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BIRDS IN THE TROPICAL SAVANNAS

November 2017

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Universidade Federal de São Carlos

Black-throated Saltator (Saltator atricollis), an endemic bird of the Cerrado and also a nuclear species in mixed flocks. (Photo by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

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Fulvous Whistling-duck (Dendrocygna bicolor), a typical bird of the Llanos. (Photo by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

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Burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) is a common owl in the Beni Savannas, as well as in most regions of the Neotropics. (Photo by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

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. Number of threatened bird species in the Tropical Savannas of the world.

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The tail of the Cock-tailed Tyrant's male (Alectrurus tricolor) is one of the most peculiar among savanna birds. (Photo by Mieko Ferreira Kanegae)

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BIRDS IN THE TROPICAL SAVANNAS

Alexandre Gabriel Franchin

Laboratory of Ornithology, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil

Rafael de Freitas Juliano

Laboratory of Ornithology, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil

Mieko Ferreira Kanegae

Bioscience Institute, General Ecology Department, São Paulo University, Brazil

Oswaldo Marçal Junior

Laboratory of Ornithology, Biology Institute, Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil

Keywords: Avifauna, Biodiversity, Conservation, Ecoregions.

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Global Ecoregions and the Savanna Biome

3. Tropical Savannas

4. Birds in the Tropical Savannas

5. Cerrado: A Unique Tropical Savanna Hotspot

Acknowledgments

Related Chapters

Glossary

Bibliography

Biographical Sketches

Summary

The Savanna biome is characterized by landscapes dominated by grasses with scattered trees

and shrublands, covering about 20% of the world’s surface. Tropical Savannas are located

mainly in South America, Africa, Australia and South Asia. In the present chapter, we are

combining information from different sources to offer a more complete description of the bird

diversity in the tropical savannas. We employed data from BirdLife International, articles,

field guides, local journals, newsletters, bird distribution maps, checklists and reports by

ornithologists around the globe. For our analysis, we considered all main terrestrial and

flooded tropical savannas (those savannas occurring in the tropical region). The results show

that 2,951 bird species (25 orders, 152 families and 1,404 genera) are found in the Tropical

Savannas. The Cerrado (with 850 species) and African Savannas (794 species) have the

greatest bird richness. Tyrannidae family has the most diversity, with 162 species which are

exclusively found on the Neotropical savannas. Accipitridae is another prominent bird family

with around 142 species. Three bird species are common to all tropical savannas: the Cattle

Egret Bubulcus ibis, Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica, and the Osprey Pandion haliaetus. The

tropical savannas also share 15 orders, 20 families and 19 genera. Twenty families were

exclusive to only one savanna. Northern Australian savannas had the greater number of

exclusive families (eight families). The similarity analysis shows the following groupings:

African Savannas; Terai-Duar; Northern Australian and Trans-Fly; and Beni, Pantanal,

Cerrado and Llanos. The Neotropical savannas (Llanos, Pantanal, and Cerrado) are those that

can be considered in fact similar, because they presented a minimum 0.70 Sorenson’s index.

There are 2,057 bird species that face some degree of threat (21% of the recognized bird

species), not considering the extinct species or those with insufficient data available. In the

tropical savannas, there are 319 species that face some degree of threat. The Cerrado is a

unique tropical savanna considered a hotspots, with the most threatened bird fauna (58

species), and seven of them are critically endangered.

1. Introduction

There are approximately 9,990 bird species in the Earth, distributed in 29 orders, 195 families,

and 2,113 genera. The Order Passeriformes include 58% of all extant bird species and among

the non-passerines, the Apodiformes is the most diverse order, totaling roughly 443 species,

which is about 4% of the total of world bird species. The most representative passerine family

in species numbers is Tyrannidae, with around 410 species known as the tyrant flycatchers.

Amongst the non-passerine families, Psittacidae, represented by the macaws, parrots, lories,

and lorikeets, has the greater species number, with around 374 species. The gender Nectarinia

(some sunbirds) shows the greater bird species richness in the world with 78 species.

Due to their varied anatomical and ecological adaptations, birds have a worldwide

distribution. The most distinctive zoological region for the avifauna is the Neotropical region,

with around one third of Earth’s species, including a great number of endemics species (e.g.

toucans, manakins, hummingbirds, rheas, among others). Birds are also diversified and

abundant in other tropical areas of Ethiopian, Australian and Oriental Zoological regions.

They occupy different biomes, mainly tropical forests and savannas.

The plants and animals that inhabit grasslands, savannas and shrublands are adapted to survive

the seasonal extremes and are also more dependent on the impact of fire regimes than on the

climate itself, and birds are not an exception. Our current knowledge about tropical savanna

birds is very broad, although the majority of the data is diffuse, resulting from isolated works.

In the present chapter, we are joining different sources of information to offer a more

complete description of the bird diversity in the tropical savannas. We employed data from

BirdLife International, articles, field guides, local journals, newsletters, bird distribution maps,

checklists and reports by ornithologists around the globe.

2. Global Ecoregions and the Savanna Biome

The concept of Global ecoregions was developed by WWF and is defined as: “a large unit of

land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural

communities, and environmental conditions”. In this sense, ecoregions represent ecological

and conservation units in which natural communities shares the greater part of their

biodiversity, ecological processes and similar environmental conditions, producing critical

mechanisms for their long-term persistence. This knowledge provides us with a powerful tool

that aids us in the investigation of the biodiversity from all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

on the Earth. A total of 142 terrestrial, 53 freshwater and 43 marine ecoregions are

recognized. This concept is a to the biodiversity conservation at a global scale, since it makes

possible to sustain regional conservation policies and development strategies. Those habitats

include extensive areas and different environmental conditions, ranging from the wettest of

forest types to the driest and hottest deserts, reflecting a broad diversity of species,

communities and ecosystems.

The Savanna biome is characterized by landscapes dominated by grasses with scattered trees

and shrublands. It is a transition between forests and grasses domains. The primary savannas

result from typical climate (climatic savannas), soil (edaphic savannas) or grazing conditions.

A secondary type, called derived savanna, is produced by human activities, including burning

and deforesting. The distribution of savannas includes extensive areas of America, Africa,

Asia and Australia continents (Figure 1).

Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands are present in a representative number of ecoregions

distributed in three Terrestrial Major Habitat Types, as follows: Tropical and Subtropical

Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands; Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands; and

Flooded Grasslands and Savannas (Table 1).

Table 1. Global ecoregions, according to Terrestrial Major Habitat Types and geographical

distribution.

2.1. Flooded Grasslands and Savannas

Flooded Grasslands and Savannas are constituted of large mosaics of flooded grasslands and

savannas, gallery forests, and dry forests. In some areas, over 80% of the region can be

flooded during the rainy season. These complexes occur in the following Global ecoregions:

Everglades and Pantanal (Neotropical), Sudd-Sahelian Flooded Grasslands and Savannas and

Zambezian Flooded Savannas (Afrotropical) and Rann of Kutch Flooded Grasslands (Indo-

Malayan). Flooded Grasslands and Savannas sustain great biodiversities, including animal and

plants intimately adapted to the rainfall regime and soil conditions. The Everglades covers

Geographical distribution

Terrestrial Major Habitat types

Afrotropical

Australasia

Indo-

Malayan

Neotropical

Nearctic

Palearctic

Oceania

Total

1. Tropical and Subtropical Moist

Broadleaf Forests 11 8 17 12 - - 2 50

2. Tropical and Subtropical Dry

Broadleaf Forests 1 2 2 4 - - 1

3. Tropical and Subtropical

Coniferous Forests - - - 2 1 - - 3

4. Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed

Forests - 3 2 - 1 2 - 8

5. Temperate Coniferous Forests - - - 1 4 4 - 9

6. Boreal Forests / Taiga - - - - 2 3 - 5

7. Tropical and Subtropical

Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands 4 1 1 2 - - -

8. Temperate Grasslands, Savannas

and Shrublands - - - 1 1 1 - 3

9. Flooded Grasslands and Savannas 2 - 1 2 - - - 5

10. Montane Grasslands and

Shrublands 4 1 1 2 - 3 -

11. Tundra - - - - 2 3 -

12. Mediterranean Forests,

Woodlands and Scrub 1 2 - 1 1 1 - 6

13. Deserts and Xeric Shrublands 4 2 - 1 2 2 - 11

14. Mangroves 3 1 2 2 - - -

Total 30 20 26 30 14 19 3 142

20,000 sp km of the Southern Florida State (USA) and supports some 11,000 species of seed-

bearing plants, 150 fish species and 300 bird species. The Pantanal spreads across 171,000 sq

km of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay (South America) and it has over 260 species of fish, 700

birds, 90 mammals, 160 reptiles, 45 amphibians, 1,000 butterflies, and 1,600 species of plants.

