Chapter

Biodiversity of Flora and Fauna

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Abstract

Rooftop farming can contribute to urban biodiversity in terms of providing habitats and creating an urban green network. In addition, the cultivation of plants on roofs can provide places where wild animals and plants can survive and reproduce. Chosen cultivation practices and plant species can improve habitats and present more opportunities for wildlife and if flowering plants are grown together with vegetables, wild pollinators and domestic bees are attracted, providing pollination for edible species too. The presence of pollinators also contributes to a trophic web, attracting other species, such as predators (spiders and birds) and parasites (e.g. wasps). Thus, green roofs are an opportunity to create greenways in anthropized areas, combating the habitat fragmentation caused by urban expansion. This chapter highlights the differences between different levels of green roof management in relation to their contribution to urban biodiversity and considers agrobiodiversity in relation to cultivated species and local cultivars. Finally, rooftop fauna has been considered in order to assess the attraction of rooftop habitats to animal species, especially wild and domestic pollinators.

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... Within the context of city-scale ecosystems, isolated patches of urban green space, including urban agriculture and green roofs, can be hotspots for biodiversity (Cook-Patton and Bauerle, 2012;Forman, 2014;Williams et al., 2014;Borysiak et al., 2017;Lepczyk et al., 2017). Declining wildlife populations in farmland and rural areas due to pesticide use increased the importance of cities as wildlife refuge, while organic cultivation in rooftop farming can increase plant, insect, and bird habitat in densely built environments and contribute to urban corridor networks (Gilbert, 1989;Chamberlain et al., 2000;Orsini et al., 2014;Bretzel et al., 2017;Dang, 2017;Hall et al., 2017). Insect pollinators are important indicators of biodiversity across land uses including urban environments, while beekeeping contributes directly to food production (Tommasi et al., 2004;Broadway, 2009;Plakias, 2016;Bretzel et al., 2017;Hall et al., 2017). ...
... Declining wildlife populations in farmland and rural areas due to pesticide use increased the importance of cities as wildlife refuge, while organic cultivation in rooftop farming can increase plant, insect, and bird habitat in densely built environments and contribute to urban corridor networks (Gilbert, 1989;Chamberlain et al., 2000;Orsini et al., 2014;Bretzel et al., 2017;Dang, 2017;Hall et al., 2017). Insect pollinators are important indicators of biodiversity across land uses including urban environments, while beekeeping contributes directly to food production (Tommasi et al., 2004;Broadway, 2009;Plakias, 2016;Bretzel et al., 2017;Hall et al., 2017). Studies of green roofs report that management, plant selection, and substrate properties have strong influence on species composition and abundance for wild flora, birds, invertebrates, and the substrate microbial community, emphasizing the need of empirical studies specific to rooftop farming Dvorak and Volder, 2010;Fernández Cañero and González Redondo, 2010;McGuire et al., 2013McGuire et al., , 2015Williams et al., 2014;MacIvor and Ksiazek, 2015;Bretzel et al., 2017;Ksiazek et al., 2018;Aloisio et al., 2019). ...
... Insect pollinators are important indicators of biodiversity across land uses including urban environments, while beekeeping contributes directly to food production (Tommasi et al., 2004;Broadway, 2009;Plakias, 2016;Bretzel et al., 2017;Hall et al., 2017). Studies of green roofs report that management, plant selection, and substrate properties have strong influence on species composition and abundance for wild flora, birds, invertebrates, and the substrate microbial community, emphasizing the need of empirical studies specific to rooftop farming Dvorak and Volder, 2010;Fernández Cañero and González Redondo, 2010;McGuire et al., 2013McGuire et al., , 2015Williams et al., 2014;MacIvor and Ksiazek, 2015;Bretzel et al., 2017;Ksiazek et al., 2018;Aloisio et al., 2019). ...
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... This allows for better comprehension of the petrographic and sedimentological characteristics [24,25,51]. A last contribution derives from the interpretation and correlation of the geognostic surveys, generally numerous in anthropized contexts, providing information in areas where other types of data (surface or subterranean) are missing [49,[52][53][54]. ...
