Propaganda or Persuasion? A Review of the Nigeria 2015 Presidential Election Campaign Process via Social Media (Part One)

Abstract

Propaganda, a social media tool of political reform In Nigerian elections.

Full text

1
Olubunmi Akomolede-Onafuwa
Propaganda or Persuasion? A review of the Nigeria 2015 Presidential Election Campaign
Process via Social Media
Part One
“In the 2015 general election, the social media became a more potent tool and even a more
lethal weapon.”
Oyenuga Adedeji
1
Foreword
This study arises from personal experience on social media during the 2015 Nigeria presidential
election campaign.
Abstract
On the 7th February 2015, the presidential elections in Nigeria, scheduled for the 14th of
February 2015, was postponed to the 28th of March 2015 by the Nigerian Electoral
Commission (INEC) due to ineffective distribution of voters’ cards and national security
concerns.
2
Amidst all agitations of a plot to rig the elections, many Nigerians prepared
themselves for what was considered a desperate attempt to "change" the way in which they are
being governed.
The 2015 presidential elections in Nigeria became a glimmer of hope, that would usher in a
free and fair election process including the recognition of freedoms and equal justice that had
eluded the country for decades. It became the first in the history of a democratic Nigeria, where
1
Oyenuga Adedeji Saheed (2015) Social Media Participation and Pollution of the 2015 General Elections in
Nigeria p 2 http://www.inecnigeria.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Conference-Paper-by-Adedeji-
Oyenuga.pdf
2
On 7th February 2015, the Nigerian Electoral Commission postponed the 2015 Nigeria Presidential election
scheduled for the 14th February 2015, to the 28th March 2015 due to national security concerns. Sani Tukur
(February 7, 2015) INEC postpones 2015 general elections.
https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/176440-inec-postpones-2015-general-elections.html

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propaganda via social media became an ultimate tool, utilised to launch the 2015 presidential
campaign mechanism into the public domain to gain attention.
Social media outlets became the means to discuss constitutional aspirations and expectations
by political enthusiasts and stakeholders without much effort. Consequently, social media
became more than an instrument of information, but also a platform of continuous
communication for the Nigerian people, who felt they had no voice regarding political matters.
It became an opportunity for voters and non-voters; home and abroad to express their concerns
and do so publicly without fear of retribution.
Social media presented a pathway to directly engage in political electoral campaigns through
the web. Propaganda via social media was to become the leading tool by both major political
parties and their supporters to communicate their agenda and sway the public and consequently,
their votes.
Keywords:
Propaganda, Social media, 2015 Nigeria presidential election campaign, Nigerian politics,
Goodluck Jonathan, Muhammadu Buhari
Introduction
Nigeria has witnessed a considerable increase in the use of social media over the years. From
a mere 200,000 users in 2000 to a recent 51% of the entire population on smartphones.
3
Social
media became a prominent channel of communication during the preparations for the 2011
Nigerian elections. The use of ‘hashtags’ became a popular and simplistic way of identifying
political affiliation and support.
However, by 2015, social media use in Nigeria increased immensely in scope and as a result,
“receives widespread media attention for its role in informing, engaging and empowering
citizens in Nigeria and across Africa.”
4
3
See Internet Users Statistics for Africa http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm
4
Bartlett Jamie, Krasodomski-Jones Alex, Daniel Nengak, Fisher Ali, Jesperson Sasha (2015) Social Media for
Election Communication and Monitoring in Nigeria pp 10-13
http://www.demos.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Social-Media-in-Nigerian-Election.pdf