Any change in the precipitation regime, flow and quality of water, integrity of riparian and

gallery habitats or natural fires can produce serious disturbances in the composition and

structure of communities. So, agricultural expansion, water projects, pollution, over fishing,

uncontrolled ecotourism and road construction constitute severe threats for all Flooded

Grasslands and Savannas. These ecoregions are very important for several bird species,

including migratory species, that feed and breed there, like the Jabiru stork (Jabiru mycteria),

Wood stork (Mycteria americana), Hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), Roseate

spoonbill (Ajaia ajaia), and White ibis (Eudocimus albus).

2.2. Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands

Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands are defined as areas where trees are lacking,

except for riparian or gallery forests, although some regions do support woody savannas. They

are known as prairies in North America, pampas in South America, veld in Southern Africa,

downlands in Australia and steppe in Asia. In this habitat, the following Global ecoregions are

found: Northern Prairie (Nearctic); Patagonian Steppe (Neotropical) and Daurian Steppe

(Palaearctic). The biodiversity includes numerous arthropods, large grazing mammals and

associated predators, as well as a hundreds of bird species. In North American prairies, about

100 different plant species can be found flourishing and supporting more than 3 million

individual insects per acre. However, whole communities have been destroyed through the

conversion of grasslands to agriculture. Fire and loss of riparian or gallery forest habitats and

water sources are other significant impacts on these animal and plant communities. The

Patagonian Steppe and Grasslands are notable in terms of taxonomic diversity, mainly in

gender and family level. The plant species diversity (alpha, beta, and gamma) are low, except

for some local sites. The majority of species has relatively widespread distributions and

abundance, especially for larger vertebrates.

2.3. Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands

Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands are found in warm regions

where the Wet-Dry Tropical climate is dominant, been characterized by a seasonal

precipitation accompanied by a dry season. In general, the rainfall varies from 900-1,500 mm

per year, but in the dry season this precipitation can be lower than 50 mm. There is not enough

rainfall to sustain extensive tree cover. The rainfall is concentrated in six or eight months of

the year, when many grasses and trees flourish and then go into a state of dormancy. Plant

species are very well adapted to the long dry season, especially to reduce the loss of water. In

the dry period another important condition becomes present: fire. Fires control some

populations in the savanna communities, affecting or favoring different species. Many groups,

particularly low-speed or short dispersion vertebrate species (e.g. anurans, lizards, rodents,

etc) are killed by fire, while others, like birds, are benefited, eating insects, mice and lizards

killed or driven out by the fire. Dry stems and leaves of grasses are also consumed by fire, but

the grasses' deep roots remain unharmed, sending up new shoots when the soil becomes moist

again. In different savannas, grass composition also varies according to soil conditions. In the

Brazilian savanna or Cerrado, the soil has high aluminum concentrations and many species of

plants are adapted to this condition. Termites are also a major force shaping the plant

composition of many savannas, and their large mounds are a common sight in most open areas

of the tropics. Termites also help reclaim soils damaged by overgrazing and fires. The rock-

hard walls of the mounds are used by a wide range of animals, including many birds, which

use these protective structures to perch, nest, forage and breed.

3. Tropical Savannas

Tropical savannas are distributed on extensive areas being present in the following

geographical regions: Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan, Australasia and South America, totaling

eight Global ecoregions (Table 1). For our analysis, we considered all main terrestrial and

flooded tropical savannas (those savannas occurring in the tropical region). Therefore, we

included the Pantanal and Zambezian Flooded savannas. However, only the Pantanal was

analyzed separately, once the Zambezian savanna has a lack of specific data about the

avifauna. Indeed, we considered four main Global ecoregions in Africa in the analysis, as

follows: Horn of Africa Acacia Savannas; East African Acacia Savannas; Central and Eastern

Miombo Woodlands; and Sudanian Savannas. In the following sections, we will see some of

the most important characteristics of these ecoregions.

3.1. Afrotropical

African savannas occupy about 4.5 million square kilometers distributed in Central and East

Africa. The grasslands are dominant, but other arboreal species, including acacias (Acacia

sp.), baobabs (Adansonia spp.), as well as bush species (usually leguminous plants) are

scattered across the landscape. The seasons are regulated mainly by pluviosity, more than by

the temperature. The savannas maintain a great diversity of species, as much plant as animal

and many species are found in no other places of the earth. The dry and wet seasons are very

well marked, resulting in an occurrence of a great numbers of migratory species, mainly of

mammals and birds. More than 790 bird species are found in that ecoregion.

3.1.1. The Horn of Africa Acacia Savannas

The Horn of Africa Acacia Savannas are located in Eastern Africa, spreading from Eritrea,

Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and Sudan (1,053,000 sq. km) and been characterized by large

Acacia woodland areas. This ecoregion occupies the majority of the Horn of Africa to the east

of the Ethiopian highlands, including the Ogaden Desert and northeast Kenyan semi-deserts.

A combination of African, Mediterranean, Asiatic and old Gondwanan influences have shaped

the flora and fauna in this ecoregion. This ecoregion includes different habitats as bush lands,

semi-desert grasslands and shrublands. The typical birds are contains many arid-adapted

species. The riparian habitats support four endemic birds: the Degodi lark (Mirafra

degodiensis), Bulo Burti Boubou (Laniarius liberatus), white-winged collared-dove

(Streptopelia reichenowi), and Salvadori's Weaver (Ploceus dichrocephalus). The sombre chat

(Cercomela dubia) and the scaly babbler (Turdoides squamulatus) are considered near-

endemic. Abyssinian yellow-rumped seedeater (Serinus xanthopygius), short-billed crombec

(Sylvietta philippae), and Sidamo bush lark (Heteromirafra sidamoensis) are also restricted to

this ecoregion.

3.1.2. The East African Acacia Savannas

The East African Acacia Savannas form another important Global ecoregion. Its geographical

area is 572,000 sq. km, and includes the following terrestrial ecoregions: Southern Acacia-

Commiphora bushlands and thickets; Serengeti volcanic grasslands; Northern Acacia-

Commiphora bushlands and thickets. As the previous Global ecoregion, it extends across five

countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda) and supports an extraordinary

variety of flora and fauna. This ecoregion spreads across grasslands and related woodlands

dominated by Acacia sp. and Commiphora sp. trees. It is strongly affected by seasonal

patterns of rainfall, with most of the rain falling between the second and last quarter of the

year, being highly unpredictable, for both or only one rainy season may fail in a given year.

Elephants also play an important role as architects in this habitat; by routinely knocking down

trees as they feed, they open and transform woodlands into grassland savannas. Historically,

it was the eruption of the Kerimasi volcano some 150,000 years ago in the highlands that

produced the fine volcanic materials that now make up the soils of the Serengeti plains.

Volcanic ash produces a distinct soil type called vertisol that supports characteristic plant

communities. The richness and abundance of bird species is notable, including exclusive

species, such as the Grey-breasted spurfowl (Francolinus rufopictus), Fischer's lovebird

(Agapornis fischeri) and the Rufus-tailed weaver (Histurgops ruficauda).