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... In the study, it was observed that the plant roots and organic matter contain different microbial taxa (Wongkiew et al., 2022). Management practices, plant type and substrate qualities of another type of urban agriculture initiative, e.g., rooftop farming have been reported to significantly impact the abundance and composition of microbial community and other living organisms of the rooftop farming environment, stressing the need of experimental and/or practical studies unique to rooftop agriculture (Ksiazek et al., 2014;Williams et al., 2014;Macivor and Ksiazek, 2015;Mcguire et al., 2015;Bretzel et al., 2017;Aloisio et al., 2019). Metagenomics has been used to detect microbiome genomic characteristics that are involved in plant-microbial interactions (Bulgarelli et al., 2015;Xu et al., 2018). ...
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... URF is also important for what concerns urban ecology. In fact, rooftop cultivation is a strategy to enhance flora and fauna biodiversity in cities context, creating green corridors that would help to reduce habitat fragmentation and to connect trophic webs for pollinators, predators and parasites (Bretzel et al., 2017). A case study in the city of Vienna showed that linking green roofs with existing urban green spots, and depending on foraging distance of pollinators, it is possible to design a useful network to improve urban biodiversity and landscape (Dang, 2017). ...
... In 2004, a study in Canada showed the relevance of plant diversity in urban gardens to increase the pollinators' attraction potential [16]. According to the Institute for Ecosystem in Italy, green rooftops, if planned with diverse plants, are valuable for any biodiversity and prevent from habitat fragmentation caused by urban expansion [17]. Based on these observations, a parametric definition using Grasshopper (a graphical algorithm editor with Rhinoceros 3D modeling tools) was designed for the planning of green corridors network. ...
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In the Puglia region, a multicolor landrace called the yellow-purple Polignano carrot has been cultivated since 1940 by local smallholder farmers and has been added to the Slow Food list of traditional products. Composition analyses of these carrots were carried out including carbohydrate assay, inorganic cations, nitrate content, and dry weight of each colour. Besides, antioxidant activity, β-carotene, total phenols and carotenoid content on the full carrots and on the cortex and inner core separated tissues were determined. The same analyses were performed on a commercial carrot cultivar. On average, total glucose, fructose, and saccharose content was 22% lower in the yellow-purple Polignano carrot than in the commercial one. In addition, the highest contributor to the relative sweetness in the yellow-purple Polignano carrot was fructose (43.5%), which affects its wellknown taste, as well as its glycemic index. As for the nutritional parameters, purple carrots showed the highest content in antioxidant activity, total phenols, carotenoids and β-carotene, mainly detected in the cortex.
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Twenty-one herbaceous bee forage species were evaluated for attractiveness to bumble bees (Bombus spp.) and honey bees (Apis mellifera) and for their potential to grow in tandem with cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) plantings to increase native bee populations for pollination. Seventeen of the species were planted in four replicated plots next to a cranberry bog in Long Beach, WA, USA, and four species were already established in an area adjacent to the plots. Agastache ruposa, A. foeniculum and Lotus corniculatus were the most attractive to short-tongued bumble bees. Nepeta mussinii, Borago officinalis, Phacelia tanacetifolia and A. foeniculum were the most attractive to long-tongued bumble bees. Honey bees were most attracted to B. officinalis, P. tanacetifolia and Raphanus sativus. The major short-tongued bee species A. mellifera, B. mixtus, B. occidentalis and B. sitkensis were the only significant pollinators of cranberry. The long-tongued species B. caliginosus and B. californicus were insignificant pollinators. Bumble bees preferred purple flowers, but there was no clear relationship between bee population density and the level of available soluble carbohydrate per flower or per area. The periodicity of foraging behaviour depended on bee species and plant; honey bees peaked at 15.00 h, while bumble bees were more constant throughout the day.
