tremor coherence in patients with mild Parkinson’s disease.
Objective
To investigate the effect of long-term treatment with transcranial bipolar pulsed electromagnetic fields on motor performance in terms of movement speed and on neurotrophic and angiogenic factors.
Methods
Patients diagnosed with idiopathic Parkinson’s disease had either daily 30-min treatment with bipolar (±50 V) transcranial pulsed electromagnetic stimulation (squared pulses, 3ms duration) for three eight-week periods separated by one-week pauses (T-PEMF group) (n = 16) or were included in a PD-control group (n = 8). Movement speed was assessed in a six-cycle sit-to-stand task performed on a force plate. Cerebrospinal fluid and venous blood were collected and analyzed for erythropoietin and vascular endothelial growth factor.
Results
Major significant improvement of movement speed compared to the natural development of the disease was found (p = 0.001). Thus, task completion time decreased gradually during the treatment period from 10.10s to 8.23s (p<0.001). The untreated PD-control group did not change (p = 0.458). The treated group did not differ statistically from that of a healthy age matched reference group at completion of treatment. Erythropoietin concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid also increased significantly in the treated group (p = 0.012).
Conclusion
Long-term treatment with transcranial bipolar pulsed electromagnetic fields increased movement speed markedly and elevated erythropoietin levels. We hypothesize that treatment with transcranial bipolar pulsed electromagnetic fields improved functional performance by increasing dopamine levels in the brain, possibly through erythropoietin induced neural repair and/or protection of dopaminergic neurons.
... En effet, des recouvrements importants entre les fonctions attentionnelles et exécutives semblent exister et l'aspect multidimensionnel des processus sous-jacents mis en jeu rend leur évaluation ainsi que leur interprétation délicates (Friedman & Miyake, 2017 ; Miyake et al., 2000).Plus largement, les résultats de cette deuxième étude renforcent l'idée que la réalisation d'une action motrice est également sous-tendue par le fonctionnement cognitif de l'individu.De plus, il semblerait que cette association soit d'autant plus marquée lors de tâches complexes(Serrien, Ivry, & Swinnen, 2007) et avec l'avancée en âge (S.Schaefer & Schumacher, 2011). En effet, différents travaux ont pu mettre en évidence une association entre un niveau faible de fonctions exécutives et une moindre performance motrice uniquement chez des personnes âgées lors de tâches motrices complexes(Niermeyer, Suchy, & Ziemnik, 2017 ;Spedden, Malling, Andersen, & Jensen, 2017). Ainsi, la réalisation d'une tâche motrice complexe pourrait nécessiter un contrôle exécutif plus important et d'autant plus avec l'avancée en âge(Seidler et al., 2010). ...
Les mouvements bimanuels symétriques représentent le comportement coordonné par défaut du système nerveux central. Ainsi, l'exécution de tâches motrices strictement unimanuelles nécessite un réseau cérébral capable de limiter la production de mouvements bimanuels symétriques. Une altération ou un dysfonctionnement transitoire de ces circuits neuronaux peut alors conduire à l'apparition de mouvements miroirs (MM), qui sont définis comme des mouvements ou des contractions involontaires impliquant les muscles homologues controlatéraux à ceux du mouvement volontaire. Qu'ils soient particulièrement discrets chez l'adulte sain ou exacerbés dans différentes conditions pathologiques, les MM semblent survenir de façon asymétrique entre les membres supérieurs droit et gauche. Néanmoins, les conditions d'apparition de cette asymétrie ainsi que les corrélats cérébraux associés restent à ce jour mal compris. Ainsi, les principaux objectifs de ce travail de thèse étaient de (1) rechercher les conditions d'apparition de l'asymétrie comportementale des MM chez l'adulte sain droitier et le patient cérébro-lésé, (2) investiguer les corrélats cérébraux moteurs, attentionnels et exécutifs de l'asymétrie comportementale des MM chez l'adulte sain droitier et (3) explorer l'existence d'un lien entre les fonctions attentionnelles et exécutives et les MM chez l'adulte sain et le patient cérébro-lésé. Pour ce faire, nous avons adopté une approche multimodale incluant des investigations au niveau comportemental, neurophysiologique et neuropsychologique. Nos résultats révèlent que l'asymétrie comportementale des MM dépend du type de tâche réalisé (niveau de force et aspect rythmique de la tâche unimanuelle) et mettent en évidence une asymétrie cérébrale avec des activations ipsilatérales motrices plus importantes lors d'un mouvement unimanuel gauche qu'un mouvement unimanuel droit chez l'adulte sain droitier. Une majoration des activations attentionnelles et exécutives a également été observée chez l'adulte sain lors d'une tâche favorisant l'apparition asymétrique des MM. Enfin, une évaluation neuropsychologique nous a permis de mettre en évidence l'existence d'un lien entre le degré de contrôle exécutif et l'apparition des MM des adultes sains et des patients cérébro-lésés. [...]
... The present study includes baseline accelerometer data sampled during a rest and a postural condition from a subsample of persons diagnosed with idiopathic PD (PD-group) participating in a double-blinded randomized clinical trial [8][9][10][11] (clinicaltrials.gov NCT02125032) along with data from an age and sex matched healthy reference group without visible tremor (REF-group) [8,11,12]. Inclusion criteria for the trial were an unchanged and optimal medical treatment regarding PD 6 weeks prior to participation; Mini Mental State Examination score > 22; and age > 18 years. Exclusion criteria were any known neuromuscular or neurological disease other than PD that might interfere with motor function; psychopathological treatment of other conditions than depression; substance abuse; and active medical implants. ...
Background:
Tremor is one of the hallmarks and most bothersome symptoms in Parkinson's disease (PD). The classical PD tremor is present at rest, but postural tremor also occurs. PD tremor can be continuous or intermittently present and can have a re-emergent nature. The tremor intensity is affected by attention and stress level. Observations of PD tremor have indicated increased tremor intensity with time during 30-s tremor assessments. This phenomenon has not previously been studied systematically. Thus, in order to contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms associated with PD tremor, our aim was to investigate the influence of time during a posture holding and a resting task on hand tremor characteristics in persons with PD compared to healthy peers.
Method:
Fifty persons with PD and at least one tremoring hand (tremor intensity exceeding mean + 2SD of a healthy reference group (REF), N = 40) were included from a clinical trial population. Hand accelerations in a rest and postural condition were measured in 30-s assessments while the participants performed a self-paced simple subtraction task with eyes closed to standardize attention without inducing stress. Tremor intensity, maximal power, frequency of maximal power and tremor onset time was calculated for three consecutive 10-s time intervals.
Results:
Tremor intensity and maximal power increased significantly during the 30-s recording in the PD-group in both conditions (1st-3rd time-interval, tremor intensity: rest + 65% p < 0.0001, postural + 55% p < 0.0001; maximal power: rest + 93% p < 0.0001, postural + 82% p < 0.001). No effect of time was found on frequency of maximal power in the PD-group or on any effect measure in the REF-group.