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The primary objective of this study, is to explore the role and impact of the propaganda model
that was initiated via social media, during the 2015 Nigeria presidential campaign. This study
will focus on the two major political parties and their presidential contestants: The incumbent
Nigerian President, Goodluck Jonathan of the ruling party; the People's Democratic Party
(PDP), and retired Major General Muhammadu Buhari for the opposition party; the All
Progressives Congress (APC).
Mode of Study
This study will be divided into two parts:
First to examine and evaluate the propaganda model via social media, utilised during the 2015
presidential election in Nigeria. It will also briefly examine the phenomenon of propaganda,
how it has evolved to become what it is today. This study will examine the definition of
propaganda as a political instrument from other perspectives. Including why and how
propaganda became a prominent weapon of communication and evaluation to influence voters
and non-voters within the social media network during the 2015 campaign.
The second part of this study will recap on the concept of propaganda as a weapon of online
warfare during the 2015 presidential campaign in Nigeria. A brief review of the propaganda
model, exploited during Barak Obama's 2008 presidential campaign will be appraised for a
better understanding, an explanation and further conclusions on the propaganda phenomenon
that won the presidential election.
5
Ultimately, a concise comparison with another propaganda
model in a similar political setting will yield a clear insight into the execution and eventual
outcome of this style of publicity.
In addition, an analysis of data collected from selected participants who were, directly and
indirectly, involved in the 2015 social media campaign process will be conducted and findings
affirmed. The selected participants took part in an online open-ended and close-ended
questionnaire on the subject matter of propaganda, in relation to the 2015 presidential election.
This will further evaluate the perception and understanding of voters and non-voters of the
mechanics of the model.
5
Reza Azarian (2011) Potentials and Limitations of Comparative Method in Social Science International Journal
of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 1 No. 4 p116

4
This study aims to add to the extant knowledge on politically motivated propaganda, that is not
peculiar to any previous election campaign undertaking, but on the rise in Nigerian politics.
Method and Material
Propaganda became a tool, enabling both political parties and many others, to systematically
execute a political campaign in the virtual domain. This paper will rely on both primary and
secondary sources to gather vital information on the concept of propaganda. Secondary sources
will be derived from extant literature on the propaganda model, to further understand the
mechanics and operation of the propaganda phenomenon as well as in the domain of politics.
Primary sources include analysed data from the online questionnaire. Articles from online
blogs and newsfeeds that were actively tendering reports during the 2015 presidential election
campaign period in Nigeria. This paper will employ a qualitative as well as a quantitative
research method, structured via online generated questions. The inquiry will consist of a
combination of open and closed-ended questions to yield additional data for analysis. Hence
the blend of research methods.
The questions are eleven in total and self-administering by nature. The questions put forward
to each participant targeted their perspective and understanding of the propaganda model via
social media. Including how they each felt it influenced the 2015 presidential election
campaign process. The questions were sent out via the social medium: ‘Facebook Messenger’
to individual message inboxes. Participants are of Nigerian origin and visibly engaged with the
2015 election campaign process that took off on social media.
All candidates chosen were regular users of Facebook during the 2015 campaign period, who
played specific roles, such as; commentators, observers, journalists, bloggers as well as actual
voters. Selected candidates were male and female and were randomly picked to avoid bias.
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Participants comprised of individuals who lived in Nigeria, Belgium, the United Kingdom and
the United States of America. The selection also included non-supporters and supporters of the
various political parties in Nigeria with the majority from the two dominant PDP and APC
political parties',

5
The rationale for gathering research online was to ensure a variety of perspectives from various
parts of the world. It was crucial to capture their mind-set, based on their original way of
thinking and understanding of the propaganda phenomenon as a tool to influence votes during
the 2015 election campaign. A diverse crowd would be impossible to obtain, if it were face to
face interviews due to geographical constraints.
According to Wright,
7
"One advantage of virtual communities as sites for research is that they
offer a mechanism through which a researcher can gain access to a mix of people who share
specific interests, attitudes, beliefs, and values regarding an issue, problem, or activity.”
Concerning the technique of questioning employed, Reja et al.,
8
posit that the advantages of
open-ended questions range from obtaining unfiltered responses that individuals give
spontaneously. That is, having questions answered without bias or being prompted by the
researcher. Close-ended questions, in general, yield a quicker reaction due to the limited
alternative mode of response required. Open-ended questionnaires encourages the respondent
to express their thoughts without any influence from the researcher. However, they are not
without disadvantages.
Both methods of questioning possess different characteristics with regard to how data is
collected. For instance, self-administering questionnaires transmitted via the web may become
prone to gathering inadequately answered data from open-ended questions, respondents
skipping questions and answering the close-ended questions only, to save time.
The advantages of online research include, saving time and costs that could potentially inhibit
the effectiveness of the study. There are no guarantees that traditional questionnaires by post
would reach the candidates on time or be delivered at all. Online surveys are instantaneous and
trackable. Researchers are able to send out direct reminders via Facebook messenger if no
response is received.
7
Wright, K. B. (2005), Researching Internet-Based Populations: Advantages and Disadvantages of Online
Survey Research, Online Questionnaire Authoring Software Packages, and Web Survey Services. Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication, Volume 10 Issue 3 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00259.x
8
Reja, U., Manfreda, K. L., Hlebec, V., & Vehovar, V. (2003). Open-ended vs. Close-ended Questions in Web
Questionnaires. Developments in Applied Statistics, 19 (1) pp 159-177