3.1.3. The Central & Eastern Miombo Woodlands

The Central & Eastern Miombo Woodlands is the major African Global terrestrial ecoregion

with 1,932,500 sq. km, extending from the Central and Southern Africa (Angola, Botswana,

Burundi, DRC, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe). This

subregion is made up of the following terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Miombo woodlands;

Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands; Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands (under domain of the

Central African Plateau). Consisting mainly of broadleaf, deciduous savannas and woodlands,

it is characteristically interspersed with edaphic grassland and semi-aquatic vegetation as well

as areas of evergreen groundwater forest. Some areas are important in terms of species

richness (e.g. Miombo woodlands), including various bird species, such as the Black-faced

waxbill (Estrilda nigriloris), Miombo rock-thrush (Monticola angolensis), and Miombo pied

barbet (Tricholaema frontata). The avifauna in the ecoregion is very rich. Nonetheless,

endemism is low with the only strict endemics being the Ruwet’s masked weaver (Ploceus

ruweti) and the black-faced waxbill (Estrilda nigriloris). Ruwet’s masked weaver is known

only from the swamps bordering Lake Tshangalele/Lufira in southern Democratic Republic of

Congo, while the black-faced waxbill, and is found in the Lualaba River and Lake Upemba

region. Range-restricted species include grey-crested helmetshrike (Prionops poliolophus), an

uncommon species endemic to the woodlands of Kenya and northern Tanzania. Although

some birds tend to avoid Miombo, many isolated populations are confined within moister

Miombo woodland, like Lilian’s lovebird (Agapornis lilianae). The slender-tailed cisticola

(Cisticola melanurus) is restricted to grassy places in well-developed Miombo. Many globally

threatened water-associated birds have also been recorded, including the vulnerable wattled

crane (Grus carunculatus), slaty egret (Egretta vinaceigula), and the corncrake (Crex crex).

Baikiaea woodlands are the typical habitat of the near-endemic Bradfield’s hornbill (Tockus

bradfieldi), to the Southern ground hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri) and the rare and

vulnerable black-cheeked lovebird (Agapornis nigrigenis), confined to medium-altitude where

the mopane woodland is also contiguous. The riverine vegetation is home to Pel’s fishing owl

(Scotopelia peli) and many other raptor species abound in this ecoregion, like the long-legged

secretary bird (Sagittarius serpentarius), white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus), lappetfaced

(Torgos tracheliotus), white-headed vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis), hooded vulture

(Necrosyrtes monachus), lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), Dickinson’s kestrel (Falco

dickinsoni), African hobby falcon (Falco cuvierii), bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus), tawny

eagle (Aquila rapax), martial eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus), and African hawk eagle

(Hieraaetus spilogaster).

3.1.4. The Sudanian Savannas

The Sudanian Savannas are stretch in a band across West Africa south of the Sahel, from

Senegal and Gambia to the eastern border of Nigeria, in central and eastern Africa, and is

divided into a western block and an eastern block by the Sudd swamps in the Saharan Flooded

Grasslands ecoregion, extending for 2,556,100 sq. km. As other Afrotropical savannas, is a

hot, dry, wooded savanna composed mainly of large tree species and long elephant grass

(Pennisetum purpureum). It also comprises large areas of acacia woodland expanses. This

ecoregion occupies an area identified as a center of diversity for many plants and animal

groups. The pronounced dry season triggers a significant migration of fauna within the

ecoregion, together with annual passage of millions of migrant birds on the Afrotropical-

Palaearctic flyway, as well as the intra-African migration associated with the seasonal changes

in African weather. Four bird species are considered near-endemic: Dorst's cisticola (Cisticola

dorsti), white-crowned robin-chat (Cossypha albicapilla), Karamoja apalis (Apalis

karamojae), and Mali firefinch (Lagonosticta virata). Five bird species are considered

endemic, including two strict endemics, Reichenow's firefinch (Lagonostica

umbrinodorsalis), and Fox’s weaver (Ploceus spekeoides). The original wooded savanna

habitat has been significantly reduced.

3.1.5. The Saharan Flooded Grasslands

The Saharan flooded grasslands cover 179,700 km2 and are one of the largest wetlands in

Africa. It is located in the borders of the arid Sahelian region, providing watering and feeding

grounds for populations of migratory birds. During the rainy season (from April to September)

the Nile river rises in the headwaters of Lake Victoria in a region of year-round rainfall, runs

through Uganda, and overflows into the vast floodplain surrounding the permanent swamps of

southern Sudan. This flooding creates the extensive Sudd swamps about (about 600 km long

and wide), just 380-450 m above sea level. This cycle brings nutrients and new life to the dry,

cracked landscape. Temperatures vary from 30-18oC during the year. The floodplains provide

important habitat for large populations of many bird species, like the vulnerable shoebill

(Balaeniceps rex), the endangered migratory white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus), and the

vulnerable black crowned crane (Balearica pavonina). The main threats to birds include the

reduced conservation efforts, uncontrolled hunting and the building of the Jonglei canal.

3.1.6. The Zambezian Flooded Grasslands

The Zambezian Flooded Grasslands are a discontinuous ecoregion (153,500 km2) embedded

largely within Miombo and mopane woodlands in the Central African Plateau. The ecoregion

is spreads from the Kilombero Valley, Moyowosi/ Malagarasi system, Ugalla River

(Tanzania), Okavango River Delta (Botswana), Lake Chilwa (Malawi), Barotse Floodplain,

Kafue Flats, Busanga/Lukanga Swamps, Lake Mweru, Mweru Marsh and

Bangwuelu/Luapala/Chambezi system (Zambia) and other smaller floodplains and wetlands.

The landscape is characterized by nutrient poor soil and vegetation, but the productivity is

high and food and water are abundant throughout most of the year and this ecoregion supports

a high avifaunal diversity and density. The wetlands and floodplains of this ecoregion provide

good habitats for many endemic and near-endemic bird species, especially during the rainy

season. The only strict endemic is the vulnerable Kilombero weaver (Ploceus burnieri),

known from one locality along the Kilombero River, in the riverside swamps that are fringed

with tall reed beds. Two other birds are nearly endemic to the ecoregion: Chaplin's barbet

(Lybius chaplini) (south central Zambia), mostly found on the woody margins of flooded

grassland areas. The Tanzania masked weaver (Ploceus reichardi) occurs only in a few

swamps (western Tanzania, northern Zambia, and adjacent areas of the Democratic Republic

of Congo). Two further restricted range birds found in this ecoregion are the Katanga masked

weaver (Ploceus katangae) and the grey-crested helmet-shrike (Prionops poliophus). In

addition, this ecoregion falls within the center of distribution of the globally threatened slaty

egret (Egretta vinaceigula). Other vulnerable species include the wattled crane (Bugeranus

carunculatus) corncrake (Crex crex), lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), great snipe (Gallinago

media), and shoebill stork (Balaeniceps rex). Rare birds found here include the long-toed

flufftail (Sarothrura lugens) and the white-headed plover (Vanellus albiceps). This delicate

ecoregion may face increasing threat due to the lack of specific conservation measures

required for the ongoing survival of these wetland ecosystems.

In the Afrotropical savannas, there are a good number of protected areas and outside formal

protection; habitats remain in reasonable condition in many regions. In spite of that, African

savannas are submitted to several threats, including uncontrolled wild fires, agriculture, illegal

hunting, deforestation, fragmentation, desertification processes, and other environmental

impact factors caused by human activities. Therefore, it is urgent and absolutely necessary the

adoption of conservation measures that prioritize the protection of the biodiversity in these

Global ecoregions.