Conclusion:
Tremor intensity and maximal power increased with time in the PD-group during 30-s tasks, while no change with time was found in the REF-group. In contrast, frequency of maximal power remained unchanged, which may suggest that the same neural circuits were responsible for the tremor generation throughout the tasks. The increase in tremor intensity and maximal power could not solely be explained by re-emergence of tremor. This suggests an increasing or gradually more synchronized cortico-spinal drive throughout the tasks. However, this requires further studies to determine.
... The complexity of a motor task may be defined by the number of task components and the connections between them, but is also influenced by several important modifiers that include task novelty and the availability of external feedback (Serrien, Ivry, & Swinnen, 2007;Spedden, Malling, Andersen, & Jensen, 2017). The degree of involvement of different brain regions in planning and executing motor tasks depends on the task complexity and changes with both healthy aging and PD (Maidan et al., 2016;Seidler et al., 2010). ...
The authors examined the associations between the performance of upper- and lower-extremity motor tasks across task complexity and motor symptom severity, overall disease severity, and the physical aspects of quality of life in persons with Parkinson's disease. The performance was assessed for three lower-extremity tasks and two upper-extremity tasks of different levels of complexity. The motor symptoms and overall disease severity correlated significantly with all motor tasks with higher correlation coefficients in the complex tasks. Thus, the strength of the association between disease severity or severity of motor symptoms and motor performance is task-specific, with higher values in complex motor tasks than in simpler motor tasks. Mobility-related and activity-of-daily-living-related quality of life correlated with lower-extremity tasks of low and medium complexity and with the complex upper-extremity task, respectively; this suggests that Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire-39 is capable of differentiating between the impact of gross and fine motor function on quality of life.
... The REF group was included to provide threshold values for tremor. The REF group was extracted from a larger reference group representing individuals across the adult lifespan (19-83 years) [33]. Initially, the group with ages within the range of the PD group were extracted (n = 46). ...
Background
Parkinson’s disease (PD) tremor comprises asymmetric rest and postural tremor with unilateral onset. Tremor intensity can be amplified by stress and reduced by attention, and the medical treatment is complex. Mirror movements and unintentional synchronization of bimanual movements, possibly caused by insufficient inhibition of inter-hemispheric crosstalk, have been reported in PD, indicating a lag of lateralization.
Potential neuroprotective effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) have been reported in-vitro and in rodents, as have influences of PEMF on human tremor.
The aim was to investigate the effect of 8 weeks daily transcranial PEMF treatment (T-PEMF) of persons with PD on rest and postural hand tremor characteristics and on inter-hand coherence.
Methods
Hand accelerations of 50 PD participants with uni- or bilateral tremor participating in a clinical trial were analysed. A rest and postural tremor task performed during serial subtraction was assessed before and after 8 weeks of T-PEMF (30 min/day, 50 Hz, ±50 V, 3 ms squared pulses) or placebo treatment (sham stimulation 30 min/day). Forty matched healthy persons (no treatment) were included as reference. Intensity and inter-hand coherence related measures were extracted.
Results
The T-PEMF treatment decreased the inter-hand coherence in the PD group with unilateral postural tremor. The PD group with unilateral postural tremor was less clinically affected by the disease than the PD group with bilateral postural tremor. However, no differences between T-PEMF and placebo treatment on either intensity related or coherence related measures were found when all persons with PD were included in the analyses. The peak power decreased and the tremor intensity tended to decrease in both treatment groups.
Conclusions
Eight weeks of T-PEMF treatment decreased inter-hand coherence in the PD group with unilateral postural tremor, while no effects of T-PEMF treatment were found for the entire PD group. The unilateral postural tremor group was less clinically affected than the bilateral postural tremor group, suggesting that early treatment initiation may be beneficial. In theory, a reduced inter-hand coherence could result from a neuronal treatment response increasing inter-hemispheric inhibition. However, this requires further studies to determine. Studies of even longer treatment periods would be of interest.
Trial registration
ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02125032. Registered 29 April 2014, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02125032?term=NCT02125032&rank=1
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s12984-019-0491-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... If the corticospinal drive has been increased by T-PEMF, it is peculiar that no significant between-group difference in the RFD DPB was observed. This may, however, reflect the considerable higher complexity of the DPB in terms of the demand for rapid integration and implementation of online visual feedback on timing and coordination of a novel, non-routine task [36]. When evaluating the rate of resulting ground reaction force development, we measure how fast the whole body exerts force to the ground. ...
Background
Parkinson’s disease is caused by dopaminergic neurodegeneration resulting in motor impairments as slow movement speed and impaired balance and coordination. Pulsed electromagnetic fields are suggested to have neuroprotective effects, and could alleviate symptoms.
Objective
To study 1) effects of 8-week daily transcranial pulsed electromagnetic field treatment on functional rate of force development and movement speed during two motor tasks with different levels of complexity, 2) if treatment effects depend on motor performance at baseline.
Methods
Ninety-seven persons with Parkinson’s disease were randomized to active transcranial pulsed electromagnetic field (squared bipolar 3 ms pulses, 50 Hz) or placebo treatment with homebased treatment 30 min/day for 8 weeks. Functional rate of force development and completion time of a sit-to-stand and a dynamic postural balance task were assessed pre and post intervention. Participants were sub-grouped in high- and low-performers according to their baseline motor performance level. Repeated measure ANOVAs were used.
Results
Active treatment tended to improve rate of force development during chair rise more than placebo (P = 0.064). High-performers receiving active treatment improved rate of force development during chair rise more than high-performers receiving placebo treatment (P = 0.049, active/placebo: 11.9±1.1 to 12.5±1.9 BW/s ≈ 5% / 12.4±1.3 to 12.2±1.3 BW/s, no change). No other between-treatment-group or between-treatment-subgroup differences were found. Data on rate of force development of the dynamic balance task and completion times of both motor tasks improved but did not allow for between-treatment differentiation.
Conclusion
Treatment with transcranial pulsed electromagnetic fields was superior to placebo regarding functional rate of force development during chair rise among high-performers. Active treatment tended to increase functional rate of force development while placebo did not. Our results suggest that mildly affected persons with Parkinson’s disease have a larger potential for neural rehabilitation than more severely affected persons and indicate that early treatment initiation may be beneficial.
Aim
To design an index that categorizes older people according to motor and cognitive functions.
Materials and methods
An analytical cross-sectional study assessing 38 older people (over 65 years) was performed to design a cognitive-motor outpatient index using the Mini-Mental State Examination, the motor memory test (MMT) and the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test by principal component analysis.
Results
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin values indicated that the sample was adequate. The index resulted in one factor accounting for 100% of the variance. The correlation between index values was −0.829 with the TUG test and 0.815 with the MMT. Cutoff points of the scores obtained from the regression method were: 20% (−0.745), 40% (−0.136), 60% (0.428) and 80% (0.949).
Conclusions
The cognitive-motor outpatient index could be used to categorize older people based on motor function and cognitive function; moreover, the index facilitates the evaluation and follow-up of this population by clinicians and researchers.
