Content uploaded by Vivian Besem Ojong
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Vivian Besem Ojong on Jan 10, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
The African Anthropologist, Vol. 14, Nos. 1&2, 2007, pp. 89–98
© Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa,
2007 (ISSN 1024-0969)
The Substance of Identity:
Territoriality, Culture, Roots and
the Politics of Belonging
Vivian Besem Ojong* & Mpilo Pearl Sithole**
Abstract
Post-apartheid South Africa is at the interface of defining its social
fibre, but at the same time, it is faced with the challenge of dealing
with historical mishaps such as acute socio-economic inequality, and
all forms of social engineering of notions of identity. This has led
thinkers and researchers to probe into what it means to be a South
African. In a recent book titled ‘Do South Africans Exist”, Chipkin
(2007: 178) introduced a discourse, questioning the notion of South
“Africaness” based on territory and geography. Other recent writings
on race and identity continue to question the wisdom of framing iden-
tities in terms of culture and other primordial substances. Such sub-
stances have brought about a notion of identity that has led to human
catastrophes framed in terms of ethnic identities and racial differ-
ences. While this paper capitalizes on such criticism, it interrogates
academic discourse for not ‘coming out’ with durable explanations of
what identities are about and especially what constitutes them. This
paper proposes a conceptual analysis and framing of the substance
of identities that balances emic and etic explanations. In this formula-
tion an exploration of a range of elements affecting conceptualization
of identities is done, including notions of territoriality culture and roots.
* Vivian Besem Ojong,Department of Anthropology, University of
KwaZulu-Natal, Durban. Email: ojong@ukzn.ac.za.
* * Mpilo Pearl Sithole, Research Associate, Department of Anthropology,
University of KwaZulu-Natal. Email: psithole@hsrc.ac.za.
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2589
90 The African Anthropologist, Vol. 14, Nos. 1&2, 2007
Résumé
Après l’apartheid, l’Afrique du Sud est dans une interface à définir son
caractère social, et en même temps fait face à un défi, celui de l’inéga-
lité socio-économique et toutes les formes de créations sociales des
notions d’identités. Cela a poussé les chercheurs et les penseurs à
revoir ce qu’être sud Africain veut dire. Dans un livre récent intitulé
« Existe-t-il des Sud Africains ? », Chipkin (2007: 178) a introduit une
discussion en questionnant la notion de l’« Africanité du Sud » basée
sur la territorialité et la géographie. D’autres écrits récents sur les
questions de race et de l’identité continuent à questionner l’identité
véritable en termes de culture et d’autres aspects primordiaux. Ceci
fait naître une notion de l’identité qui a conduit aux catastrophes hu-
mains tels que les questions de l’identité ethnique et la différences
raciales. Même si cette communication se focalise sur ces critiques,
elle s’interroge aussi sur les discours académiques qui n’ont pas pu
produire une explication durable sur ce qu’est l’identité et ces différen-
tes composantes.
Cet article propose une analyse conceptuelle et des explications de la
question de l’identité qui confrontent emic et etic. Dans cette formula-
tion, il sera aussi question d’explorer certains éléments qui affectent la
conceptualisation de l’identité, la notion de territorialité, culture et les
origines.
Introduction
After the fall of apartheid, migration to South Africa has been on the
increase and there is no natural conclusion in sight, conclusion being
argued as undesirable in most quarters. This increase is continuous, since
South Africa is perceived as rich compared to the rest of Africa and also
is perceived as relatively safe since the fall of apartheid. Therefore, all
categories of immigration have increased, including work permits, stu-
dents who settle permanently, asylum seekers and undocumented mi-
grants. Some of these immigrants do not wish to go back to their coun-
tries of origin (Ojong, 2005). At the same time, amongst those who have
always lived in this border, South Africanness is not easy to define. Self-
ascription with South Africanness is often rudimentary, depending on
context and advantage. This paper, therefore, examines South Africanness
in the context of no rigid authenticity of this identity. The key questions
are: what are the implications of increased and sometimes permanent
migration for South African identity? Is the South African identity in the
making or are there different ‘shades’ of South Africanness? While the
point of focus here is South Africa, what we examine here is a phenom-
enon that has bearing on other countries as well.