3.2. Indo-Malayan

3.2.1. Terai-Duar

In the Indo-Malayan Global ecoregion, the Tropical Savanna is well represented by the Terai-

Duar Savanna and Grasslands region, a part of the Terai Arc landscape. This ecoregion (also

known as Bhabar) is a forested belt of rock, gravel, and soil eroded from the Himalayas where

the water table lies from up to 37 meters deep and is situated geographically north of the Terai

desert. The monsoon-flooded rivers of the Himalaya inundate the Terai yearly. Below lies the

great alluvial plain of the Yamuna, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries. The annual

monsoon floods deposit silt from the rivers that meander across the grasslands. Alternate

layers of clay and sand are composed and this high water table creates many springs and

wetlands suitable for the local fauna. With only about 25 km wide, and an area of 34,600 km2,

this ecoregion covers a wide range of savanna-like habitats, from southern Nepal's Terai,

Bhabar, and Dun Valleys eastward to Banke and covering the Dang and Deokhuri Valleys

along the Rapti River, into India's states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The tallest grasslands of

the world are found in the region. They are indicators of these humid conditions and nutrient-

rich soils. By the end of the monsoon, low-lying areas inundated for a few days only are

recharged with a yearly stack of nutrients and the areas covered in silt return to tall grasslands.

The Terai's diverse grasslands, riverine woodlands, hill and scrub forests provide a diverse set

of habitats for many birds. Biogeographically, the Terai straddles a transition zone between

the Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan realms, with species from both contributing to its

biodiversity, including rainforest, steppe and desert migrants. More than 550 bird species are

found in this ecoregion. More than ten species are grassland specialists and are found in

Terai’s grasslands or wetlands. These birds include the Bengal florican (Houbaropsis

bengalensis), lesser florican (Sypheotides indica), sarus crane (Grus antigone), and large grass

warbler (Graminicola bengalensis). Many are threatened, like the vulnerable Manipur bush-

quail (Perdicula manipurensis). The population growth pressure in the hills has led to

migration to and settlement (both spontaneously and through government-sponsored

programs). In the southern Terai, more than half of the region is under cultivation, although

northern regions have a lower population density, but poaching and overgrazing are still

problems. Faulty irrigation projects pose another significant threat and much of the savanna

grasslands may be converted by uncontrolled burning and other human intervention.

3.3. Australasia

The Northern Australia & Trans-Fly Savannas are included among tropical savannas

distributed in the Australasia region. They cover about 1,137,000 km2 and are sited in

Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. While most of Australia is covered with

grasslands and Papua with rainforests, the savannas are limited to moister areas in South

Papua and North Australia. This region is made up of the Australian savannas (Cape York

tropical savanna, Kimberly tropical savanna, Einasleigh upland savanna, Carpentaria tropical

savanna, Arnhem Land tropical savanna, Mitchell grass downs), and the Papuan Trans-Fly

savanna and grasslands. Patches of dry rainforest with high species diversity also occur

throughout the ecoregion.

3.3.1. Northern Australia

The Gulf of Carpentaria is a low, arid division between the wetter, upper Arnhem Land and

Cape York Peninsula. The distributary channels and alluvial fans at the deltas of the Flinders,

Mitchell, Gilbert, Leichardt, McArthur, and Roper Rivers have prolonged the seaward edge of

the plains. Somewhat extensive freshwater and saline wetlands merge along their lower

courses and around the edge of the Gulf. Many species restricted to sandstone substrates and

gorges are found here, including the Sandstone Antechinus (Pseudantechinus bilarni) and the

carpentarian grasswren (Amytornis dorotheae). Many of the wetlands in this region are highly

productive and are recognized as globally significant. They support the world's largest

breeding colonies of the magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata). The Valley of Lagoons and

Pelican Lakes of Einasleigh, in the upper Burdekin River, are significant water bird habitat on

a national scale. Among the birds, the black grass-wren (Amytornis housei) and white-quilled

rock-pigeon (Petrophassa albipennis) are endemic to Kimberly tropical savanna. One of the

most distinctive features of the Mitchell Grass Downs are the extraordinary irruptions of one

of its most characteristic and key bird, the flock bronze wing (Phaps histrionica). This large

ground-foraging pigeon almost went extinct during the second half of the 19th century. In the

past, it prospered in flocks of hundreds of thousands, widely dispersing in response to rainfall

variation. They can still be seen across the Mitchell Grass Downs thriving in huge flocks.

Wetlands like the freshwater lakes of the Barkly Tableland, Lake Woods, the coolibah

swamps of Lake Tarrabool and Lakes Buchanan and Galillee in the Desert Uplands also

provide important habitat and breeding grounds for tens of thousands of water birds, most

notably the little curlew (Numenius minutus) and the oriental pratincole (Glareola

maldivarum). The Victoria Plains Tropical Savannas consist of extensive plains, dominated by

eucalypt woodland with a grassy understory, with rainforest elements and is punctuated with

several small patches of sandstone outcrops such as the Bungle Ranges, where, small pockets

of mesic vegetation and riparian strips are found in these sheltered gorges. It is delimited by

the Tanami Desert in the south and the Carpentaria and Kimberly tropical savannas to the

north. There is a clinal variation in climate from the north, which receives monsoonal rains to

the south, dry arid landscapes of central Australia. A very rich and abundant assemblage of

granivorous birds thrive here, including the endangered gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae)

and the threatened purple-crowned fairy-wren (Malurus coronatus) a riparian vegetation

specialist. There is limited endemism associated with some sandstone outliers, and many

typical savanna species reach their distribution. Despite the remoteness and its wilderness

character, inappropriate fire regimes associated with grazing management and invasive

species in the region are the most serious concerns. Continued overstocking and invasive

species are affecting two of the vital features of the region, the composition of native

grasslands communities, and riparian and wetland habitats. Improper land use and utilization

of remnants by cattle also degrades the associated monsoon rainforests. Exotic weeds like the

Rubber vine (Crytostegia grandiflora) and Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica) modify natural

nesting substrates. Introduced feral pigs (Sus scrofa) and other domestic animals consume

bird’s eggs and destroy their nests.

3.3.2. Trans-Fly

The Trans-Fly ecoregion is a center of plant diversity is also an endemic bird area located in

the southern part of New Guinea, spanning the international border of Papua New Guinea and

Indonesia. The area stretches from the Digul River in Papua to the Fly and Aramia Rivers.

With a total area of approximately 26,700,000 km2, this ecoregion encompasses all the

monsoonal vegetation types, including dry tropical forests, savannas, woodlands, grasslands

and southern New Guinea freshwater swamp forests, much of which is, in fact, one of the

driest parts of the savanna covering. The physiography is characterized by the coastal plains,

the dissected plateau of the Fly Digul shelf, the flat to gently undulating plateau and the flood

plains of the major rivers and tributaries. The climate is distinctly monsoonal and roughly

75% of the yearly 1,875 mm of rain falls in the wet season (December to May), the remainder

falls in the dry season (June to November). The region is lightly populated, and most people

are still living a traditional lifestyle of hunting, gathering and small scale agriculture. The

Trans-Fly protected areas are greater than all the remaining protected areas in Papua New

Guinea collectively. These new protected areas cover significant expanses of monsoon forests

and some key wetlands in the south and middle Fly floodplains. Several of the largest and

mostly intact wetlands in the Australasian region are found here, and more than 350 bird

species (about 50% of New Guinea’s total bird diversity) find their homes in the floodplains

of the slow flowing rivers and in the flanking savannas and monsoon forests, which are unique

to the Trans-Fly. These numbers include 80 species endemic to New Guinea and 6 that are

endemic or near-endemic to the Trans-Fly: Spangled kookaburra (Dacelo tyro), Little

paradise-kingfisher (Tanysiptera hydrocharis), Fly River grassbird (Megalurus albolimbatus),

Grey-crowned munia (Lonchura nevermanni), and the Black munia (Lonchura stygia).

3.4. Neotropical

The Neotropical region extends from Central Mexico south to the southernmost tip of South

America. This is the most biologically diverse region on Earth. More species of plants and

birds occur here than in any other region. Many diverse habitats occur in the Neotropics, and

not all of these habitats are tropical. The area of savanna in South America has apparently

expanded and contracted during cool-dry and warm-wet intervals during the Quaternary and

two or more recent episodes of savanna and other dry vegetation type expansion and

concomitant tropical humid forest contraction occurred during glacial periods in the Northern

Hemisphere. Savannas comprise the second most extensive vegetation type in tropical South

America, after tropical humid forests. The largest expanse of savanna is the Cerrado, followed

by the Llanos of eastern Venezuela and Colombia. Smaller areas of savanna include the Beni

Savanna, islands of savanna surrounded by humid forest in the Amazon basin, the Guyanan

Savannas, and disjunct areas of campo rupestre The Pantanal region of Brazil also includes

extensive areas of hyper-seasonal savanna vegetation.