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the ability to evaluate motor function in older adults, as motor assessments typically require face-to-face interaction. This study tested whether motor function can be assessed at home. One hundred seventy-seven older adults nationwide (recruited through the MindCrowd electronic cohort) completed a brief functional upper-extremity assessment at home and unsupervised. Performance data were compared to data from an independent sample of community-dwelling older adults (N=250) assessed by an experimenter in-lab. The effect of age on performance was similar between the in-lab and at-home groups for both the dominant and non-dominant hand. Practice effects were also similar between the groups. Assessing upper-extremity motor function remotely is feasible and reliable in community-dwelling older adults. This test offers a practical solution in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and telehealth practice and other research involving remote or geographically isolated individuals.
Ageing is associated with declines in cognitive function and mobility. The extent to which this relationship encompasses the subdomains of cognition and mobility remains unclear, however. We searched MEDLINE and EMBASE databases for cross-sectional studies examining the association between objective mobility measures (gait, lower-extremity function, balance) and cognitive function (global, executive function, memory, processing speed) in healthy older adults. Of the 642 studies identified, 26 studies met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 26,355 participants. For each feature of physical mobility, the relation to each aspect of cognition was reviewed. In the context of each association, we summarised the results to date and performed random-effects meta-analyses of published data. Reviewed findings suggest that individuals with better mobility perform better on assessments of global cognition, executive function, memory and processing speed. Not all measures of mobility were equally associated with cognitive function, however. Although there was a larger number of gait and lower-extremity function studies, and this may have driven findings, most studies examining balance and cognition measures reported no significant results. Meta-analyses on reported associations supported results by revealing significant, albeit small, effect sizes in favour of a positive association between performance on mobility measures and cognitive assessments. Future research should aim to establish the mechanisms driving this relationship, as this may identify predictors of age-related impairments.
[Purpose] The sit-to-stand (STS) maneuver is a component of everyday mobility. The
purpose of this review was to summarize the number of daily STSs performed by adults with
or without pathology. [Methods] Four bibliographic databases were searched followed by a
consultation with experts and a search by hand to locate articles reporting daily STSs.
Information on measurement procedures, tested populations, and daily STSs was extracted.
Methodological quality was rated. [Results] Ten articles were identified. The mean number
of daily STSs ranged from 33 to 71. The mean number was at least 45 for all groups except
patients with congestive heart failure, residents of a hospital ward and one group of
older adults. [Conclusion] Individuals performing fewer than 45 daily STSs may be
experiencing a work deficit and benefit from additional intentional STS repetitions.
Although the validity of the sit-to-stand (STS) test as a measure of lower limb strength has been questioned, it is widely used as such among older adults. The purposes of this study were: 1) to describe five-repetition STS test (FRSTST) performance (time) by adolescents and adults and 2) to determine the relationship of isometric knee extension strength (force and torque), age, gender, weight, and stature with that performance. Participants were 111 female and 70 male (14-85 years) community-dwelling enrollees in the NIH Toolbox Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function. The FRSTST was conducted using a standard armless chair. Knee extension force was measured using a belt-stabilized hand-held dynamometer; knee extension torque was measured using a Biodex dynamometer. The mean times for the FRSTST ranged from 6.0 sec (20-29 years) to 10.8 sec (80-85 years). For both the entire sample and a sub-sample of participants 50-85 years, knee extension strength (r = -0.388 to -0.634), age (r = 0.561 and 0.466), and gender (r = 0.182 and 0.276) were correlated significantly with FRSTST times. In all multiple regression models, knee extension strength provided the best explanation of FRSTST performance, but age contributed as well. Bodyweight and stature were less consistent in explaining FRSTST performance. Gender did not add to the explanation of FRSTST performance. Our findings suggest, therefore, that FRSTST time reflects lower limb strength, but that performance should be interpreted in light of age and other factors.
Purpose
Cognitive impairment is correlated with physical function. However, the results in the literature are inconsistent with cognitive and physical performance measures. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the association between cognitive performance and physical function among older adults.
Methods
A total of 164 older adults aged ≥60 years and residing in low-cost housing areas in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia participated in this study. Cognitive performance was measured using the Mini Mental State Examination, clock drawing test, Rey auditory verbal learning test, digit symbol test, digit span test, matrix reasoning test, and block design test. Physical performance measures were assessed using the ten step test for agility, short physical performance battery test for an overall physical function, static balance test using a Pro.Balance board, and dynamic balance using the functional reach test.
Results
There was a negative and significant correlation between agility and the digit symbol test (r=−0.355), clock drawing test (r=−0.441), matrix reasoning test (r=−0.315), and block design test (r=−0.045). A significant positive correlation was found between dynamic balance, digit symbol test (r=0.301), and matrix reasoning test (r=0.251). The agility test appeared as a significant (R²=0.183, R²=0.407, R²=0.299, P<0.05) predictor of some cognitive performance measures, including the digit span test, clock drawing test, and Mini Mental State Examination.
Conclusion
These results suggest that a decline in most cognitive performance measures can be predicted by poor execution of a more demanding physical performance measure such as the ten step test for agility. It is imperative to use a more complex and cognitively demanding physical performance measure to identify the presence of an overall cognitive impairment among community-dwelling older adults. It may also be beneficial to promote more complex and cognitively challenging exercises and activities among older adults for optimal physical and cognitive function.
Purpose: Cognitive impairment is correlated with physical function. However, the results in
the literature are inconsistent with cognitive and physical performance measures. Thus, the
aim of this study was to determine the association between cognitive performance and physical
function among older adults.
Methods: A total of 164 older adults aged 60 years and residing in low-cost housing areas in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia participated in this study. Cognitive performance was measured using
the Mini Mental State Examination, clock drawing test, Rey auditory verbal learning test, digit
symbol test, digit span test, matrix reasoning test, and block design test. Physical performance
measures were assessed using the ten step test for agility, short physical performance battery
test for an overall physical function, static balance test using a Pro.Balance board, and dynamic
balance using the functional reach test.
Results: There was a negative and significant correlation between agility and the digit symbol test
(r=−0.355), clock drawing test (r=−0.441), matrix reasoning test (r=−0.315), and block design test
(r=−0.045). A significant positive correlation was found between dynamic balance, digit symbol
test (r=0.301), and matrix reasoning test (r=0.251). The agility test appeared as a significant
(R2=0.183, R2=0.407, R2=0.299, P0.05) predictor of some cognitive performance measures,
including the digit span test, clock drawing test, and Mini Mental State Examination.
Conclusion: These results suggest that a decline in most cognitive performance measures can
be predicted by poor execution of a more demanding physical performance measure such as
the ten step test for agility. It is imperative to use a more complex and cognitively demanding
physical performance measure to identify the presence of an overall cognitive impairment
among community-dwelling older adults. It may also be beneficial to promote more complex
and cognitively challenging exercises and activities among older adults for optimal physical
and cognitive function.
Mobility limitations are common and hazardous in community-dwelling older adults but are largely understudied, particularly regarding the role of the central nervous system (CNS). This has limited development of clearly defined pathophysiology, clinical terminology, and effective treatments. Understanding how changes in the CNS contribute to mobility limitations has the potential to inform future intervention studies.
A conference series was launched at the 2012 conference of the Gerontological Society of America in collaboration with the National Institute on Aging and the University of Pittsburgh. The overarching goal of the conference series is to facilitate the translation of research results into interventions that improve mobility for older adults.