Article
Examines the properties of seeds of species which are dominant at different stages in various terrestrial seres, and attempts to show how their characteristics help to explain the sequence of floristic changes which constitute succession. The focus is on plants characteristic of relatively mesic sites with adequate supplies of minerals and water. -from Author
Article
The suppression of agricultural pests has often been proposed as an important service of natural enemy diversity, but few experiments have tested this assertion. In this study we present empirical evidence that increasing the richness of a particular guild of natural enemies can reduce the density of a widespread group of herbivorous pests and, in turn, increase the yield of an economically important crop. We performed an experiment in large field enclosures where we manipulated the presence/absence of three of the most important natural enemies (the coccinellid beetle Harmonia axyridis, the damsel bug Nabis sp., and the parasitic wasp Aphidius ervi) of pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) that feed on alfalfa (Medicago sativa). When all three enemy species were together, the population density of the pea aphid was suppressed more than could be predicted from the summed impact of each enemy species alone. As crop yield was negatively related to pea aphid density, there was a concomitant non-additive increase in the production of alfalfa in enclosures containing the more diverse enemy guild. This trophic cascade appeared to be influenced by an indirect interaction involving a second herbivore inhabiting the system – the cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora. Data suggest that high relative densities of cowpea aphids inhibited parasitism of pea aphids by the specialist parasitoid, A. ervi. Therefore, when natural enemies were together and densities of cowpea aphids were reduced by generalist predators, parasitism of pea aphids increased. This interaction modification is similar to other types of indirect interactions among enemy species (e.g. predator–predator facilitation) that can enhance the suppression of agricultural pests. Results of our study, and those of others performed in agroecosystems, complement the broader debate over how biodiversity influences ecosystem functioning by specifically focusing on systems that produce goods of immediate relevance to human society.
Article
Species-rich grasslands that become enriched with nitrogen often suffer decreases in species richness, increases in plant biomass, and invasion by weedy exotic species. Suitable techniques to restore enriched grasslands and reestablish native communities are increasingly needed. Here we report results of a 5-yr experiment in enriched coastal prairie grasslands (Bodega Marine Reserve, Bodega Bay, California, USA), to determine the combined effects of mowing and biomass removal on total soil nitrogen, net rates of mineralization, nitrogen retention, and species richness and biomass. We mowed and removed plant biomass from plots in areas where the N-fixing shrub, bush lupine (Lupinus arboreus), had greatly enriched the soil, and where the community was composed of weedy introduced plants. Our goal was to facilitate the establishment of the native grassland assemblage such as was found at nearby low soil nitrogen sites. Mowing and biomass removal resulted in a dramatic change in the species assemblage, from exotic annual grasses to a mixed exotic/native forb community composed primarily of perennials. Species richness was significantly greater in treated plots than in control plots; weedy exotic grasses diminished in abundance, and both native and exotic forb species increased. In mowed vs. control plots, there was significantly less mean aboveground biomass, but significantly greater belowground biomass. This shift in species composition had significant impacts on nitrogen retention. In late fall and winter when plant-available N was highest, much nitrogen leached from the effectively fallow control plots where germination of annual grasses did not peak until midwinter. In contrast, mowed plots retained substantially greater amounts of nitrogen, due to the presence of perennial plants possessing large amounts of belowground biomass early in the season. Despite the cumulative removal of 22 g N/m2 in biomass over 5 yr, there was no difference between mowed and control plots in total soil N, pool sizes of inorganic N, or net rates of N mineralization. The results indicate that removal of plant biomass by mowing shifted this plant community from an annual grass to a perennial forb assemblage. However, in doing so, N retention by vegetation was increased, making it more difficult to reduce soil N.
Chapter
Functional diversity refers to those components of biodiversity that influence how an ecosystem operates or functions. The biological diversity, or biodiversity, of a habitat is much broader and includes all the species living in a site, all of the genotypic and phenotypic variation within each species, and all the spatial and temporal variability in the communities and ecosystems that these species form. Functional diversity, which is a subset of this, is measured by the values and range in the values, for the species present in an ecosystem, of those organismal traits that influence one or more aspects of the functioning of an ecosystem. Functional diversity is of ecological importance because it, by definition, is the component of diversity that influences ecosystem dynamics, stability, productivity, nutrient balance, and other aspects of ecosystem functioning.