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Research Questionnaire
The purpose of this study is to explore various perceptions of the propaganda model employed
during the 2015 Presidential election:
1. Were you fully involved in the 2015 general election via social media either as a voter,
social commentator, advocate, activist, observer or blogger? Please state which.
2. What is your understanding of the word propaganda? Please briefly explain.
3. Did you find propaganda prevalent during the election period? Yes or no?
4. Where you involved in such propaganda? Yes or no?
5. Do you believe readers were easily swayed by propaganda? Yes or no?
6. Did social media play a vital role in encouraging propaganda? Please briefly explain.
7. From your experience, did propaganda play a crucial role with regard to results of the
2015 general elections? Please briefly explain.
8. Do you feel that the use of propaganda during the 2015 general election was strategic
or well planned? Please briefly explain.
9. Was it a justified or an acceptable means of gaining votes? Yes or no?
10. Would you say that you were surprised with the way propaganda was utilised during
the 2015 general election in the media? Please briefly explain.
11. Do you think that the effects of the use of propaganda during the 2015 general election;
positive or negative has spilt over to impact the new administration in any way? Please
briefly explain.

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The Propaganda Phenomenon
Pope Gregory XV initially coined the term propaganda in 1622. The word was used to refer to
the Roman Curia organisation (congregio de propaganda) that supervised all other missionary
territories to spread the Catholic faith and regaining countries that denounced their faith
9
during
the unsettling period of the 16th century.
10
Allowing for the emergence of variant theologies
such as; “enthusiasts…spiritualists, fanatics, and Anabaptists”.
11
Black’s Law dictionary defines propaganda as a "message that is aimed at a specific audience
that will try to change their thinking to that of the person releasing such propaganda. It will
often contain disinformation to promote a certain viewpoint in politics." Disinformation was
prevalent during the 2015 campaign. Many were aware of the inaccurate information but
passed it on to gain support for their preferred candidate regardless.
Ross
12
contends that propaganda became more widely used from the early part of the 20th
century. With the onset of various mass media institutions, such as magazines (the 1880's), film
(1895) radio (1930's), television (1950's), access to a broader audience became more feasible
and desirable. Over the years, writers and theorists have tried to capture the true essence of the
propaganda model via various definitions.
13
Ellul
14
elaborates on the concept and argues that, propaganda is an uncertain phenomenon and
as such simplistic definitions of propaganda do not illustrate the actual basis of the model
neither do they focus on the real intent of the propagandist.
Consequently, authors of propaganda have accepted the definition by Institute for Propaganda
analysis as inspired by Lasswell as: “…an expression of opinion or action by individuals or
9
Robert Jackall (1995) "Introduction," Propaganda, ed. Robert Jackall New York: University Press, p. 1 In Sheryl
Ross (2002) Understanding Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit Mode and its Application to Art Author(s) Journal
of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp 16-17
10
During the 16th century, the idea of free thinking spread and as a consequence, the power that the Roman
Catholic Church possessed began to diminish. The Persecution of Anabaptism (2010): 16th Century Catholic,
Lutheran and Calvinist Perspectives https://thoughtsofalivingchristian.wordpress.com/2010/11/21/the-
persecution-of-anabaptism-16th-century-catholic-lutheran-and-calvinist-perspectives-2/
11
Carter Lindberg (2010) The European Reformations second edition Chapter 8 pp 188-214
12
Sheryl Ross (2002) Understanding Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit Mode and its Application to Art
Author(s) Journal of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 36, No. 1, p 17
13
Black Jay (2001) Semantics and Ethics of Propaganda Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 16(2&3) pp 123–127
14
For instance, Marbury B. Ogle’s definition: “Propaganda is any effort to change opinions or attitudes…The
propagandist is anyone who communicates his ideas with the intent of influencing his listener,” is not specific
and could be interpreted to mean anyone in any context. The author contends that such definition by Ogle is
vague and fails to reveal the specific character of propaganda. Jacques Ellul (1965) Propaganda: The Formation
of Men Attitudes x-xi