Evidence from basic, clinical, and epidemiological studies supports the CNS as an important contributor to mobility limitations in older adults without overt neurologic disease. Three main goals for future work that emerged were as follows: (a) develop models of mobility limitations in older adults that differentiate aging from disease-related processes and that fully integrate CNS with musculoskeletal contributors; (b) quantify the contribution of the CNS to mobility loss in older adults in the absence of overt neurologic diseases; (c) promote cross-disciplinary collaboration to generate new ideas and address current methodological issues and barriers, including real-world mobility measures and life-course approaches.
In addition to greater cross-disciplinary research, there is a need for new approaches to training clinicians and investigators, which integrate concepts and methodologies from individual disciplines, focus on emerging methodologies, and prepare investigators to assess complex, multisystem associations.
On average, older people remember less and walk more slowly than do younger persons. Some researchers argue that this is due in part to a common biologic process underlying age-related declines in both physical and cognitive functioning. Only recently have longitudinal data become available for analyzing this claim. We conducted a systematic review of English-language research published between 2000 and 2011 to evaluate the relations between rates of change in physical and cognitive functioning in older cohorts. Physical functioning was assessed using objective measures: walking speed, grip strength, chair rise time, flamingo stand time, and summary measures of physical functioning. Cognition was measured using mental state examinations, fluid cognition, and diagnosis of impairment. Results depended on measurement type: Change in grip strength was more strongly correlated with mental state, while change in walking speed was more strongly correlated with change in fluid cognition. Examining physical and cognitive functioning can help clinicians and researchers to better identify individuals and groups that are aging differently and at different rates. In future research, investigators should consider the importance of identifying different patterns and rates of decline, examine relations between more diverse types of measures, and analyze the order in which age-related declines occur.
Using data from eight UK cohorts participating in the Healthy Ageing across the Life Course (HALCyon) research programme, with ages at physical capability assessment ranging from 50 to 90+ years, we harmonised data on objective measures of physical capability (i.e. grip strength, chair rising ability, walking speed, timed get up and go, and standing balance performance) and investigated the cross-sectional age and gender differences in these measures. Levels of physical capability were generally lower in study participants of older ages, and men performed better than women (for example, results from meta-analyses (N = 14,213 (5 studies)), found that men had 12.62 kg (11.34, 13.90) higher grip strength than women after adjustment for age and body size), although for walking speed, this gender difference was attenuated after adjustment for body size. There was also evidence that the gender difference in grip strength diminished with increasing age, whereas the gender difference in walking speed widened (p<0.01 for interactions between age and gender in both cases). This study highlights not only the presence of age and gender differences in objective measures of physical capability but provides a demonstration that harmonisation of data from several large cohort studies is possible. These harmonised data are now being used within HALCyon to understand the lifetime social and biological determinants of physical capability and its changes with age.
As people age, they change in a myriad of ways — both biological and psychological. Some of these changes may be for the better, and others are not. This book primarily concerns the normally aging brain, the neuroanatomical and neurophysiological changes that occur with age, and the mechanisms that account for them. It is not primarily about the behavioral or cognitive concomitants of those changes. Nevertheless, there is ample evidence that alterations in brain structure and function are intimately tied to alterations in cognitive function. The complexity of both the neural and cognitive functions, however, makes exact mapping between brain and behavior extraordinarily difficult, and so these relations remain largely speculative, although ultimately testable. Establishing such links between brain and cognition is the principal goal of cognitive neuroscience. The purpose of this chapter is to outline the changes in cognition that occur in normal human aging, in an effort to provide a backdrop against which neural changes can be interpreted (for review, see [1]). Although the relationship between brain and cognition is a dynamic one and may change across the lifespan, changes in these two domains will ultimately be related, and mechanisms underlying the changes will be discovered. Understanding age-related cognitive change will help focus and constrain neurobiological theories of aging in much the same way as theories of cognitive aging will be adapted to take account of new findings about the aging brain. Just as age-related changes in brain structure and function are not uniform across the whole brain or across individuals, age-related changes in cognition are not uniform across all cognitive domains or across all older individuals. The basic cognitive functions most affected by age are attention and memory. Neither of these are unitary functions, however, and evidence suggests that some aspects of attention and memory hold up well with age while others show significant declines. Perception (although considered by many to be a precognitive function) also shows significant age-related declines attributable mainly to declining sensory capacities. Deficits at these early processing stages could affect cognitive functions later in the processing stream. Higher-level cognitive functions such as language processing and decision making may also be affected by age. These tasks naturally rely on more basic cognitive functions and will generally show deficits to the extent that those fundamental processes are impaired. Moreover, complex cognitive tasks may also depend on a set of executive functions, which manage and coordinate the various components of the tasks. Considerable evidence points to impairment of executive function as a key contributor to age-related declines in a range of cognitive tasks. Finally, although these cognitive functions will be reviewed separately below, it is abundantly clear that they overlap and interact in interesting and complex ways. Although the overall picture might seem to be one of cognitive decline, enormous variability exists across individuals. Many older people out-perform young people, at least on some cognitive tasks, and others of the same age do at least as well as the young [2]. A question of great interest to aging researchers is what accounts for this variability. This chapter highlights the cognitive domains that show the greatest declines with age and are also the most variable. Areas of cognitive strength in normal aging are also discussed, because these may be recruited to compensate for areas of weakness. Theories of cognitive aging that have developed within each cognitive domain are outlined and brain regions hypothesized to underlie these functions are noted. The next chapter section reviews some of the evidence for age-related impairments in basic cognitive functions, focusing primarily on attention and memory, and also discusses briefly the attentional and memory processes that show relative preservation with age.
Although connections between cognitive deficits and age-associated brain differences have been elucidated, relationships with motor performance are less well understood. Here, we broadly review age-related brain differences and motor deficits in older adults in addition to cognition-action theories. Age-related atrophy of the motor cortical regions and corpus callosum may precipitate or coincide with motor declines such as balance and gait deficits, coordination deficits, and movement slowing. Correspondingly, degeneration of neurotransmitter systems-primarily the dopaminergic system-may contribute to age-related gross and fine motor declines, as well as to higher cognitive deficits. In general, older adults exhibit involvement of more widespread brain regions for motor control than young adults, particularly the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia networks. Unfortunately these same regions are the most vulnerable to age-related effects, resulting in an imbalance of "supply and demand". Existing exercise, pharmaceutical, and motor training interventions may ameliorate motor deficits in older adults.
to examine whether usual gait speed, fast gait speed or speed while walking with a cognitive or neuromuscular challenge predicts evolving cognitive decline over 3 years.
prospective study.
population-based sample of community-dwelling older persons.
660 older participants (age > or = 65 years).
usual gait speed, fastest gait speed, gait speed during 'walking-while-talking', depression, comorbidities, education, smoking and demographics were assessed at baseline. Cognition was evaluated at baseline and follow-up. A decline in MMSE score by > or = 3 points was considered as significant cognitive decline (SCD).
adjusting for confounders, only fast speed was associated with cognitive performance at 3-year follow-up. One hundred thirty-five participants had SCD over 3 years. Participants in the lowest quartile of usual speed or walking-while-talking speed were more likely to develop SCD. Conversely, participants in the third and fourth quartiles of fast speed were more likely to develop SCD. J-test showed that the model including fast speed quartiles as a regressor was significantly more predictive of SCD than the models with usual speed or walking-while-talking speed quartiles.
measuring fast gait speed in older persons may assist in identifying those at high risk of cognitive decline.