Article
A long-term research programme, conducted mainly in northern England, has involved field surveys (1965-77), laboratory screening (1974-96), monitoring of permanent plots (1958 to date) and manipulative experiments (1987 to date). The so-called C-S-R classification of plant functional types developed from all this activity. Patterns of covariation among the traits used in the classification have recently been validated in this journal. The C-S-R classification appears to be applicable to vegetation in general. It thus has considerable potential for interpreting and predicting vegetation and ecosystem properties on a world-wide scale. However, to realize this potential we need to develop simplified procedures to extrapolate the C-S-R system to the many species which have not been the subject of previous ecological investigation. Here we describe a rapid method for attribution of C-S-R type and we test its accuracy in Britain by comparing it with an independent classification based upon more laborious procedures. The new method allocates a functional type to an unknown herbaceous subject using few, simple predictor variables. We have developed spreadsheets to perform all of the necessary calculations. These may be downloaded from the UCPE website at http://www.shef.ac.uk/uni/academic/N-Q/nuocpe, or obtained by direct application to the E-mail address ucpe@sheffield.ac.uk
Thesis
With the majority of people living in cities, innovative solutions for greening the urban environment are necessary to provide ecosystem services such as urban cooling and remediating habitat loss. Green roofs are one potential solution within green infrastructure. Few studies have investigated whether green roofs are a good urban habitat, particularly for soil organisms. The soil food web is vital to above-ground ecosystem processes as it regulates nutrients and can alleviate drought stress, so could be an important but overlooked factor in green roof design. This is the first multi-season study to examine green roof soil organisms in detail, whilst tracking abiotic factors and plant cover. The first part of this thesis characterises the microarthropod and microbial community present on two green roofs in Greater london. It was found that the mite population was dominated by a xerophilic family (Scutoverticidae) and that collembola suffered population crashes in summer. Soil bacteria and fungi were low in abundance, but were more prevalent in dry weather. In general the soil community was impoverished and influenced by drought. The second part of this thesis explores the, use of microbial inoculants to improve the soil community. Bacteria, mycorrhiza and Trichoderma were added to a new and mature roof. On the mature roof, plant growth was not affected by treatments, but collembola populations were higher when Trichoderma were added. On the new roof, inoculants negatively affected plant growth and mite populations, but benefitted collembola. Soi l organisms on the new roof colonised independently and from the Sedum plugs. One species of rarely recorded collembola (Sminthurinu5 trinotatus) colonised early after construction. Planting with Sedum was found to improve the soil community compared to leaving the substrate bare. The results presented here highlight that C.ll rrent green roof designs do not support a functional soil community but that microbial inoculants have the potential to improve them. - See more at: http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.603503#sthash.uNCJImzA.dpuf
Article
Green roofs are novel ecosystems that are increasingly common in cities. While their hydrologic and energy saving benefits are well‐established, green roofs have also been proposed as having significant value for conserving biodiversity. We evaluate six hypotheses that describe the purported biodiversity conservation benefits of green roofs. Green roofs largely support generalist species particularly insects, but their conservation value for rare taxa, and other taxonomic groups especially vertebrates, is poorly documented. Further, their ability to replicate biotic communities in the context of ecological restoration is largely untested, as is their potential to connect ground‐level habitats. Synthesis and applications . Given the evidence, green roof proponents should use restraint in claiming conservation benefits and it is premature for policymakers to consider green roofs equivalent to ground‐level urban habitats. Ecologists need to work with the industry to evaluate green roof biodiversity and help design green roofs based on ecological principles to maximize biodiversity gains.
Article
The installation of green roofs, defined here as rooftops with a shallow soil cover and extensive vegetation, has been proposed as a possible measure to mitigate the loss of green space caused by the steady growth of cities. However, the effectiveness of green roofs in supporting arthropod communities, and the extent to which they facilitate connectivity of these communities within the urban environment is currently largely unknown. We investigated the variation of species community composition (beta diversity) of four arthropod groups with contrasting mobility (Carabidae, Araneae, Curculionidae, and Apidae) on 40 green roofs and 40 extensively managed green sites on the ground in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. With redundancy analysis and variation partitioning, we (1) disentangled the relative importance of local environmental conditions, the surrounding land cover composition, and habitat connectivity on species community composition, (2) searched for specific spatial scales of habitat connectivity for the different arthropod groups, and (3) discussed the ecological and functional value of green roofs in cities. Our study revealed that on green roofs community composition of high-mobility arthropod groups (bees and weevils) were mainly shaped by habitat connectivity, while low-mobility arthropod groups (carabids and spiders) were more influenced by local environmental conditions. A similar but less pronounced pattern was found for ground communities. The high importance of habitat connectivity in shaping high-mobility species community composition indicates that these green roof communities are substantially connected by the frequent exchange of individuals among surrounding green roofs. On the other hand, low-mobility species communities on green roofs are more likely connected to ground sites than to other green roofs. The integration of green roofs in urban spatial planning strategies has great potential to enable higher connectivity among green spaces, so that eventually even communities of low-mobility species become connected. Furthermore, improving the design of green roofs (composition and configuration of vegetation and soil types) could enhance the ecological value, particularly for low-mobility species.