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2590
91
Ojong & Sithole: The Substance of Identity
South Africa is a country laden with negotiation and renegotiation of
its demography. A country in the process of re-drawing its social map
with all aspects of its social fibre placed on the drawing board. Fifteen
years after the first democratic elections, the social contours which con-
stitute the beautiful ‘rainbow’ nation are difficult to define. Considering
some of the debates as well as government supported programmes such
as the African renaissance programme, it appears as though some in-
habitants believe that they are more South African than others. The
debates have been both academic and popular. On the one hand, there
are those who cannot separate spatialisation and socialization as a basis
for identity. For them, citizenship and nationality converge into an
identity premised on territoriality. In this school of thought, spatialisation
and socialization are believed to be tied together (Massey, 1994). The two
are tied together, by an ‘invisible umbilical cord’. Malkki (2002) calls this
boundedness ‘metaphysics of sedentarism’, which she believes, territo-
rialises our identities whether cultural or national.
The opportunity to look at identity from a stance of migration and
relocation provides space to reflect on why citizens ‘grade’ themselves
according to their history and ancestral roots. In South Africa, there is
cry for belonging from members of historical settler groups, a discontent
with not being regarded as fully African. At the same time, it is not
uncommon for such citizens to embark on long trips to Europe or Asia
tracing their ‘roots’ to Scotland or India. On the other hand ‘indigenous
culture’ is often verbalized as something that has been permanently Af-
rican as opposed to ‘imported’; hence those who associate themselves
with it are seen as ‘more local’ than others. This does not happen only
when the subject of identity is directly invoked; it is also affirmed in the
association of scientific heritage with ‘the West’ and association of extra-
objective (cosmological) interaction, especially in healing, with Africa.
The various diasporic ‘brotherhoods’ within the continent also affirm
groups within space. The whole notion of diaspora presents tangible
ambivalence to the notion of elastic identities.
Chipkin (2007) examines in detail what should constitute a national
identity. He examines the politics of nationalism from the ‘politics-of-
belonging’ point of view. However, in the process, he reifies nationalism,
subduing and trivializing all other forms of identity. Given the long stand-
ing lamentation against smaller identities as being the basis for negative
competition and detrimental fissions, it is no surprise that Chipkin does
not waste his time pondering on these identities. Unfortunately, this
shuns not just these forms of identities but an opportunity to examine
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2591
92 The African Anthropologist, Vol. 14, Nos. 1&2, 2007
how the human species categorizes identity, what motivates it to crys-
tallize identities temporarily or permanently. In Chipkin’s analysis, we
see the analyst starting from a ‘political’ commitment to one form of
identity rather than being at liberty to follow through what informs
human tendencies to consolidate an identity, how and when.
Our point of departure is the realization that identity for the mi-
grants or the relocated cannot be solely constructed in bounded places
and located in it but should embrace elastic connotations and interpre-
tations. Space has always been of keen interest to Anthropologists be-
cause their population of study has historically been located in fixed
places (Lefebvre, 1991; Moore, 1986), and this has been the basis for as-
suming some essentialist characteristics. Dougan (2004:33) has argued
that essentialist conceptualizations serve the key function of providing
permanent, clear and thick boundaries. In a sense, it is not clear what
comes first – essentialism or territory. It is the tendency to essentialise,
which we argue, is at the crossroads of the emic and the etic conceptions
of identity. Identities, therefore, become fundamentally instrumentalist,
but retain an emic justification of being authentic through being associ-
ated with essentialising symbols that are cultural, territorial or embed-
ded in the notion of roots.
All human beings have an embodiment of norms and values which
they carry along when they move to other places; be it translocally or
transnationally. Owing to the influence of globalisation, these
embodiments are easily shared by all who occupy a geographic space.
Gupta and Ferguson (2001) have argued that these embodiments are
lived in spaces which have been culturised. South Africa in the past one
hundred and fifty years has experienced significant immigration from
the rest of the world which has shaped and continues to shape its na-
tional identity. It is perhaps for this reason that to some inhabitants who
form the demography of the country, place cannot be a clear support of
their identity. Yet for others, even those who have migrated internally
(i.e. within South Africa), the notion of ‘roots’ makes what they regard as
a true home. From an observer point of view it is clear that through
interacting and living with people from different origins, new identities
are created, socialization process is renegotiated and meanings that peo-
ple attach to places are re-visited.