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groups deliberately designed to influence the opinions and actions of other individuals or
groups with reference to a predetermined end.”
15
Ellul regards the concept of propaganda as an instrument of technical progress and a vital
component to the establishment of a technological civilisation.
16
The author defines
propaganda as: "A set of methods employed by an organized group that wants to bring about
the active or passive participation in its actions of a mass of individuals, psychologically unified
through physical manipulations and incorporated in an organization."
17
This definition has been
hailed to provide the most comprehensive explanation of the motives and desired results of the
propagandist.
Encouraging more people to participate in the 2015 presidential election campaign was crucial
to further enlist voters and increase voting capacity. Lasswell
18
posits, that the scope of
propaganda is limited but considered important in political matters. However, with the
advancement in technology and the efficiency of various mass media outlets, the propaganda
model became an influential social media tool, exploited by countless individuals during the
Nigerian 2015 presidential campaign, to gain more support.
Propaganda: A Tool for Political Reform?
The Nigerian 2015 Presidential election propaganda model via social media was meticulously
planned and executed by operators of both major political parties. Campaigners took full
advantage of the social media mechanism to influence individuals who relied on online outlets
to make decisions regarding the potential presidential candidate.
St. John
19
posits that the word "propaganda" has a pejorative connotation associated with
manipulation to advance political or military campaigns. The author argues that, derogatory
connotation not present within contemporary definitions, present a functional viewpoint. The
intent of the propagandist played a crucial role during the 2015 presidential election in Nigeria
and it was primarily, to manipulate and sway audience opinion by any means possible.
15
Ibid xi-xii
16
Ibid xv-xviii
17
Jacques Ellul (1965) Propaganda The Formation of Men Attitudes p 61
18
Lasswell Harold D. (1938) Propaganda technique in the World War p 8
19
The U.S.’s Committee on Public Information (CPI) consistently fed the American public with false promises
about the benefits of going to war. Burton St. John III (2006) The case for ethical propaganda within a
democracy: Ivy Lee’s successful 1913–1914 railroad rate campaign Public Relations Review 32 p223

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Tufekci et al.,
20
have examined the propaganda model via social media outlets in a political
context and recognise the insufficient empirical data; specific to its impact on a political
campaign and the eventual election results. However, there is unanimity with regards to the
capabilities of social media on socio-political matters, due to its far-reaching, uninterrupted
scope of operation and unlimited online audience.
21
Hence, the need for expansive research
into the role of propaganda as a tool of political reform, especially in Nigeria.
Jowett and O’Donnell
22
define propaganda as “a deliberate, systematic attempt to shape
perceptions, manipulate cognitions and direct behaviors to achieve a response that furthers the
desired intent of the propagandists.” They contend that analyzing propaganda in a political
manner would involve an analysis of the ideologies of the practitioner, the distribution of
information and the impact of public opinion.
23
Political propaganda generally embodies manipulative intentions as a means to wield citizens
into participating in elections. The propaganda model exploited during the 2015 presidential
election in Nigeria was politically motivated. It became a unique means of communication
during the 2015 presidential campaign process.
Black
24
argued that in some instances, propagandists may not be aware that the message passed
on to their audience are by nature propaganda, but share an interpretation of their view of their
personal and institutional loyalties. However, Johnston
25
argues that, individuals that utilise the
internet to promote ideas are propagandists and whenever an individual engages in in such
communication, they are issuing propaganda on behalf of the institution they are representing.
The Nigerian 2015 social media propaganda model was a desperate move that targeted dormant
yet, potential supporters and voters of both political parties. From the simultaneous information
shared, the intent to gain more votes and win the election was established.
The propaganda model utilised went further to discredit their rival's presidential candidate.
Keywords such as, incompetence, corrupt, sexist and religious fanatic, dictator, deceit, forgery,
20
Tufekci Zeynep, Wilson Christopher (2012) Social Media and the Decision to Participate in Political Protest:
Observations From Tahrir Square Journal of Communication 62 p 363
21
El-Khalili, Sara (2013) Social media as a government propaganda tool in post-revolutionary Egypt. First
Monday, Vol. 18 No 3
22
Gareth S. Jowett & Victoria O’ Donnell (2015) Propaganda and Persuasion sixth edition pp 1-8
23
Ibid
24
Black Jay (2001) Semantics and Ethics of Propaganda Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 16(2&3) pp134-135
25
Johnston Peter (2013) The Internet, Social Media and Propaganda: The Final Frontier? British Library Social
Science Blog http://blogs.bl.uk/socialscience/2013/08/the-internet-social-media-and-propaganda-the-final-
frontier.html