Article
Pollination services from wild insects contribute to crop productivity around the world, but are at risk of decline in agricultural landscapes. Using highbush blueberry as a model system, we tested whether wildflower plantings established adjacent to crop fields would increase the abundance of wild pollinators during crop bloom and enhance pollination and yield. Plantings were seeded in 2009 with a mix of 15 perennial wildflower species that provided season‐long bloom and increased plant density and floral area during the subsequent 3 years. Honeybees visiting blueberry flowers had similar abundance in enhanced and control fields in all 4 years of this study, whereas wild bee and syrphid abundance increased annually in the fields adjacent to wildflower plantings. Crop pollination parameters including percentage fruit set, berry weight and mature seeds per berry were significantly greater in fields adjacent to wildflower plantings 3 and 4 years after seeding, leading to higher crop yields and with the associated revenue exceeding the cost of wildflower establishment and maintenance. Synthesis and applications . We suggest that provision of forage habitat for bees adjacent to pollinator‐dependent crops can conserve wild pollinators in otherwise resource‐poor agricultural landscapes. Over time, these plantings can support higher crop yields and bring a return on the initial investment in wildflower seed and planting establishment, also insuring against loss of managed pollinators. Further understanding of the importance of planting size, location and landscape context will be required to effectively implement this practice to support crop pollination.
Article
Asparagus cultivars have a narrow genetic base. “Morado de Huétor” is a tetraploid landrace with interspecific origin, which could be employed to enlarge the genetic background of diploid cultivars. In order to achieve this goal, diploid commercial cultivars were crossed with triploid plants (4x × 2x) developed in our breeding program. A cross between a diploid plant, found within the tetraploid landrace, and a diploid commercial cultivar was also carried out. All the plants generated were analyzed by flow cytometry to determine the ploidy level selecting those which could be diploids. These plants make up a diploid population referred to in this work as new diploid population. Six expressed sequence tag derived simple sequence repeat (EST-SSR) markers were used to characterize the plants developed and to study their genetic variability. These EST-SSR markers were also employed to characterize diploid commercial cultivars developed in American and European asparagus breeding programs. The results were compared to previous results obtained using “Morado de Huétor”. The genetic variability found in the new diploid population was higher than in diploid commercial cultivars. Around 59% of the total alleles observed in the tetraploid landrace “Morado de Huétor” were also detected in the new diploid population. Our results show that the new population has introgressions from “Morado de Huétor” and could be a useful resource for breeding commercial cultivars.
Article
Despite the need to restore urban green spaces, there are rarely enough open spaces due to urban densification. Thus, rooftops of buildings, which had not previously been regarded as spaces for planting of vegetation, have been utilised as a type of open space, and green roofing has become one of the rapidly developing fields of urban ecological engineering. However, current green roof approaches each have negative aspects in terms of enhancing urban biodiversity: intensive roofs in urban areas cannot contribute a large amount of green area, and extensive roofs cannot create high-quality green areas. In this report, we outline brown/biodiverse roofing in the UK, which is a relatively new type of extensive roofing used to provide brownfield wildlife with mimic brownfields. Brownfield refers to land that was previously developed for housing or industry but has since been abandoned and recolonised by different ecological assemblages. Brownfields provide habitat conditions similar to more natural habitats, and they can help maintain populations of some rare species. From the 1980s to the present day, the UK government has set a target of building 60% of new dwellings on brownfields. One of the most successful strategies that has been employed by the third constituency in its efforts to campaign for urban biodiversity and brownfield conservation has been to compromise with developers of brownfields and to persuade them to install wildlife-friendly mitigation technologies on roofs. This is the origin of brown/biodiverse roofs, which benefit from techniques that offer diverse habitats under severe conditions of thin substrate layer.
Article
Lemnos Island is located in the Northern Aegean Sea and presents a rich biodiversity in plant genetic resources including wild species and crop landraces. Landraces have been cultivated under traditional agricultural systems and many have survived genetic erosion. They are mainly conserved in home gardens or in small fields, usually by elderly people, and are limited to local consumption. Two collecting expeditions were organized in Lemnos, a minor one in 2009 and a larger one in 2010. The results of the two current expeditions are discussed and compared with previous expeditions in the island. An overview is given on the crops cultivated, the landraces collected and those considered as lost, alongside with some information about their traditional uses. Finally, the importance of landraces in modern agriculture and preservation policies in Lemnos are discussed.