Theories of cerebellar function have largely involved three ideas: movement coordination, motor learning or timing. New evidence indicates these distinctions are not particularly meaningful, as the cerebellum influences movement execution by feedforward use of sensory information via temporally specific learning.
Age-related dysfunction of frontal systems can result in deficits in planning, organization, self-control, and awareness of problems, which are likely to affect the ability to care for one's self. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between age-related frontal/executive deficits and impairment in instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) in elderly individuals. Twenty-seven community-dwelling individuals were administered a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests and a performance-based evaluation of IADLs. Multiple regression analyses indicated that executive function and depression severity accounted for a significant proportion of variance in IADLs, with executive function making the greatest contribution. Tests measuring other cognitive functions, such as memory, language, and spatial skills, did not contribute significantly to the prediction of functional status. Furthermore, executive measures accounted for more variance than other demographic characteristics such as general health status, age, and educational level. The results of this study indicate that executive dysfunction in normal aging may be the best predictor of functional decline. A better understanding of the mechanisms that underlie IADL skills will ultimately aid in the development of compensatory and intervention strategies designed to delay the onset of assisted living and nursing home placement.
Sit-to-stand (STS) performance is often used as a measure of lower-limb strength in older people and those with significant weakness. However, the findings of recent studies suggest that performance in this test is also influenced by factors associated with balance and mobility. We conducted a study to determine whether sensorimotor, balance, and psychological factors in addition to lower-limb strength predict sit-to-stand performance in older people.
Six hundred and sixty nine community-dwelling men and women aged 75-93 years (mean age 78.9, SD = 4.1) underwent quantitative tests of strength, vision, peripheral sensation, reaction time, balance, health status, and sit-to-stand performance.
Many physiological and psychological factors were significantly associated with sit-to-stand times in univariate analyses. Multiple regression analysis revealed that visual contrast sensitivity, lower limb proprioception, peripheral tactile sensitivity, reaction time involving a foot-press response, sway with eyes open on a foam rubber mat, body weight, and scores on the Short-Form 12 Health Status Questionnaire pain, anxiety, and vitality scales in addition to knee extension, knee flexion, and ankle dorsiflexion strength were significant and independent predictors of STS performance. Of these measures, quadriceps strength had the highest beta weight, indicating it was the most important variable in explaining the variance in STS times. However, the remaining measures accounted for more than half the explained variance in STS times. The final regression model explained 34.9% of the variance in STS times (multiple R =.59).
The findings indicate that, in community-dwelling older people, STS performance is influenced by multiple physiological and psychological processes and represents a particular transfer skill, rather than a proxy measure of lower limb strength.
This paper briefly reviews the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia and their relationships with the thalamocortical system. The basal ganglia, including the striatum, pallidum, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra, are involved in a number of parallel, functionally segregated cortical-subcortical circuits. These circuits support a wide range of sensorimotor, cognitive and emotional-motivational brain functions. A main role of the basal ganglia is the learning and selection of the most appropriate motor or behavioral programs. The internal functional organization of the basal ganglia is very well suited for such selection mechanisms, both in development and in adulthood. The question of whether clumsiness may be, at least in part, attributed to dysfunction of the basal ganglia is discussed in the context of the differential, complementary, or interactive roles of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum in the development of motor control.
Brain aging research relies mostly on cross-sectional studies, which infer true changes from age differences. We present longitudinal measures of five-year change in the regional brain volumes in healthy adults. Average and individual differences in volume changes and the effects of age, sex and hypertension were assessed with latent difference score modeling. The caudate, the cerebellum, the hippocampus and the association cortices shrunk substantially. There was minimal change in the entorhinal and none in the primary visual cortex. Longitudinal measures of shrinkage exceeded cross-sectional estimates. All regions except the inferior parietal lobule showed individual differences in change. Shrinkage of the cerebellum decreased from young to middle adulthood, and increased from middle adulthood to old age. Shrinkage of the hippocampus, the entorhinal cortices, the inferior temporal cortex and the prefrontal white matter increased with age. Moreover, shrinkage in the hippocampus and the cerebellum accelerated with age. In the hippocampus, both linear and quadratic trends in incremental age-related shrinkage were limited to the hypertensive participants. Individual differences in shrinkage correlated across some regions, suggesting common causes. No sex differences in age trends except for the caudate were observed. We found no evidence of neuroprotective effects of larger brain size or educational attainment.
This study examined the effects of age on performance, muscle activation, and perceived stress during computer tasks with different levels of mental demand.
Fifteen young and thirteen elderly women performed two computer tasks [color word test and reference task] with different levels of mental demand but similar physical demands. The performance (clicking frequency, percentage of correct answers, and response time for correct answers) and electromyography from the forearm, shoulder, and neck muscles were recorded. Visual analogue scales were used to measure the participants' perception of the stress and difficulty related to the tasks.
Performance decreased significantly in both groups during the color word test in comparison with performance on the reference task. However, the performance reduction was more pronounced in the elderly group than in the young group. Likewise, a higher level of self-reported stress was found for the elderly participants after the color word test. During the reference task higher electromyographic levels and reported difficulty were recorded for the elderly group than for the young group.
The findings suggest that mental demands affect young and elderly women differently. Thus the mentally demanding computer task had a more pronounced effect on the elderly than on the young. In contrast to the results in the reference task, the same level of muscle activity for most muscles and the same level of self-reported difficulty was found in the two groups during the color word test. The elderly probably compensated for age-related changes by reducing their work speed markedly.
previous studies have reported an association between cognitive function and physical performance, particularly among older adults.
to examine the association between executive function and performance difference on complex versus usual walking tasks in a sample of non-demented older adults.
population-based epidemiological study of older people residing in the Chianti area (Tuscany, Italy).
737 community-dwelling individuals aged 65 years and older.
gait speed (m/s) was measured during the performance of complex walking tasks (walking/talking, walking/picking-up an object, walking/carrying a large package, walking over obstacles, walking with a weighted vest) and reference walking tasks (7 m usual pace, 7 m fast pace and 60 m fast pace). Executive function was assessed using the Trail Making Test (TMT). Other measures included Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), sociodemographic characteristics and selected physiological impairments.
gait speed for the selected reference and complex walk tasks was consistently lower among participants with poor executive function. Per cent decline in gait speed compared with the reference task differed by executive function for certain tasks (e.g. walking/obstacles: 30 versus 24% decline in low versus high executive function respectively, P = 0.0006) but not for others.
poor executive function is associated with measures of gait, including specific challenges. Overall, the results showed that the cost associated with the addition of a challenge to the basic walking task differs by executive function and the nature of the task. Further research is needed to determine whether improvement in executive function abilities translates to better performance on selected complex walking tasks.