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false promises, misappropriation of public funds and extortion were employed to describe both
2015 presidential candidates via social media.
Critics of Muhammadu Buhari described him as representing a ‘return to an ugly past which is
best forgotten.’
26
Goodluck Jonathan was deemed ‘clueless’
27
about the administration of
Nigeria, who allegedly allowed crime and corruption to flourish under his administration.
Campaigners for the sitting president exploited social media, to promote the achievements of
their administration and convince potential voters to join forces and back Goodluck Jonathan's
second term, to win the 2015 presidential election, e.g. Facebook.
28
In a political context, Johnston
29
defines propaganda as a means of promoting ideas from
politicians, intellectuals, friends and attempting to influence the perception of people on such
matters. That the growth of the internet has transformed propaganda beyond the traditional
public speeches and use of the printed word that was a common form of propaganda before the
advent of the internet. The author demonstrates that Internet has ultimately become a
wilderness of information and a medium to share, spread and promote crucial information.
30
Johnston rejects the conventional idea that propaganda is insidious, deceptive and manipulative
in influencing negative behaviour. However, acknowledges propaganda as a tool with many
weaknesses. E.g. disinformation regularly communicated with fake information and doctored
pictures specifically designed for political purposes.
31
However, Lasswell maintains that
propaganda is a mechanism to “control opinions by symbols, stories, rumours, reports, pictures
and other forms of social communication.”
32
According to Joseph,
33
social media has become a tool of propaganda to communicate
misinformation as often as it can be used to convey authentic information. The author goes
26
Buhari Represents Darkness, Ugly Past (2015) http://www.nairaland.com/2701753/buhari-represents-
darkness-ugly-past
27
Kidnappings in Nigeria A clueless government (2014) https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-
africa/21601839-incompetence-nigerias-president-and-government-hurting-countrys
28
See Facebook page https://www.facebook.com/Goodluck-Jonathan-Campaign-Org-for-2015-
156550601200370/
29
Johnston Peter (2013) The Internet, Social Media and Propaganda: The Final Frontier?
http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/socialscience/2013/08/the-internet-social-media-and-propaganda-the-
final-frontier.html
30
Ibid
31
Ibid
32
Lasswell Harold D. (1938) Propaganda technique in the World War p 9
33
Joseph Sarah (2012) Social Media, Political Change, and Human Rights Boston College International &
Comparative Law Review Vol. 35 pp 172-174

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further to state that politically driven tactics may have serious implications if it is set up to
spread false information. Social media is capable of coordinating legitimate and profound
political mobilisation; it can also play a role in provoking chaos and unrest.
The author concludes that social media platforms are neutral tools that are subject to the motive
of the initiator and can be used to promote both good and bad causes. The cause in question
also depends on the online participants and what they intend to promote. However, in times of
misinformation social media is capable of self-correction.
34
During the Nigerian 2015 presidential campaign, there were various false information and
doctored pictures in circulation online used by supporters of both presidential candidates to
discredit their running opponent. Such input is a clear indication of the ongoing information
warfare and the scope of unmonitored online data. There were instances during the campaign
where the original templates of doctored pictures were published to debunk the false claims.
A picture of a London bus advertisement was circulated on Facebook
35
as well as other
prominent social media outlets in June 2014, suggesting support from the UK government.
There were claims via social media that the picture was doctored and not true. However, it
proves that propaganda is capable of being interpreted as either true or false depending on how
it is being presented and may influence potential supporters and voters in a positive or negative
manner.
Clay
36
contends, that the social media sensation has been a matter of interest since its rise in
the early 1990’s. With a gross increase in the worlds networking population, it has become a
fact of life for civil society. The author argues that information shared on social media may not
have a single preordained outcome. Hence, the effect of propaganda on political matters may
become impossible to predict. The empirical data that is specific to social media and its impact
on politics are limited and relevant examples are rare.
37
Clay acknowledges the capability of social media to shift the balance of power between the
state and civil society by the continuous projection of political opinions and conversations by
34
Ibid
35
See Lagbaja Jonathan Campaigns For 2015 On London Buses http://www.nairaland.com/1831421/jonathan-
campaigns-2015-london-buses
36
Various actors such as regular citizens, activists, governmental and nongovernmental organisations,
telecommunications firms, software providers, health and educational institutions depend mainly on social
media to communicate with the far-reaching public. Clay Shirky (2011) The Political Power of Social Media:
Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change Foreign Affairs, Vol. 90, No. 1 pp 28-29
37
Ibid pp 29-30