Article
An evaluation of the potential allergenicity of different tomato ecotypes is reported. Twelve tomato ecotypes were assessed through a proteomic approach, using pools of sera of allergic patients from two different regions (Emilia Romagna in Northern Italy and Campania in Southern Italy), in order to identify the major allergens and evaluate differences in IgE binding properties of the tomato cultivars. Pooled sera of allergic people from Emilia Romagna showed as the main allergen a suberization-associated anionic peroxidase, whereas pooled sera of allergic patients from Campania were mostly reactive to profilin. The two proteins were identified through a proteomic approach based on the use of high-resolution mass spectrometric techniques. Quite interestingly, in some cases, several ecotypes showed a less reactivity toward patients’ sera than other, potentially indicating the possibility to identify ipoallergenic varieties. Anyway, the allergenic pattern response to tomatoes was serum-specific, indicating that the allergenic properties of different tomato ecotypes are defined by the specific proteins to which the patient is sensitized, a strong indication that ipoallergenicity of the different ecotypes is possible, but mostly related to the individual susceptibility.
Article
Taraxacum officinale Weber (dandelion) is a very ubiquitous species, and it can grow in urban environments on metal-polluted sediments deposited in the gutters. This study represents a preliminary step to verify the presence of metals in sediments collected in urban streets in Pisa and to assess the alteration in dandelion metabolites in order to understand its adaptation to polluted environments. The soil and sediments were collected at three urban streets and analyzed for total and extractable Cr, Pb, Cu, Ni, and Zn. The total values of Pb and Zn in street sediments exceeded the limits for residential areas of soils. Zn was the most mobile of the metals analyzed. Floating cultivations trials were set up with dandelion seedlings and street sediments. The metals were analyzed in roots and leaves. Antioxidant power, anthocyanins, polyphenols, non-protein thiols (NP-TH) and chlorophylls were measured in dandelion leaves. The first two parameters (anthocyanins and antioxidant power) were higher in the polluted samples compared to the control; chlorophyll content was lower in the treated samples, whereas NP-TH showed no differences. NP-TH groups determined in roots were associated with the root content of Zn and Pb. These results indicate that dandelion can tolerate plant stress by altering its metabolite content.
Article
The aim of this study was to distinguish the impacts of two different anthropogenic conditions using the honeybee Apis mellifera as a bioindicator associated with a battery of biomarkers previously validated in the laboratory. Both the urban (RAV, Ravine des Cabris) and semi-natural (CIL, Cilaos) sites in La Reunion Island were compared in order to assess the impacts of two types of local pollution using the discriminating potential of biomarkers. Hives were placed at the CIL and RAV sites and honeybees were collected from each hive every three months over one year. Honeybee responses were evaluated with respect to several biochemical biomarkers: glutathione-S-transferase (GST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and metallothioneins (MT). The results showed a significant difference between the localities in terms of GST, AChE and ALP activities, as regarding midgut MT tissue levels. Compared to the CIL site, ALP and MT tissue levels were higher at the RAV site, although AChE activity was lower. GST displayed more contrasted effects. These results strongly suggest that the honeybees based in the more anthropized area were subjected to sublethal stress involving both oxidative stress and detoxification processes with the occurrence of neurotoxic pollutants, amongst which metals were good candidates. A classification tree enabled defining a decision procedure to distinguish the sampling locations and enabled excellent classification accuracy (89%) for the data set. This field study constitutes a strong support in favour of the in situ assessment of environmental quality using honeybee biomarkers and validates the possibility of performing further ecotoxicological studies using honeybee biomarkers.