This study examined the contributions of general slowing and task-specific deficits to age-related changes in Stroop interference. Nine hundred thirty-eight participants aged 20 to 89 years completed an abbreviated Stroop color-naming task and a subset of 281 participants also completed card-sorting, simple reaction time, and choice reaction time tasks. Age-related increases in incongruent color-naming latency and card-sorting perseverative errors were observed. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that the processing speed measures accounted for significant variance on both dependent measures, but that there was also a significant residual effect of age. An additional regression analysis showed that some of the variance in incongruent color-naming, after controlling for processing speed, was shared with the variance in perseverative errors. Overall, findings suggest that the age difference in Stroop interference is partially attributable to general slowing, but is also attributable to age-related changes in task-specific processes such as inhibitory control.
In community-dwelling older adults, greater mobility impairment is associated with greater burden of diffuse brain structural abnormalities, such as higher white matter hyperintensities. This study examined the association between gray matter volumes of regions related to motor control, gait, and balance and whether this association is independent of burden of white matter hyperintensities.
A random sample of 327 participants of the Cardiovascular Health Study (78.3 +/- 4.1 years old, 57% women) contributed brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and mobility data. A brain imaging automated method measured gray matter volume in cerebellum, basal ganglia, and prefrontal and parietal cortex in both hemispheres. Gait speed was measured while walking 15 feet at usual pace. Standing balance was assessed by timing tandem stance. Associations between each region's volume and gait speed or balance were measured before and after adjustment for demographics, head size, cardiovascular risk factors, and 0-9 grading scores of white matter hyperintensities.
Smaller left cerebellum and left prefrontal regions were associated with slower gait, independently of covariates and of white matter hyperintensities. Smaller right putamen, right posterior superior parietal cortex, and both left and right cerebellum were associated with balance difficulty, independently of covariates and white matter hyperintensities.
Smaller gray matter volumes in regions crucial for motor control are associated with slower gait and poorer balance, and the association appears to be independent of other diffuse brain abnormalities such as white matter hyperintensities.
An emerging body of multidisciplinary literature has documented the beneficial influence of physical activity engendered through aerobic exercise on selective aspects of brain function. Human and non-human animal studies have shown that aerobic exercise can improve a number of aspects of cognition and performance. Lack of physical activity, particularly among children in the developed world, is one of the major causes of obesity. Exercise might not only help to improve their physical health, but might also improve their academic performance. This article examines the positive effects of aerobic physical activity on cognition and brain function, at the molecular, cellular, systems and behavioural levels. A growing number of studies support the idea that physical exercise is a lifestyle factor that might lead to increased physical and mental health throughout life.
Teachers complain about growing concentration deficits and reduced attention in adolescents. Exercise has been shown to positively affect cognitive performance. Due to the neuronal connection between the cerebellum and the frontal cortex, we hypothesized that cognitive performance might be influenced by bilateral coordinative exercise (CE) and that its effect on cognition might be already visible after short bouts of exercise. One hundred and fifteen healthy adolescents aged 13-16 years of an elite performance school were randomly assigned to an experimental and a control group and tested using the d2-test, a test of attention and concentration. Both groups performed the d2-test after a regular school lesson (pre-test), after 10 min of coordinative exercise and of a normal sport lesson (NSL, control group), respectively (post-test). Exercise was controlled for heart rate (HR). CE and NSL enhanced the d2-test performance from pre- to post-test significantly. ANOVA revealed a significant group (CE, NSL) by performance interaction in the d2-test indicating a higher improvement of CE as compared to NSL. HR was not significantly different between the groups. CE was more effective in completing the concentration and attention task. With the HR being the same in both groups we assume that the coordinative character of the exercise might be responsible for the significant differences. CE might lead to a pre-activation of parts of the brain which are also responsible for mediating functions like attention. Thus, our results support the request for more acute CE in schools, even in elite performance schools.
Objective:
Older adults' motor sequencing performance is more reliant on executive functioning (EF) and more susceptible to complexity than that of younger adults. This study examined for which aspects of motor sequencing performance these relationships hold.
Methods:
Fifty-seven younger and 90 non-demented, community-dwelling, older adults completed selected subtests from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System as indices of EF and component processes (CP; graphomotor speed; visual scanning; etc.), as well as a computerized motor sequencing task (Push Turn Taptap task; PTT). The PTT requires participants to perform motor sequences that become progressively more complex across the task's four blocks, and is designed to assess action planning, action learning, and motor control speed and accuracy.
Results:
Hierarchical regressions using each discrete aspect of performance as the dependent variable revealed that action planning is the only aspect of motor sequencing that is uniquely related to EF (beyond the CP composite) for both age groups. Action learning and motor control accuracy are uniquely associated with EF for older adults only, and only if the sequences are complex. Component processes do not fully account for the unique relationships between motor sequencing and EF in older adults.
Conclusions:
These results clarify prior findings by showing (a) more aspects of motor sequencing relate to EF for older compared to younger adults and (b) for these unique relationships, EF is only related to action during the generation of sequences that are complex. These findings further our understanding of how aging shapes the links between EF and motor actions, and can be used in evidence-based and theoretically driven intervention programs that promote healthy aging.
The purpose of the present study was to examine age-related differences in maximal and rapid torque characteristics of the hip extensor muscles and dynamic postural balance in healthy, young and older females. Eleven young (age, 26±8 years) and 11 old (age, 67±8 years) females performed two isometric maximal voluntary contractions (MVCs) of the hip extensor muscles. Absolute and relative peak torque (PT) and rate of torque development (RTD) at early (0-50 ms) and late (0-200 ms) phases of muscle contraction were examined during each MVC. Dynamic postural balance was assessed using a commercially designed balance testing device, which provides a measurement of dynamic stability based on the overall stability index (OSI). Results indicated that absolute PT and early (RTD50) and late (RTD200) RTD variables were lower (P=0.009-0.050), and postural OSI was higher (P=0.011) in the old compared to the younger females; however, no differences were observed for relative PT or RTD variables (P=0.113-0.895). A significant relationship was also observed in the older (r=-0.601; P=0.050) but not the younger (r=-0.132; P=0.698) females between RTD50 and OSI. The lower absolute PT and RTD and higher OSI values for the old females may contribute to the increased functional limitations often observed in older adults. The significant relationship observed in the older females between OSI and RTD50 perhaps suggests that these age-related declines in explosive strength may be an important characteristic relevant to dynamic balance scores, especially in older populations.
Recent studies indicate that the effect of training on motor performance in persons with Parkinson's disease (PDP) is dependent on motor intensity. However, training of high motor intensity can be hard to apply in PDP due to e.g. bradykinesia, rigidity, tremor and postural instability. Therefore, the aim was to study the effect of motor intensive training performed in a safe anti-gravity environment using lower-body positive pressure (LBPP) technology on performance during dynamic balance related tasks. Thirteen male PDP went through an 8-week control period followed by 8 weeks of motor intensive antigravity training. Seventeen healthy males constituted a control group (CON). Performance during a five repetition sit-to-stand test (STS; sagittal plane) and a dynamic postural balance test (DPB; transversal plane) was evaluated. Effect measures were completion time, functional rates of force development, directional changes and force variance. STS completion time improved by 24% to the level of CON which was explained by shorter sitting-time and standing-time and larger numeric rate of force change during lowering to the chair, indicating faster vertical directional change and improved relaxation. DPB completion time tended to improve and was accompanied by improvements of functional medial and lateral rates of force development and higher vertical force variance during DPB. Our results suggest that the performance improvements may relate to improved inter-limb coordination. It is concluded that 8 weeks of motor intensive training in a safe LBPP environment improved performance during dynamic balance related tasks in PDP.