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various advocates on the internet depending on the type of government in power. E.g.
governments that encourage freedom of speech. Hence, creating a political movement for
smaller active groups to take part in political campaigns that were traditionally limited to more
formal organisations.
38
There was an increase in the use of online mediums, particularly during
the 2015 presidential campaign. Various informal blogs, online newsletters, online groups
emerged to specifically address the vast, far-reaching audience online, anticipating ‘breaking
news’ information.
In addition, Gibson
39
asserts that digital media is evolving and new grassroots-based mode of
"citizen-initiated campaigning" (CIC) are emerging. Especially in an era where political parties
are finding it more difficult to attract supporters and potential voters. The author cites recent
developments in web campaigns in the United States where candidates make extensive use of
new social media outlets, e.g. blogs, online newsletters to expand fundamental campaign tasks
such as engaging with ordinary people. The author posits that the newly adopted ‘citizen-
initiated’ approach to campaign institutions have gradually become a challenge to the
professionalised structured approach that has dominated post-war elections for the past three
decades.
40
Campaigners employ social media networks as a platform to maximise memberships as well
as broadcast what they believe supporters and voters want to hear. Supporters in return, are
able to continue the campaign process by extending information to others via social media. The
author recognizes that there is still limited empirical evidence to quantify the extent to which
either scenario is being realized in practice. However, studies have shown that there has been
a fundamental shift in the way supporters actively take part in the campaign process via online
mediums.
41
Before the advent of social media as a tool for political campaigns, online participation was
limited mainly to email and online feedback forms. Online campaigns are more efficient due
to the large online population and as such, can reach a wide range of supporters via Facebook,
38
Ibid pp 33-41
39
Gibson Rachel K (2013) Party Change, Social Media and the Rise of 'Citizen-initiated' Campaigning Party
Politics pp 1-15
40
Ibid
41
Ibid

13
Twitter, and YouTube. The feedback is instantaneous as information is shared and re-
distributed online.
42
The Nigerian 2015 Propaganda Campaign Process via Social Media
Asur and Huberman,
43
assert that social media is a category of online discourse where people
create content, share, bookmark and network on a substantial level. Typical examples include
Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, WhatsApp and various other online blogs and newsletters,
streaming unremitting information round the clock to post content and relevant updates.
Consistent sharing of information is notably the basic objective of propaganda. Thus, a
practical, acceptable version utilised thoroughly during the 2015 presidential campaign. There
was an uprising of Nigerian citizens worldwide, who were not members of a political party but
were as involved in the political debate as members on various social media outlets. For the
political campaign, it was crucial that information reached the public domain as soon as
possible and campaigners relied on the swift reaction of social media outlets, to make it
possible.
Goodluck Jonathan was nominated by People's Democratic Party (PDP) and ran unopposed in
the December 10, 2014 primaries. Muhammadu Buhari of the All Progressives
Congress (APC) went up against four other contestants.
44
The election took place between
March 28th and 29th 2015. Millions of Nigerian citizens from the 36 states that constitute the
country took part while those who could not or decided not to vote relied on social media for
information. Every act leading to the eventual 2015 presidential election was captured and
translated on social media relentlessly.
The propaganda model became a vital prototype of the ruling political party as well as the
opposition party; launched at the peak of the election campaign aimed at swaying the minds of
42
Ibid
43
Asur Sitaram Huberman Bernardo A. (2010) Predicting the Future with Social Media at 2010 IEEE/WIC/ACM
International Conference on Web Intelligence and Intelligent Agent Technology Volume 1 p 492
44
Namely; RTD former Vice President Atiku Abubakar, governors of Kano and Imo States, Dr Rabiu Kwankwaso
and Chief Rochas Okorocha, Sam Nda-Isaiah. However, it was considered more of a race between
Muhammadu Buhari and Atiku Abubakar, a wealthy businessman who had served as a previous vice-president,
from 1999-2007 as the second elected and 11th vice president of Nigeria. APC Presidential Primaries: The final
battle http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/12/apc-presidential-primaries-final-battle/