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2592
93
Ojong & Sithole: The Substance of Identity
Theoretical Confusion on the Notion of Identity:
South Africa as a Site
Controversy rests on the question of whether common place descriptors
as a basis for definitions of identity are suitable for a proper understand-
ing of identity in a transnational and migratory context. In the context of
multiple cultural encounters, is it justified to assume a clear social and
physical reality as a base for identity? Malkki (2001:56) writes that “peo-
ple are often thought of, and think of themselves, as being rooted in a
place and as deriving their identity from that rootedness. According to
Gellner (1981:4) this has to do with the manner in which researchers
have often conceptualized the spatial arrangements of peoples.
Before Africa’s encounter with colonialism, composition of societies
was fluid in nature and membership was not fixed but was readily per-
meable by non-members. People could move from one geographic loca-
tion to another and join other groups and easily acquired the identity of
that location. However, contemporary notions of group identity in Af-
rica have created thick boundaries with alienating properties and when
a group is not considered as having those properties, they are labelled
outsiders. Appiah (1992:175) notes that group identity seems to work
only, or at least, to work best when it is seen by its members as natural,
as real. Writing about group identity, Boonzaier and Sharp (1989:2) agree
that “one cannot assume that any representation of the society is a
straight forward description of its real nature, because each representa-
tion is a political statement which includes assumptions and intentions
of the people who make it”. However, since the 1980s many South African
academics have tended to see identities mainly in instrumentalist terms
where people use identity as a means to materialist ends. Rogers and
Cooper (2000) have made a distinction between self-identification and
the identification and categorisation of oneself by others. According to
these authors, it is dialectic interplay with a point of convergence. They,
however, highlighted a ‘third force’ of identification, which is an au-
thoritative voice usually orchestrated by the state to categorise people.
Such is demonstrated through the use of passports, but the authors
question the oversight exercised with the use of such mode of
identification. What Rogers and Coopers overlooked is the fact that every
mode of expression is a statement (whether through a photograph or a
passport), a declaration of who we are.
It is important to realise the fact that individuals’ construction of
identity takes place alongside others’ labeling, political processes and
ideology. This creates a sense of ‘us and them’ which creates the politics
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2593
94 The African Anthropologist, Vol. 14, Nos. 1&2, 2007
of belonging and not belonging to which certain thinkers (e.g. Chipkin,
2007 discussed above) focus all their attention. This is obviously a sensi-
tive matter, since it is not fair to exclude people from the South African
identity while they strongly believe that they belong. However, what
are the parameters of belonging or at least criteria to join. Is legitimate
joining (presumably compliant with some criteria) enough as a state-
ment of ‘authentic South African identity’. Once demarcated boundaries
are created, which converts insiders into outsiders, it leads to
deconstruction upon deconstruction of identities. Instead of having iden-
tities being transformed and reproduced as Hall (1996) has stated earlier,
deconstruction sets the pace for identification. It is not being suggested
here that an open ‘melting pot’ be created whereby all the different ‘cul-
tures’/identities that find themselves in the geographic space called South
Africa should simply belong. That would mean abolishing boundaries
without giving the rationale or conceptually conceding to territoriality
of identities without solving the problem of temporality (of migration –
whether short or permanent) and the relevance of sociality or
socialization. However, the problem of what constitutes identities has
not been solved by academic discourse. In South Africa, it is particularly
difficult to arrive at neutral critical discourse on identities because of the
past which makes academics champion some form of identity before
scrutinizing human tendencies in self-categorization.
A legacy which the apartheid government has left behind which con-
tinues to haunt South Africans consciously or unconsciously, is ethnic
consciousness. The apartheid government called social groups ‘ethnos’,
which were assumed to be closed systems into which individuals were
born and only death could separate them from their ‘ethnos’. Although
the ideology at the time was for political gain, it has created a strong
sense of ethnic identity, which when placed on a scale, supersedes the
South African identity. The different diasporic groups which form part
of the South African identity today, the ‘more indigenous’ groups, as well
as emergent ones from the rest of the African continent, all retain a po-
tential to essentialise their history of origin (origin being relative to cur-
rent status and its issues).