Because of the possible implications for intervention and thus successful aging, researchers have striven to determine whether the age changes in physical and cognitive functioning are coincident or does functioning in one domain change before, and possibly contribute to, functioning in the other.
Bivariate dual change score models were applied to four cognitive factors and three motor functioning factors available from 813 adults who participated in the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. Participants were aged 50-88 at the first of six waves of testing covering a 19-year follow-up period; 68% participated in at least three waves.
Model comparisons indicated dynamic coupling relationships between Balance and Fine Motor factors and the Speed cognitive factor. Decline in motor function precedes decline in performance on processing speed tasks, even though the motor function tasks were not timed. Results indicated possible bidirectional coupling between Fine Motor and Speed.
Combined with other dual change score model analyses of cognition and physical function, a picture is beginning to emerge of the cascade of events that may lead to cognitive aging.
© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.
Recent studies in patients with muscular dystrophies suggest positive effects of aerobic and strength training. These studies focused training on using bicycle ergometers and conventional strength training, which precludes more severely affected patients from participating, because of their weakness. We investigated the functional effects of combined aerobic and strength training in patients with Becker and limb-girdle muscular dystrophies with knee muscle strength levels as low as 3% of normal strength.
Eight patients performed 10 weeks of aerobic and strength training on an anti-gravity treadmill, which offered weight support up to 80% of their body weight. Six minute walking distance, dynamic postural balance, and plasma creatine kinase were assessed 10 weeks prior to training, immediately before training and after 10 weeks of training. Training elicited an improvement of walking distance by 8 ± 2% and dynamic postural balance by 13 ± 4%, indicating an improved physical function. Plasma creatine kinase remained unchanged. These results provide evidence that a combination of aerobic and strength training during anti-gravity has the potential to safely improve functional ability in severely affected patients with Becker and limb-girdle muscular dystrophies.
To explore the relationship between cognitive functioning and time spent at different intensities of physical activity (PA) in free-living older adults.
Cross sectional analyses.
Continuing care retirement communities.
Older adults residing in seven continuing care retirement communities in San Diego County with an average age of 83; 70% were female, and 35% had a graduate-level education (N = 217).
PA was measured objectively using hip worn accelerometers with data aggregated to the minute level. Three cut points were used to assess low light-intensity PA (LLPA), high light-intensity PA (HLPA), and moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA). The Trail Making Test (TMT) Parts A and B were completed, and time for each test (seconds) and time for Part B minus time for Part A (seconds) were used as measures of cognitive function. Variables were log-transformed and entered into linear regression models adjusting for demographic factors (age, education, sex) and other PA intensity variables.
LLPA was not related to any TMT test score. HLPA was significantly related to TMT A, B, and B minus A but only in unadjusted models. MVPA was related to TMT B and B minus A after adjusting for demographic variables.
There may be a dose response between PA intensity and cognitive functioning in older adults. The stronger findings supporting a relationship between MVPA and cognitive functioning are consistent with previous observational and intervention studies.
We comment on the recent publication by McIntosh et al 1 concerning rhythmic auditory motor facilitation of gait patterns in patients with Parkinson’s disease. These authors have shown a roughly 10% improvement in gait velocity as a result of entrainment of cadence with a metronome embedded in background music.
Although this study is interesting, the level of improvement in gait is therapeutically small and not directed to the amelioration of the basic deficit in parkinsonian gait. Other studies have clearly shown that the basic deficit in the control of parkinsonian gait is regulation of stride length. Cadence control is intact in Parkinson’s disease (Morris et al 2) and cadence is used as a compensatory mechanism for the defective control of stride length. This is done to increase gait velocity above normal and preset values for each individual patient. We see very little benefit in entraining patients whose cadence is already increased above normal values to improve velocity by values of only the order of 10%. This is particularly so when it is possible to restore normal gait …
The study of the neural correlates of motor behaviour at the systems level has received increasing consideration in recent years. One emerging observation from this research is that neural regions typically associated with cognitive operations may also be recruited during the performance of motor tasks. This apparent convergence between action and cognition - domains that have most often been studied in isolation - becomes especially apparent when examining new complex motor skills such as those involving sequencing or coordination, and when taking into account external (environment-related) factors such as feedback availability and internal (performer-related) factors such as pathology. Neurally, overlap between action and cognition is prominent in frontal lobe areas linked to response selection and monitoring. Complex motor tasks are particularly suited to reveal the crucial link between action and cognition and the generic brain areas at the interface between these domains.
Although it is documented that brain dopamine activity declines with age, the functional significance of this is not known. This study assessed the relation between measures of brain dopamine activity and indexes of motor and cognitive function in healthy individuals.
Thirty healthy volunteers aged 24-86 years were studied with positron emission tomography and [11C]raclopride to assess dopamine D2 receptors. All subjects underwent a neuropsychological test battery that included tasks found to be sensitive to dopamine alterations in patients with neurodegenerative disease and control tasks.
Transfer of [11C]raclopride from plasma to brain in the striatum and cerebellum was not affected by age. In contrast, D2 receptor availability in the caudate and putamen declined with age. Correlations between D2 receptors and neuropsychological test performance were strongest for the motor task (Finger Tapping Test) and were also significant for most tasks involving frontal brain regions, including measures of abstraction and mental flexibility (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test) and attention and response inhibition (Stroop Color-Word Test, interference score). These relationships remained significant after control for age effects.
Age-related decreases in brain dopamine activity are associated with a decline in motor function and may also contribute to impaired performance on tasks that involve frontal brain regions. Interventions that enhance dopamine activity may improve performance and quality of life for the elderly. The fact that correlations remained significant after age effects were partialed out suggests that dopamine activity may influence motor and cognitive performance irrespective of age.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--George Peabody College for Teachers, 1933.
The purpose of this Position Stand is to provide an overview of issues critical to understanding the importance of exercise and physical activity in older adult populations. The Position Stand is divided into three sections: Section 1 briefly reviews the structural and functional changes that characterize normal human aging, Section 2 considers the extent to which exercise and physical activity can influence the aging process, and Section 3 summarizes the benefits of both long-term exercise and physical activity and shorter-duration exercise programs on health and functional capacity. Although no amount of physical activity can stop the biological aging process, there is evidence that regular exercise can minimize the physiological effects of an otherwise sedentary lifestyle and increase active life expectancy by limiting the development and progression of chronic disease and disabling conditions. There is also emerging evidence for significant psychological and cognitive benefits accruing from regular exercise participation by older adults. Ideally, exercise prescription for older adults should include aerobic exercise, muscle strengthening exercises, and flexibility exercises. The evidence reviewed in this Position Stand is generally consistent with prior American College of Sports Medicine statements on the types and amounts of physical activity recommended for older adults as well as the recently published 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. All older adults should engage in regular physical activity and avoid an inactive lifestyle.