14
potential voters and supporters. After the postponement of the general election,
45
the mode of
propaganda from the ruling party via every possible media outlet heightened. It was the first of
its kind in the world of Nigerian social media induced by the ordinary Nigerian people. It was
to become the first to be utilised on such a high scale in a political campaign. As a consequence,
the 2015 Nigerian presidential general election was termed; the most significant political event
in Africa.
46
Ewi
47
hailed the 2015 presidential election process “…a significant milestone in the electoral
history of Africa’s largest democracy.” According to Baruah,
48
Social Media is the use of web-
based and mobile technologies to turn communication into an interactive dialogue by sharing
of knowledge and information. The key players were online news and media reporters, online
bloggers, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram and WhatsApp group cells. Halfway into 2014 till the
day of the election, the online campaign took off on an immense scale. It became the primary
means by which the political campaign of the 2015 presidential election was transmitted to the
broad public across many countries.
Social media has been proven to serve as a mechanism that can be used to make quantitative
predictions that outperform those of artificial market by extracting already distributed
information, such as surveys and opinions polls. This is on account of its ease of use, speed
and scope.
49
The authors further posit that social media is fast changing and setting trends and
agendas on topics such as socio-political as well as economic and cultural matters. However,
the growth in social media is dependent on the interests of the extensive user communities that
log on daily to share their high variance of the information.
50
45
On 7th February 2015, the Nigerian Electoral Commission postponed the 2015 Nigeria Presidential election
scheduled for the 14th February 2015, to the 28th March 2015 due to national security concerns. Sani Tukur
(February 7, 2015) INEC postpones 2015 general elections.
https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/176440-inec-postpones-2015-general-elections.html
46
Declan Galvin (17th March 2015) Nigeria's long-awaited election: what you need to know
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/17/nigeria-election-what-you-need-to-know
47
Ewi Martin (2015) Was the Nigerian 2015 presidential election a victory for Boko Haram or for democracy?
African Security Review Volume 24, Issue 2 p 207
48
Baruah Trisha Dowerah (2012) Effectiveness of Social Media as a tool of communication and its potential for
technology enabled connections: A micro-level study International Journal of Scientific and Research
Publications, Volume 2, Issue 5 pp 1-9
49
Asur Sitaram, Huberman Bernardo A. (2010) Predicting the Future With Social Media at 2010 IEEE/WIC/ACM
International Conference on Web Intelligence and Intelligent Agent Technology Volume 1 p 492
50
Ibid

15
According to Nwakanma,
51
the Africa regional coordinator for the U.S.-based World Wide
Web Foundation recognises the dependence on information via social media by many users
during the election campaign. The author contends that "Social media is creating a new
generation of Nigerians who have neither power nor money but have influence. Moreover, this
is what the old stock are afraid of.” Consequently, the 2015 presidential campaign on social
media was made possible by enabling ‘anyone’ with the time and mobile data to post
information to the awaiting general public.
52
51
Nwakanma Nnenna In Reid Skyler (March 2015) Nigerians look to social media amid information scarcity
ahead of election
http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/3/19/social-media-plays-key-role-in-nigerian-elections.html
52
Ibid

16
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17
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18
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Buhari Represents Darkness, Ugly Past (2015) http://www.nairaland.com/2701753/buhari-
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Lagbaja Jonathan Campaigns for 2015 On London Buses
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Kidnappings in Nigeria A clueless government (2014)
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president-and-government-hurting-countrys
Sani Tukur (February 7, 2015) INEC postpones 2015 general elections
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