Since identification often to a great extent determines who accesses
resources and who does not, ethnic identity is being elevated above the
national identity. People are quick to assert that they are: Zulu, Sotho,
Xhoza, etc. Others are comfortable being called White, while others are
called Indians. The other emergent groups from the rest of Africa who by
choice have naturalised as South Africans do not belong. They are called
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2594
95
Ojong & Sithole: The Substance of Identity
‘amakwere-kwere’.2 This pattern of identification enshrines demarcated
boundaries and is fraught with discrimination, probably indicating cur-
rent trends in material competition. By identifying firstly through ones’
ethnic lineage, some people are seen as more South African than others.
Consciously or unconsciously, such boundaries play a pivotal role in
accessing resources. Some of these groups are seen as ‘natural’ (Appiah,
1991), while others are seen as ‘transplanted’ (Mudimbe-Boyi, 2002;
Malkki, 2002). Some are ‘diasporic’ (Hall, 1996), while others are ‘indig-
enous’ (Sylvain, 2002). Some are labelled ‘transnationals’ while the rest
are either ‘immigrants’ or ‘migrants’.
South African Identity as Description and Labelling
‘We know of no people without names, no languages or cultures in
which some manner of distinctions between self and other, we and
they, are not made….self knowledge is always a construction, no
matter how much, it feels like a discovery, is never altogether sepa-
rable from claims to be known in specific ways by others’ (Calhoun,
1994:10).
In order to understand how people in South Africa identify themselves
and how they are perceived by others, we did a small exercise with
Anthropology first year (new students) and honours students (mature
students) at the University of KwaZulu-Natal among whom were;
‘whites’ ‘blacks’ and ‘Indians’. A double question was posed to them:
Who is a South African and who is African? It emerged that the different
racial groups used different grounds for identification. The Black stu-
dents where confident that they were South Africans because of their
skin colour and their language (according to this group, Africa naturally
belongs to Black people). The White students had a loose construction of
identity (not using territory) by saying that anyone could be a South
African, but were confident they were South Africans. The Black stu-
dents did not, however, consider the whites to be African because they
did not belong to the Black culture and did not speak their language and
had a kind of culture which was not of South Africa. Their belief was that
the Whites are poised to be South Africans by historical circumstances.
Some were quite blatant with arguments of opportunistic materialism
suggesting that white South Africanness is predicated on a desire to
have access to resources and benefit from the political positioning of
South Africa vis-à-vis the world and the rest of the African continent.
The Indians, on the other hand, had a different construction of identity.
Their identity was constructed in terms of India as their ‘motherland’.
They all easily identified themselves as Indians. One may ponder as to
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2595
96 The African Anthropologist, Vol. 14, Nos. 1&2, 2007
why they thought of territorial land in the construction of their identity.
The reason may rest in the fact that they had always been marginal in
White dominated South Africa and were marginal during the Black
dominated era and were, therefore, keeping their connections.
This highlights the fact that there are different levels of identification;
self perception, external attribution, which are all multiple, fluid, shift-
ing and situational. Our self-perception of where we belong in society
does not necessarily coincide with how others identify or classify us. It
would seem from the above that there is an urgency for a strong sense of
nationhood to be created in South Africa the substance which Chipkin
(2007), taking from others, discusses as ‘fraternity’. Without a strong
sense of South African national identity, we are poised to encounter gen-
erations upon generations of people being labeled foreigners.
Since identity is a freely chosen game as Doughlas (1992) has argued,
perhaps individuals should be given the opportunity both theoretically
and operationally to decide where to belong, by moving away from clas-
sical interpretations. To some extent individuals are already doing this,
since sometimes they speak of formal or official identities on the one
hand, and informal and real identities on the other hand. Some have
lived in certain territories for a major part of their lives, but regard other
places as the basis for their identities. Others care less about ‘original
places’ and have carved identities from their current circumstances. The
assumption that identities have a static territorial dimension misrepre-
sents and misinterprets the South African identity. Classical theories of
identity do not sufficiently grasp people’s identity in a country with a
high immigration like South Africa. According to Appadurai (1991:191),
increased mobility has led to dispersed identities which are being repro-
duced. As migrants change geographical places, they enter distinct so-
cial spaces in which group memberships are renegotiated, so are the
meaning of places as well as interpersonal ties. Hall (1996) theorizing the
transformation of the notion of identity in relation to migration, consid-
ers it as a process of perpetual change.