The effects of aging on the inhibitory function are largely described in the neuroimaging literature but little data is available on the beginning of this age-related impairment.
In this study, we described the cortical activation of middle-aged (mean age +/- standard error to the mean, 51.7 +/- 3.1) subjects compared to young (26.8 +/- 3.4) and elderly subjects (62.8 +/- 3) while they performed a color-matched Stroop task during functional magnetic resonance imaging. The task consisted in identifying the printing color of a word regardless of its meaning. Three conditions were defined depending on the meaning of this word; neutral (no meaning), congruent (color name matching the printing color), incongruent (color name mismatching the printing color), with interference effect in the latter.
Middle-aged subjects were as slow as elderly compared to young for all conditions and both were less accurate than young subjects during interference condition. Elderly showed an activity more bilateral and greater in the parietal lobule, the dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC, VLPFC) during both congruent and incongruent conditions compared to young. Middle-aged showed an intermediary level of activity between those of elderly and young subjects in the left DLPFC, VLPFC and parietal lobule only during incongruent condition.
These results suggested that the age-related impairment of the inhibitory process could already occur around the age of 50 years and consist in an increase of the activity in the left prefrontal and parietal cortex before increasing more and becoming bilateral around the age of 60 years.
The relationship between change in cognitive and physical performance has yet to be fully understood. Because aging decreases the ability to learn new information while preserving more established knowledge, this article examines whether the association between change in cognitive and physical performance depends on the nature of the physical task.
Data from the MacArthur Research Network on Successful Aging Community Study--a longitudinal three-site, cohort study of high-functioning, disability-free Americans aged 70 to 79 in 1988 (reinterviewed in 1991 and 1995)--are used for this investigation. We examine the association between change in cognitive performance and two categories of physical performance: novel/attentional demanding physical tasks (e.g., standing on a single leg) or routine physical tasks (e.g., walking at a normal pace). Change in physical performance (over 7 years) is regressed on change in cognitive performance (over the same period) controlling for baseline cognitive ability, demographic factors, health status, and behavioral characteristics.
The findings suggest that declines in cognitive performance are associated with declines in both novel/attentional demanding and routine physical tasks. In addition to decline in cognition, gender, prevalent health conditions (e.g., cancer, high blood pressure, and the fracture of a hip), and smoking behavior are associated with decline in performance on some physical tasks.
The findings suggest that the successful execution of physical tasks demands cognitive processes regardless of the nature of the task. Researchers using performance-based measures of physical functioning should pay particular attention to the cognitive capacities of their subjects and how these might influence their assessment.
This report reviews the state of the literature and opportunities for research related to "executive control function" (ECF). ECF has recently been separated from the specific cognitive domains (memory, language, and praxis) traditionally used to assess patients. ECF impairment has been associated with lesions to the frontal cortex and its basal ganglia-thalamic connections. No single putative ECF measure can yet serve as a "gold standard." This and other obstacles to assessment of ECF are reviewed. ECF impairment and related frontal system lesions and metabolic disturbances have been detected in many psychiatric and medical disorders and are strongly associated with functional outcomes, disability, and specific problem behaviors. The prevalence and severity of ECF deficits in many disorders remain to be determined, and treatment has been attempted in only a few disorders. Much more research in these areas is necessary.
A meta-analytic study was conducted to examine the hypothesis that aerobic fitness training enhances the cognitive vitality of healthy but sedentary older adults. Eighteen intervention studies published between 1966 and 2001 were entered into the analysis. Several theoretically and practically important results were obtained. Most important fitness training was found to have robust but selective benefits for cognition, with the largest fitness-induced benefits occurring for executive-control processes. The magnitude of fitness effects on cognition was also moderated by a number of programmatic and methodological factors, including the length of the fitness-training intervention, the type of the intervention, the duration of training sessions, and the gender of the study participants. The results are discussed in terms of recent neuroscientific and psychological data that indicate cognitive and neural plasticity is maintained throughout the life span.
To study the association between performance on psychological tests of executive function and performance on lower extremity tasks with different attentional demands in a large sample of nondemented, older adults.
Cross-sectional study.
Community-based.
Nine hundred twenty-six persons aged 65 and older, without dementia, stroke, parkinsonism, visual impairment, or current treatment with neuroleptics, enrolled in a large epidemiological study.
Trail Making Test (TMT) parts A and B and two performance-based measures of lower extremity function that require different executive/attentional-demanding skills: walking speed on a 4-m course at usual pace and walking speed on a 7-m obstacle course at fast pace. A difference score (Delta TMT), obtained by subtracting time to perform part A from time to perform part B of the TMT, was used as an indicator of executive function. Based on Delta TMT, subjects were divided into poor performance, intermediate performance, and good performance.
After adjustment, no association between Delta TMT and 4-m course usual-pace walking speed was found. Participants with poor Delta TMT and with intermediate Delta TMT performance were more likely to be in the lowest tertile for 7-m obstacle course walking speed.
In nondemented older persons, executive function is independently associated with tasks of lower extremity function that require high attentional demand.
Walking is generally viewed as an automated, over-learned, rhythmic motor task and may even be considered the lower-limb analog of rhythmic finger tapping, another automated motor task. Thus, one might hypothesize that walking would be associated with a simple rhythmic task like tapping rather than with a complex motor task like catching. Surprisingly, however, we find that among older adults, routine walking has more in common with complex motor tasks, like catching a moving object, than it does with tapping. Tapping performance, including both the average tapping interval and the variability of tapping interval, was not significantly associated with any gait parameter (gait speed, average stride time and stride time variability). In contrast, catch game performance was significantly associated with measures of walking, suggesting that walking is more like catching than it is like tapping. For example, participants with a higher gait speed tended to have lower times to first move when catching, better catching accuracy, and less catching errors. Stride time variability was significantly associated with each of the measures of catching. Participants with a lower stride time variability (a more steady gait) had better catching accuracy, lower time to first move, fewer direction changes when moving the cursor to catch the falling object, and less catching errors. To understand this association, we compared walking performance to performance on the Stroop test, a classic measure of executive function, and tests of memory. Walking was associated with higher-level cognitive resources, specifically, executive function, but not with memory or cognitive function in general. For example, a lower (better) stride time variability was significantly associated with higher (better) scores on the Stroop test, but not with tests of memory. Similarly, when participants were stratified based on their performance on the Stroop test and tests of memory, stride time variability was dependent on the former, but not the latter. These findings underscore the interconnectedness of gait and cognitive function, indicate that even routine walking is a complex cognitive task that is associated with higher-level cognitive function, and suggest an alternative approach to the treatment of gait and fall risk in the elderly.
Psych: Procedures for personality and psychological research
- W Revelle
Revelle, W. (2017). Psych: Procedures for personality and psychological research. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University.
Retrieved from https://cran.r-project.org/package=psych
Executive dysfunction correlates with caudate nucleus atrophy in patients with white matter changes on MRI: A subset of LADIS
- L O Wahlund
Wahlund, L. O. (2013).
Executive dysfunction correlates with caudate nucleus atrophy in patients with white matter changes on MRI: A
subset of LADIS. Psychiatry Research -Neuroimaging, 214(1), 16-23. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.05.010