3.4.1. Cerrado

The Cerrado occupies 190,000 sq. km covering the southeast of the Amazon Basin, in Bolivia,

Brazil, and Paraguay. The Brazilian savanna occupies a broad geographical area, extending

from Central Brazil (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Tocantins, Goias, Distrito Federal) to

North Brazil (Para, Amazonas, Amapa, Rondônia states), Northeast Brazil (Piauí, Bahia,

Ceara Maranhao), Southeast Brazil (Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo) and South Brazil (Parana). The

climate is highly seasonal with a marked dry (May-August) and rainy (September-March)

seasons. This variation shows marked effects on the fauna and flora. It is one of the largest

savanna-forest complexes in the world, forming a gradient from open grasslands to closed

woodlands. The flora and fauna include several endemic species. The Cerrado is considered

one of the most diverse and important tropical savannas in the world. Typical bird species

include the greater Rhea (Rhea americana), Red-legged seriema (Cariama cristata), and the

critically endangered and endemic Spix's macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii). Among the endemic

species are included the White-striped warbler (Basileuterus leucophrys), Cone-billed tanager

(Conothraupis mesoleuca), and the Dwarf tinamou (Taoniscus nanus). The fragmentation of

habitats due to agriculture, cattle breeding, development projects and urbanization are the

major threats to the Cerrado conservation.

Most studies on grassland species richness show very little variation through the year, while

relative abundance was lower in the drier months. During the rainy season, there is a great

increase in insect populations, coinciding with the arrival of migratory species, like the Fork-

tailed Flycatcher (Tyrannus savanna). This species comes in flocks to the Cerrado in August

and September, breeds in the region, and returns to the Amazon between January and

February. During the dry season various species utilize gallery forests as foraging and shelter

sites. The stripe-tailed Yellow-finch (Sicalis citrina) is also an abundant species in the rainy

season, when it is observed in large migratory flocks. It is estimated that more than 850

species are found in the Cerrado, in total 64 families, of which 48 are threatened. More than

90% of these species breed in the biome. Endemic species as the White-rumped Tanager

(Cypsnagra hirundinacea), White-banded Tanager (Neothraupis fasciata) and Black-throated

Saltator (Saltator atricollis - Figure 2) are examples of nuclear species of campo cerrado. In

the past 35 years, more than half of its original area (1 million km2) was transformed mainly

in artificial pastures and annual crops. This represents a deforestation rate which is greater

than that of the Amazon. Recent studies show that the present deforestation rate varies from

22,000 to 30,000 km2/year, and if these rates persist, it is estimated that the remaining Cerrado

natural habitats will be totally destroyed by 2030.

Figure 2. Black-throated Saltator (Saltator atricollis), an endemic bird of the Cerrado and also

a nuclear species in mixed flocks. (Photo by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

3.4.2. Llanos

The Llanos Savannas are one of the world's largest wetland complexes (390,000 sq. km)

spreading in Northern South America, from Colombia to Venezuela. Throughout its elongated

range, the Llanos exhibits a high heterogeneity in landscapes and types of vegetation: the

foothills, the alluvial plains and the highlands, that may be divided in well-drained high plains

and floodable high plains. The wetlands compound includes streams, rivers, marshes, and

savannas. Wading and aquatic birds represent a large portion of the total bird fauna in these

flooded savannas. Most of the birds are usually restricted to the gallery forest and habitat

specialization is rare. Many birds thrive in agricultural areas as is the case of almost all

granivorous birds (pigeons, doves, finches, sparrows, etc). Some typical birds found here

include the Black-bellied tree duck (Dendrocygna autumnalis), Fulvous Whistling-duck

(Dendrocygna bicolor - Figure 3), Roseate spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja) and the Dickcissel sparrow

(Spiza americana). There are no endemic birds restricted to the llanos ecoregion, only the

Orinoco piculet (Picumnus pumilus) is a near-endemic species. The main threats affecting this

ecoregion are related to agricultural land misuse, farmland abandonment and rapid

urbanization.

Figure 3. Fulvous Whistling-duck (Dendrocygna bicolor), a typical bird of the Llanos. (Photo

by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

3.4.3. Pantanal

The Pantanal is a 171,000 sq. km2 sedimentary Flooded Savanna in western Brazil and the

largest wetland complex in the world. The Pantanal spreads from Central South America

(Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay). Most of the Pantanal is located in Brazil and the Paraguay

river is the main watercourse of the region. The formation of the Pantanal is a result of the

flooding of the large pre-Andean Depression that forms an enormous internal delta, in which

several rivers flowing from the Plateau merge, depositing their sediments and erosion

residues. During the rainy season, from (December to April) this depression is almost totally

flooded, due to its low declivity and to the large amount of rainfall. During the dry periods

(July to December) the land is dry, though with some small scattered lagoons, several of

which are perennial during this period, constituting shelters for the fauna. When its

floodwaters recede, aquatic life becomes concentrated in scattered pools, and the convergence

of birds and animals to feed on it and breed make a spectacular wildlife phenomenon. The

relief is flat, since the altitudes are very low and soil and annual floods are determinant factors

of the biodiversity. The landscape includes a mosaic of flooded grasslands and savannas,

gallery forests, and dry forests. There are three migration routes bringing birds to the Pantanal

during either the wet or dry season, depending on the guild and the areas from which they

migrate from. At least 86 species including some from the Arctic and Patagonia migrate to the

area. Species such as the Roseate Spoonbill (Platalea ajaja), hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus

hyacinthinus) and Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) have their largest breeding populations

in the Pantanal and time their reproduction to coincide with a period of high food abundance.

The flora composition is very much influenced by other biomes, specially the Cerrado (more

than 50%). Aquatic birds are very abundant and some species are among the largest birds

found in wetlands, including the Jabiru stork (Jabiru mycteria - Figure 4). The main threats

for the ecoregion are: agriculture, water projects, mining, non-organized ecotourism, and road

construction. Siltation is pointed out as the worst environmental problem, changing the

hydrology (wet-and-dry to wet), fauna and flora, and the elimination of the riparian forest.

However, severe threats to the flora and fauna of the Pantanal originate outside the

floodplains.

Figure 4. Jabiru stork (Jabiru mycteria) can be found in great abundance in the Pantanal.

(Photo by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

3.4.4. Beni Savannas

The Beni savannas (also known as Llanos de Moxos) occupy 126,000 km2 and are situated in

the north-eastern lowlands of the south-western Amazon basin. Extending north-eastward

from the foot of the Andes, most of the Beni savanna spreads in the lowlands of northern

Bolivia (from El Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando, and Santa Cruz), extending some

portions to Brazil and Peru. The Beni savanna is surrounded by tropical moist forests; the

Southwest Amazon moist forests to the north, west, and south, and the Madeira-Tapajos moist

forests to the east. This ecoregion comprises seasonal savannas and wetlands with inland and

gallery forests on poorly drained alluvial plains with a marked dry season and flooding in the

rainy season. The plains form a complex mosaic of humid seasonal forest in a matrix of

seasonal savanna where yearly floods and fire are the defining factors. There are three major

rivers, the Beni to the west, Guapore (Itenez) to the east, and the Mamore in the central region.

The convergence of these rivers forms the major southern Amazon tributary, the Madeira

River. Typical bird species found here include the white-bellied Nothura (Nothura boraquira),

greater rhea (Rhea americana), southern screamers (Chauna torquata), plumbeous ibis

(Theristicus caerulescens), crowned eagles (Harpyhaliaetus coronatus), long-tailed ground-

doves (Uropelia campestris), golden-collared macaws (Ara auricollis), monk parakeets

(Myiopsitta monachus), burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia - Figure 5) and the critically

endangered and endemic Blue-throated macaw (Ara glaucogularis). The last species feeds

primarily on the fruits of Attalea sp. and Acrocomia sp. palms and it also nests on the palm

forests formed by these species. This macaw has a very low population density (estimates of

500-1,000 individuals). The main cause of their decline is capture for the pet trade and the

replacement of their natural habitat by artificial grasslands. Many other bird species are

suffering from a high hunting pressure and improved practices of forest management should

be applied.