Article
We assessed bee diversity and abundance in urban areas of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, to determine how urban environments can support bees. Habitats examined were community and botanical gardens, urban wild areas, Naturescape flower beds and backyards, and traditional flower beds and backyards. A total of 56 bee species (Hymenoptera), including species of the genera Andrena Fabr. (Andrenidae), Bombus Latr. (Apidae), Osmia Panzer and Megachile Latr. (Megachilidae), and Halictus Latr. and Dialictus Pauly (Halictidae), were collected. Abundance exhibited strong seasonal variation. Wild bees were most abundant during late spring, whereas honey bees peaked at the end of the summer. The most abundant species seen was the managed honey bee Apis mellifera L. (Apidae), followed by wild Bombus flavifrons Cresson. Community and botanical gardens, and plants such as cotoneaster (Cotoneaster Medik. sp.) and blackberry (Rubus discolor Weihe & Nees) (Rosaceae), centaurea (Centaurea L. sp.; Asteraceae), buttercup (Ranunculus L. sp.; Ranunculaceae), and foxglove (Digitalis L. sp.; Scrophulariaceae), had the highest abundance of bees, while bee populations in wild areas were the most diverse. Weeds such as dandelions (Taraxacum officinale G.H. Weber ex Wiggers; Asteraceae) dominated these wild areas and had one of the highest diversities of bee visitors. Traditional flower beds with tulips (Tulipa L. sp.; Liliaceae) and petunias (Petunia Juss. sp.; Solanaceae) had relatively poor diversity and abundance of bees throughout the year. Our study suggests that urban areas have the potential to be important pollinator reservoirs, especially if both bloom and habitat heterogeneity are maintained and enhanced through sustainable urban planning.
Article
Three main directions of adaptive specialization are evident in the world flora, reflecting fundamental trade‐offs between economics (conservative vs. acquisitive investment of resources) and size. The current method of ordinating plants according to these trade‐offs, CSR classification, cannot be applied to the woody species that dominate many terrestrial ecosystems. We aimed to produce a novel CSR classification method applicable to vascular plants in general. Principal components analysis ( PCA ) of variation in a range of plant traits for 678 angiosperm, gymnosperm and pteridophyte species was used to determine the limits to multivariate space occupied by functionally diverse species. From this calibration, correlations between PCA axes and values of leaf dry matter content ( LDMC ; as an index of conservatism in life history), specific leaf area ( SLA ; indicative of acquisitive economics) and leaf area ( LA ; photosynthetic organ size) were used to produce predictor regressions from which target species could be compared against the multivariate space. A spreadsheet was developed that returned ternary coordinates and tertiary CSR strategies for target subjects based on LA , LDMC and SLA values. The method allowed classification of target species within a triangular space corresponding to Grime's theoretical CSR triangle and was sufficiently precise to distinguish strategies between species within genera and within populations of species. It was also largely in agreement with previous methods of CSR classification for herbaceous species. Rapid CSR classification of woody and herbaceous vascular plants is now possible, potentially allowing primary plant functional types and ecosystem processes to be investigated over landscape scales.
Article
In urban areas, green roofs are part of the so-called environmental “green lung” providing important environmental, economic and technical advantages compared to conventional flat roofs. We hypothesised that soil formation occurs in the growing medium of extensive roof greening, and that the successive development in the growing medium promotes urban biodiversity and counters habitat loss. To demonstrate this, we selected 10 representative green roofs of two different age classes within the inner urban area of Hanover (Germany). “Old roofs” were constructed between 1990 and 1994 and “young roofs” between 1998 and 1999. During summer 2002, the roofs were sampled to determine abundance and species diversity of collembolans and to measure selected soil properties. Discriminant and cluster analyses, considering abiotic properties only, separated the growing media of the roofs into the groups “young roofs” and “old roofs”. The results indicated a more stable environment in the substrate of old roofs due to advanced soil formation and improved niche occupancy of collembolans. In the mature growing media of old green roofs, pH was lower, while Corg and Nt contents, as well as dehydrogenase activity, were higher compared to young green roofs. The cluster analysis on the substrate properties revealed young roofs to be more similar compared to old roofs, which are characterised by increasing dissimilarities. The collembolan densities were only slightly higher on old roofs (57,000 ind. m−2) compared to young roofs (55,000 ind. m−2). Also, differences in species richness were small with 26 and 24 species on young and old roofs, respectively. However, differences became obvious at the species level. Species diversity was highly dynamic over time, undergoing successive development comparable to that occurring in extreme soil environments like newly reclaimed mining areas. We conclude that extensive roof greening promotes urban biodiversity but does not replace nature.