Hall (1998:222) does not regard identity as an accomplished fact but
as a production which is never complete, always in process, and always
constituted within, not outside representation. Such identities are con-
stantly producing and reproducing themselves anew, through transfor-
mation and difference. This would, however, suggest that identities are
not static or predefined, but infinitely malleable (Woodward, 1997:313).
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2596
97
Ojong & Sithole: The Substance of Identity
Conclusion
This paper has pondered upon the meaning of identities from multiple
angles which are of necessity a nuanced framework for defining identi-
ties. It is argued in this paper that in a final analysis, identities must not
be approached from pre-conceived choices about which identities are
better, even though such a ‘political’ standpoint might be the ultimate
interventionist aim. Analysis of identities must be localized (i.e. they
must relate to subjectivities and/or polities), taking into account the his-
torical dimensions applicable to those involved. It should also be mind-
ful of self-ascriptions of identity and labeling between people. Identities
are therefore a matter of both the emic and the etic; they are influenced
by a balance between self-assessment of identity markers as well as
objective factors of social relations giving rise to renegotiation. Identities
are therefore a process of ‘essentialising-on-the-go’ – objectively they are
not permanent and rigid, but subjectively they are constituted by defi-
nite markers and existential substance, albeit experiential. Thus, we ar-
gue for space for both self-identification and explicit criteria for identity
in officialdom – the latter being space for continued renegotiation.
Notes
1. A derogatory term used in identifying black foreigners in South Africa
References
Appadurai, A.,1991, “Global ethnoscapes: roles and queries for a
transnational anthropology.” in Fox, R. G. (ed). Recapturing Anthropology:
working in the present Santa Fe. School of American Research Press.
Appiah, K.A., 1992, In My Father’s House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Boonzaier, E. and Sharp J., 1989, South African Keywords: The uses and abuses
of political concepts. Cape Town: David Phillip.
Calhoun, C., 1994, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity, Oxford: Blackwell
Castels, M. 2000. The power of Identity, Oxford: Blackwell.
Chipkin, I., 2007, Do South Africans Exist?: Nationalism, Democracy and the
Identity of the People Johannesburg Wits University Press.
Douglass, K., 1992, Popular culture and constructing postmodern
identities in Lasch, S. and Friedman, J. (eds), Modernity and Identity,
Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Gellner, E., 1981, Muslim Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gupta, A. and Ferguson, J., 2001, Culture, Power, Place: explorations in critical
anthropology, London: Duke University Press.
Hall, S., 1996, “Cultural identity and Diaspora”, in Hall, S. (ed), Questions
of Identity, Hamburg.
Hall, S., 1998, ‘Cultural identity and Diaspora’ in Rutherford, J., (ed),
Identity, Community, Culture, Difference, London: Lawrence and Wishart.
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2597
98 The African Anthropologist, Vol. 14, Nos. 1&2, 2007
Lefebure, H., 1991, The production of space, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Malkki, L., 2002, National Geographic: The Rooting of Peoples and
Territorializing of National Identity among Scholars and Refugees in
Gupta, A. and Ferguson, J. (ed), Culture, Power, Place. Explorations in Critical
Anthropology, London: Duke University Press.
Massey, D., 1994, Space, place and gender, Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press.
Moore, H., 1986, Space, Text and Gender: An Anthropological study of the
Marakwet of Kenya, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mudimbe-Boyi, E., 2002, Beyond Dichotomies. Histories, Identities, Cultures, and
the Challenge of Globalisation, New York: State University.
Rogers, B., and Cooper, F., 2000, ‘Beyond Identity’, Theory and Society,
Codesria Bulletin Vol. 29 (1): 1-47.
Sylvain, R., 2002, “Land, Water, and Truth”, San Identity and Global
Indigenism. American Anthropologist 104 (4): 1074-1085. American
Anthropological Association.
Todorov, T., 1985, The Conquest of America: the question of the other, New York:
Harper and Row.
Woodward, K., 1997, ‘Concepts of Identity and Difference’, Woodward,
K. (ed). London: Sage Publications.
0.006_Ojong.pmd 14/05/2010, 17:2598