Figure 5. Burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) is a common owl in the Beni Savannas, as well

as in most regions of the Neotropics. (Photo by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

3.4.5. Guyanan Savannas

The Guyanan Savannas ecoregion occupies an area of 104,400 square kilometres, smoothly

rolling high plains, formed by sediments of the Roraima Formation, which overlie

discordantly the rocks of the Guyana Shield. It is distinguished by extensive savannas, many

rivers and scrubby vegetation, spanning northern Brazil, south-eastern Venezuela, and south-

eastern Guyana, southern Suriname and eastern Brazil (north of the Amazon, from near

Macapa to near Calcoene). In this ecoregion, recurrent fires and edaphic conditions are the

most important factors in the advance of savannas over forests. Endemism is low; however, 36

important endemic birds are found, and most of them on the Gran Sabana are primarily

montane species occurring in the humid forest on the piedmont slopes above 600 m. Some

examples are the Tepui Swift (Cypseloides phelpsi) that inhabits montane evergreen forest,

cliffs, rocky canyon, grasslands and savannas. The Tepui Goldenthroat (Polytmus milleri)

lives in the forest edge and low, seasonally wet grasslands and scrubs, and the Tepui Wren

(Troglodites rufulus), occurs in montane evergreen forest edge, elfin forest, scrub and

savanna. The near-threatened Rio Branco Antbird (Cercomacra carbonaria) is found on

riverine islands where it is relatively common in suitable forest. The endangered Hoary-

throated Spinetail (Synallaxis kollari) is very rare, being known from few specimens and a

couple of observations along six different rivers. The near threatened Blue-cheeked Amazon

(Amazona dufresniana) inhabits savannas, moist, gallery and cloud-forests. It is a low density

and very rare species.

3.4.6. Orinoco Wetlands

The Orinoco wetlands ecoregion occupies 6,000 sq. km and consists of flooded grasslands

embedded in a mosaic of mangroves, swamp forest, moist forest, and savannas, formed by the

sediment deposited by the Orinoco River through thousands of years. The ecoregion is located

in the north of the delta of the Orinoco River - the second largest river in the Neotropics - in

eastern Venezuela. It is both a globally important wetland, and a critical habitat to a number of

endangered species. Species compositions are doubtlessly influenced by the surrounding terra

firme moist forests, swamp forests, and mangroves. The monodominant forests of Buriti palm

(Mauritia flexosa) provide important food and also nesting habitat for many bird species.

Typical birds include the Orinoco goose (Neochen jubata), harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and

the endemics: Grey-legged Tinamou (Crypturellus duidae), Barred Tinamou (Crypturellus

casiquiare), Orinoco Piculet (Picumnus pumilus), Pelzeln's Tody-tyrant (Hemitriccus

inornatus), Yellow-throated Antwren (Myrmotherula ambigua), Spot-backed Antwren

(Herpsilochmus dorsimaculatus), Yapacana Antbird (Myrmeciza disjuncta), Grey-bellied

Antbird (Myrmeciza pelzelni), Chestnut-crested Antbird (Rhegmatorhina cristata), Orinoco

Softtail (Thripophaga cherriei), Azure-naped Jay (Cyanocorax heilprini), and White-naped

Seedeater (Dolospingus fringilloides). Threats to the area are increasing as water diversion

and damming, oil drilling, and human populations increase.

4. Birds in the Tropical Savannas

We recognize 2,951 bird species in the tropical savannas, representing about 29.54% of all

bird species in the world. A total of 25 bird orders (86% of bird orders), 152 families (77% of

bird families) and 1,404 genera (66.44% of bird genera) were computed. The Cerrado has the

greatest bird diversity, with about 850 species, which is more than 8% of the birds of the

world (Table 2).

Table 2. Number of bird species in the tropical savannas and geographical region, by to

taxonomic category.

Tropical Savannas

Neotropical Afrotropical

Indo-

Malayan

Australasia

Taxonomic

Category

Llanos

Guyanan

Pantanal

Beni

Cerrado

Sudanian

East

Central

Horn

Terai-Duar

Northern

Australia

Trans-Fly

Total

Critically

Endangered

(CR) 0 1 2 1 7 1 1 2 0 6 0 0 21

Data

Deficient

(DD) 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 6 0 0 2 10

Endangered

(EN) 2 2 2 2 5 1 4 3 2 6 4 0 33

Near

Threatened

(NT) 7 5 11 9 31 18 15 10 15 19 12 14 166

Vulnerable

(VU) 0 0 5 3 15 10 8 4 13 18 6 7 89

Total of

Tropical

Savannas 9 8 20 15 58 31 29 19 36 49 22 23 319

Different mechanisms are responsible for the origin and maintenance of different aspects of

diversity. It is important to evaluate biodiversity concordance and the use of indicator groups

to provide a basis to evaluate priorities for conservation at a regional scale. Highly endangered

ecoregions with many strait endemic species require focused actions to prevent the loss of

further habitat leading to their extinction. Less threatened ecoregions also require maintenance

of large and well-connected habitats that will support large-scale ecological processes.

5. Cerrado: A Unique Tropical Savanna Hotspot

The Brazilian savanna, known as Cerrado, is one of the largest and the richest savanna in the

world, and the most threatened of them all, considered one of the 25 terrestrial biodiversity

“hotspots”. In Brazil, this biome is the one of the prominent in number of threatened and

endemic bird species, second only to the Atlantic Forest. The families with the greatest

species richness are: Tyrannidae (113 species), Thamnophilidae (54 species), Thraupidae (52

species), Emberizidae (45 species), Furnariidae (40 species), Trochilidae (37 species),

Accipitridae (34 species), and Psittacidae (33 species). Most of these species (72%) are

dependent (partially or totally) of forested habitats (cerradao, dry and riparian forests), which

represent less than 10% of the Cerrado phytochorion. Only 25.5% of the birds (218 species)

are forest independent, that is, they feed or reproduce mainly in the cerrado stricto sensu and

in other open vegetation habitats.

One of the most conspicuous Cerrado species in relation to morphology and behavior is the

Cock-tailed Tyrant (Alectrurus tricolor), a tyrannid which occurs in grassland areas of the

Cerrado. The male’s tail has a peculiar shape: the two median rectrices rotate 90º, in a way

that its vexiles remain in a vertical position as the sail on a ship (Figure 12). During the

breeding season, the male performs several displays before the females while in flight, and

numerous males engage in confronting aerial displays between other conspecifics. This

species is vulnerable mainly due to habitat destruction.

Figure 12. The tail of the Cock-tailed Tyrant’s male (Alectrurus tricolor) is one of the most

peculiar among savanna birds. (Photo by Mieko Ferreira Kanegae)

The Greater Rhea (Rhea Americana) is the largest south American bird, and can stand at

1.70m tall. Belonging to the ancient ratite group, the Rheiformes were well represented in this

region during the Upper Paleocene, about 55 million years ago. The male drives away its

rivals and forms a group of about three to six females. The male is also in charge of nest

building, egg incubation and caring of the chicks. The nest may contain 12 to 30 eggs that

weigh about 605g on average, but there are records of nests containing 60 or more eggs.

Formerly, this bird could be seen in flocks of large numbers in the Cerrado (20 to 30

individuals), but at the present time, the flocks are much reduced, mainly because of the

hunting pressure and habitat loss.

One typical Cerrado bird that has a long-range vocalization is the Red-legged Seriema

(Cariama cristata). The “laughing” song of the seriema is also known as the “voice of the

Cerrado”, and this is related to the persistent, well-defined and riotous screams that speed up

and then slow down. They are found in pairs or in small flocks. They consume insects and

other arthropods, small rodents, lizards and amphibians.

The Curl-crested Jay (Cyanocorax cristatellus) is a corvid endemic to the Cerrado and it is

common to the open grassland formations. It is found in flocks of about 8 to 10 individuals.

The acoustic recognition of this species may be accomplished at great distances when it calls

in a repetitive and stridently pattern the “grawn", “grawn", “grawn". During the breeding

season, it exhibits a more distinctive social behavior, with many individuals participating in

cooperative parental care. Predation is very intense for this species with nestling lost up to

63%.

The Sharp-tailed Tyrant (Culicivora caudacuta) is an uncommon small tyrannid (10 cm long)

which is found in Southeast and South Brazil. The habitat of this species is campos limpos and

campos sujos. The eradication of campos limpos by agriculture threatens this species, because

this flycatcher does not adapt well in artificial grassland landscapes. Kin groups are found

during winter (3-10 individuals) and they generally participate in mixed flocks, usually

including the Chalk-browed Mockingbird (Mimus saturninus), Cock-tailed Tyrant (Alectrurus

tricolor), White-banded Tanager (Neothraupis fasciata), White-rumped Tanager (Cypsnagra

hirundinacea), and Bearded Tachuri (Polystictus pectoralis). The bird builds a thin, shallow

cup-shaped nest in short bushes, where it incubates 2 to 5 eggs.

Of the total species number recorded for the Cerrado, 759 (90.7%) reproduce inside the

biome, 26 (3.1%) are northern hemisphere migrants, 12 (1.5%) are migrants South America

migrants, 8 (0.9%) are possibly altitudinal migrants of the Brazilian southeast and 32 (3.8%)

have currently unknown status. One of the most common birds in Central Plateau Cerrado,

especially during the rainy season, when it arrives for reproduction is the Lesser Elaenia

(Elaenia chiriquensis). In spite of being regularly the most captured bird in mist nets during

this season, very little is known about its migration routes, primarily due to the permanence of

some populations in the Cerrado. This bird feeds mostly on fruits, and its abundance is related

to its predominant diet. Our current knowledge on this species indicates that it is a key-species

for seed dispersion in the Cerrado.

Many granivorous species are migratory and follow the seed production of native and exotic

grasses in the open grasslands. Despite of the great granivore richness, in the Cerrado,

particularly in the Sporophila genus (18 species - Figure 13), very little is known about its

migratory routes. Species as the Plumbeous Seedeater (Sporophila plumbea) are much more

sensible to habitat alterations, as a rule, being led to extinction as a consequence of the

introduction of exotic grasses. Unfortunately, one of the greatest threats in the Cerrado is the

expansion of these invasive plant species, like the Kenya sheep grass (Brachiaria decumbens)

and Gordura grass (Melinis minutiflora). These African plant species are very well adapted to

the region’s climate, competing with local species. The management of these invasive grasses,

despite demanding a high cost, must be implemented in conservation units de before their

expansion makes these procedures not manageable.

Figure 13. The Lined Seedeater (Sporophila lineola) is one of many Sporophila genus species

found in the Cerrado. (Photo by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

In the Cerrado 172 bird species participate in mixed flocks in many phytochoria and these

flocks are constituted of even 16 species and 40 individuals. In general, these are species of

contrasting coloration and occur in conspecific flocks when absent in mixed flocks. The

nuclear species remain much of the time on the watch-out and make alert calls as a result of

the proximity of falcons and hawks. For some typical forest birds that explore the adjacent

savannas, the strategy of joining mixed flocks lowers predation risks associated to the more

open areas.

Despite the very low endemism [36 species (4.3% of total)], many species (39%) are included

in some degree of threat, due mostly to habitat loss. Since 1995, three endemic species were

described to the Cerrado, two of which are already in the IUCN red list.

The Cipo Canastero (Asthenes luizae) is a furnariid that inhabits rock outcrops that are

associated to dry vegetation, in altitudes above 1,100 m and below 1,500 m. It has a very

restrict distribution and it is considered vulnerable due to landscape modification by cattle

grazing, frequent fires and the expansion in the distribution of a nest parasite bird species, the

Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis).

The Collared Crescentchest (Melanopareia torquata) is an endemic species which occurs

mainly in campo cerrado and campo sujo. It is a solitary and probably sedentary species,

being less common in observation of pairs. The individuals move about mainly on the ground,

on the lower parts of bushes, usually above tall grasses. It is possible to hear their song during

the whole year, and their detection is more acoustic than by sight. They perch on the highest

part of low bushes and call usually a constant whistling series “feeoo”, “feeoo” that are

strongly resonant and loud (Figure 14). This species is also found in the List of Threatened

Birds in the State of Sao Paulo (Animals Red List of the Sao Paulo State - Decret n° 42.838 of

February 4th, 1998), in the category endangered.

Figure 14. The Collared Crescentchest (Melanopareia torquata), an endemic species of the

Cerrado. (Photo by Mieko Ferreira Kanegae)

In the Cerrado, unfortunately, the conservation efforts are still modest and only 2.2% of this

biome is under legal protection. This low covering does not even reflect the current Forest

Code legislation, which demands that 20% of Cerrado converted to agriculture or cattle

raising be preserved. Depending on the dominant vegetation 70% of the biomass is immersed

in the subsoil. An analogy commonly made to the Cerrado is that it is a forest upside down.

Unfortunately, the view of the Cerrado as an important carbon dioxide sink is only modestly

discussed in the media. Community mobilization, biodiversity, environmental services, and

top-down conservation are severely limited as environmental policy initiatives, given that the

governmental agencies are incapable of inspecting and assuring the legal protection. Not much

importance is given to a vegetation frequently referred as “dry and tortuous”, resulting in an

empty niche occupied by farmers. It is estimated that an area the size of the state of Sao Paulo

is underused by cattle farmers. It is easier and more lucrative to deforest new Cerrado

landscape than to restore degraded areas. Modern simulations modelled the transformation of

the actual Cerrado in artificial grasslands pastures and have shown that the precipitation could

be reduced at least 10%, droughts could become recurrent and the average superficial air

temperature may increase by 0.5ºC, bringing pessimistic impacts for agriculture. Important

bird areas for preservation and sustainable use in the Cerrado that should be protected are

being substituted by sugar cane plantation for ethanol production. According to ISPN institute

(Sociedade, Populaçao e Natureza), it is estimated that a total of 142 thousand ha of Cerrado -

the size of Sao Paulo City - are considered priority conservation units but were converted to

sugar cane plantations in the 2006/2007 harvest. The list is led by Sao Paulo State (86

thousand hectares deforested), followed by Minas Gerais State (25,000), Goias State (13,000),

Mato Grosso State (12,000) e Mato Grosso do Sul State (6,000) states. This deforesting may

compromise the natural resources of rural populations and the food supply in the region.

According to ISPN, the problems of the preservation in the Cerrado start with the lack of

monitoring of vegetation clearing and lack of legal regulation concerning this activity.

Furthermore, in the growing interest in bio fuels, especially in Brazil, the prevision to the

disappearing of Cerrado vegetation outside conservation units has one of the most pessimists.

In case there is not an adequate certification that guarantees the legality of plantation

associated to the maintenance of the legal reserves and permanent protection areas, according

to the Brazilian Forest Code, the importers of these bio fuels in Brazil are conniving with this

behavior.

Fire is a determinant factor in the formation and patterns of ecological processes in tropical

savannas. The relation of the Cerrado with fire is an ancient one and it is prior to human

occupation (27,100 to 41,700 years ago). Palinological analysis reveals that the longest

intervals between fires in the Cerrado were, on average, 33 to 41 years and the shortest, about

8 years. With increasing human occupation, the frequency of fires has been increasing, being

widely utilized in agriculture and extensive cattle ranching. An “unnatural” fire regime can

interfere negatively on the biota, modifying the evolutionary processes kept under different

fire conditions. Uncontrolled fires may affect birds in a direct way (mortality rate, physical

injuries) and indirectly (changing the habitat, offering resources, abundance of competitors

and predators). Ecologically, birds respond differently, depending on their life history traits, as

length, intensity and duration of fires interval may vary. Species such as the Coal-crested

Finch (Charitospiza eucosma) and the Campo Miner (Geobates poecilopterus) are considered

specialists of burned sites. Other species as the Sedge Wren (Cistothorus platensis) and the

Cock-tailed Tyrant (Alectrurus tricolor) are more sensible, disappearing after fires. Frequently

burnt sites affect negatively the establishment of trees and bushes, in addition to the liberation

of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Species like the Horned Sungem (Heliactin bilophus),

Wedge-tailed Grass-finch (Emberizoides herbicola), Streamer-tailed Tyrant (Gubernetes

yetapa - Figure 15), and the Cock-tailed Tyrant (Alectrurus tricolor) disappear in many burnt

areas soon after the passage of fire, returning to the site only months later. Others, like

Southern Lapwing (Vanellus chilensis), Spotted Nothura (Nothura maculosa), and the Huayco

Tinamou (Rhynchotus rufescens) increase in number and frequency in September, a few

weeks after the fires.

Figure 15. The Streamer-tailed Tyrant (Gubernetes yetapa), one of the most affected bird

species by action of fire. (Photo by Alexandre Gabriel Franchin)

Acknowledgments

We thank Dr. Kleber Del-Claro for the invitation to write this chapter, and the colleagues at

the Ornithology Lab, UFU, specially Laíce J. Silva and Diego S. F. Oliveira for the help with

the database. We also thank CAPES for the doctoral scholarships of AGF and MFK and UEG

for the doctoral scholarship of RFJ.

Related Chapters

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Glossary

Avifauna: The total set of bird species in a given region.

Beta-diversity: A measure of biodiversity which compares the species diversity between ecosystems or

along environmental gradients

Biodiversity: The total of genes, species and ecosystems of a place.

Biogeography: Science studying the spatial distribution of living organisms and its causes, either

ecological or evolutionary.

Biome: A large set of ecosystems, defined by vegetational and climatic characteristics.

Caatinga: Areas of dry shrub lands in northeast Brazil, extend over 800,000 square kilometres.

They have virtually no grass substrate and more dry season moisture availability.

Campo cerrado: A Cerrado type of parkland composed of scattered trees in dense grass.

Campo limpo :

(“clear field”) A treeless grassland with herbs, a few small shrubs, and sub-shrubs.

Campo rupestre:

(“rocky field”) A shrubby or grassland savanna associated with high altitude rocky outcrops.

Campo sujo:

(“dirty field”) An open shrub savanna with very scattered but definitely visible shrubs and tree-like

shrub elements.

Cerradao (“tall:

cerrado”) A woodland with more than 40% woody plant cover and 3000-4000 trees per hectare.

Cerrado: A landscape of savanna-covered plateaus and tablelands separated by broad river valleys

with gallery forests.

Chaco: Thorn scrub, over 900,000 square kilometres, extends from the northern Argentina to

southern Bolivia and across to Paraguay.

Ecosystem: Organisms and physical factors in an environment, as well as the resulting processes of

the interactions among those components.

Gallery Forests: Vegetation bordering streams and rivers, comparable to riparian habitat in North

America.

Miombo: A woodland savanna characterized by the predominant presence of Miombo

(Brachystegia sp.) species, with a range of climates from humid to semi-arid, and

tropical to subtropical or even temperate.

Mopane: A woodland savanna found almost exclusively within the low-lying, hot and arid river

valleys of the major river systems in tropical southern Africa where the mopane

(Colloquius burnham) is the dominant tree species.

Neotropical: Here, we define Neotropical as the biogeographic region of Central and South America.

Paleartic:

migration Migrations undertaken by Eurasian birds to the southern hemisphere during the winter.

Extraordinarily long migrations.

Phytochorion :

(plural,

phytochoria)

A phytogeographic area with a relatively uniform composition of plant species.

Threatened :

species Organisms endangered for human activities and that can be in face of extinction.

Tropical region: A set of terrestrial and aquatic natural ecosystems distributed among the Tropic of

Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.

Turnover: Dynamic equilibrium in which species number remain relatively constant while the

identity of species varies through time.

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Biographical Sketches

Alexandre Gabriel Franchin is undertaking his PhD degree in Ecology and Conservation of Natural Resources

from the Federal University of Uberlândia. He obtained his Master Degree in Ecology and Conservation of

Natural Resources from Uberlândia Federal University. His studies have focused on Urban Ecology, Bird

Ecology, Behavioral Ecology and Ornithology.

Rafael de Freitas Juliano is Professor of Zoology at the Department of Biology of the Goias State University,

Morrinhos Campus, Brazil. He obtained his Master Degree in Ecology from Goias Federal University and is

undertaking his PhD degree in Ecology and Conservation of Natural Resources from the Federal University of

Uberlândia. His studies have focused on Vertebrate Ecology with emphasis on Animal Communication. His

current research interests focus on natural selection on avian communication systems.

Mieko Ferreira Kanegae is undertaking her PhD degree in Ecology from Sao Paulo University. During her

post-graduate work, she has studied ectoparasites in bird communities in the Cerrado. Currently, her research

focus is on habitat selection, home ranges, and population sizes of endemic species. Working with CEMAVE

(National Center for Research and Conservation of Wild Birds), she implemented the bird monitoring program in

the National Park of Brasília, and the study of the effects of fire in Cerrado areas on bird communities.

Oswaldo Marçal Junior is Professor of Animal Ecology at the Institute of Biology of the Federal University of

Uberlândia. He has a Master Degree and PhD in Ecology. Actually he is coordinating the Postgraduate Program

in Ecology and Conservation of Natural Resources and the Laboratory of Ornithology. His studies have focused

on several themes in Ecology of Ecosystems and Applied Ecology, with special interest in the following areas:

Bird Ecology, Ecology of Parasites and Human Ecology.

To cite this chapter

Alexandre Gabriel Franchin,Rafael de Freitas Juliano,Mieko Ferreira Kanegae,Oswaldo Marcal Junior

,(2008),BIRDS IN THE TROPICAL SAVANNAS, in International Commission on Tropical Biology and

Natural Resources, [Eds. Kleber Del Claro,Paulo S. Oliveira,Victor Rico-Gray,Ana Angelica Almeida

Barbosa,Arturo Bonet,Fabio Rubio Scarano,Francisco Jose Morales Garzon,Gloria Carrion Villarnovo,Lisias

Coelho,Marcus Vinicius Sampaio,Mauricio Quesada,Molly R.Morris,Nelson Ramirez,Oswaldo Marcal

Junior,Regina Helena Ferraz Macedo,Robert J.Marquis,Rogerio Parentoni Martins,Silvio Carlos

Rodrigues,Ulrich Luttge], in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of

the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers,Oxford,UK, [http://www.eolss.net] [Retrieved October 11, 2008]

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Species poor but distinct: Bird assemblages in white sand vegetation in Jaú National Park, Brazilian Amazon

Article

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IBIS

Sérgio Henrique Borges

There have been few studies of the fauna of the distinctive vegetation that grows on sandy soil in Amazonia. Leached and nutrient-poor sandy soil is associated with a vegetation type that varies in structure from open fields (campinas) to low canopy forests (campinaranas). During a bird inventory in sandy soil vegetation at Jaú National Park (JNP), I recorded 128 bird species, with 55 in campina and 94 in campinarana. Estimates suggested only 150 bird species should be expected to occur in these habitats, a reduced species diversity compared with other vegetation types in the Amazon region. This low species diversity is probably linked to the low productivity of this habitat and its relatively simple vegetation structure. Despite the relatively low diversity, at least 14 bird species (3% of the entire avifauna) appear to be restricted to white sand vegetation in JNP. In Amazonia as a whole, some 37 bird species are associated with vegetation in sandy soils. Biological inventories of other taxa are needed to understand the contribution of white sandy vegetation to the faunal distribution in Amazonia.

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