Article
The aim of this study was to find out where bumble bee queens place their nests in the agricultural landscape. Nest-seeking behaviour was used to indicate nesting site preferences. Four types of agricultural landscape were investigated near Uppsala, Sweden: open, relatively open, relatively wooded and wooded. Twelve 500-metre-long transects, each including several intermingled habitats (e.g., field boundaries, pastures, clearings), were inspected repeatedly over a two-month period, from April to June 1991. In total, 147 observations of bumble bee queens (Bombus spp.) of eight species were recorded. Nest-seeking queens were observed most frequently along forest boundaries and field boundaries, in open uncultivated areas and in the relatively open landscape, whereas they were least frequent in forest and in clearings. Fields, pastures and road boundaries had intermediate frequencies. Differences among species were found in terms of both landscape type and habitat preferences: B. terrestris, B. lapidarius, B. sylvarum and B. subterranius preferred open terrain, whereas B. lucorum and B. pascuorum preferred forest boundaries. Withered grass and tussocks were the preferred nest-seeking patches among all species.
Article
Urban ecological systems are characterized by complex interactions among social, economic, institutional, and environmental variables. These interactions generate complex human-dominated landscapes, which significantly influence the functioning of local and global earth ecosystems and the services they provide to humans and other life on earth. Urban development fragments, isolates, and degrades natural habitats; simplifies and homogenizes species composition; disrupts hydrological systems; and modifies energy flow and nutrient cycling. Urban areas also appropriate a large share of earth’s carrying capacity from other regions in terms of resource input and waste sinks. Change in ecological conditions that result from human actions in urban areas ultimately affect human health and well-being. In this article, the author reviews the empirical evidence on the effects that patterns of urban development have on ecosystem function. Urban development affects the spatial heterogeneity of the landscape (i.e., pattern of variation in land cover) and spread of disturbance (i.e., invasive species). The author proposes that alternative urban patterns generate differential ecological effects. The review reveals that the interactions between urban development patterns and ecosystem dynamics are still poorly understood. The author draws on an empirical study of the Puget Sound metropolitan region currently developed at the University of Washington to propose directions for future empirical research that can inform strategies to minimize urban impacts on ecosystems.
Article
In an inexorably urbanizing world, green roofs could be an interesting tool to conciliate the greening of cities with ecological services. Studies on a large number of sites are necessary to understand the importance of environmental variables, especially how the type of vegetation affects the green roof biodiversity. We sampled several arthropods (spiders, true bugs, beetles and hymenopterans) from buildings covered by green roofs in 115 sites across northern France. We considered 3 types of green roofs with diverse vegetal structures: muscinal (moss/sedum - M) roofs, herbaceous (moss/sedum and meadow - H) roofs and arbustive (moss/sedum, meadow and shrub - A) roofs. The species richness and the abundance of most of the taxa were significantly higher on A roofs, which displayed more complex vegetation. Predominantly common species comprised the arthropod communities. However, xero-thermophilic species and species from sandy and rocky habitats were also present because green roofs could serve as habitat analogs of those dry natural habitats. Except for hymenopterans, we did not observe a difference in the functional composition of communities; however, the taxonomic composition of spider communities was significantly affected by the green roof type. The surrounding environment and other local variables exhibited a minor influence on the composition, abundance and richness of the arthropods. We revealed a major role for the vegetal structures in arthropod communities and the ability of green roofs to enhance urban biodiversity.
Article
With increasing urbanization and creation of novel habitat types, green roofs can provide habitable space for many species. To date, most research on green roofs has focused on minimizing environmental impacts of buildings and little is known about the ecological services they may provide. Previous research has found a deficiency of pollinating bees on green roofs, which could result in pollen limitation, poor seed production and reproductive failure of many plant species requiring bee pollination. This study aims to determine whether pollination services on modern green roofs are sufficient for these novel habitats to function sustainably. Nine native Illinois prairie plant species and their pollinator communities were studied on green roofs and ground-level locations in the Chicago area. Pan traps were used to assess pollinator communities and supplemental pollination treatments were used to evaluate pollen limitation. All species showed significantly reduced seed set when pollinators were excluded but few significant differences were observed between supplemental and open pollination treatments. Seed set differed by habitat type in that green roofs had a higher overall mean percent maximum seed set compared to ground-level sites. Our results support previous studies, showing lower numbers and diversity of bees on green roofs compared to the ground level. Together, these data suggest that although green roofs contain a smaller and less diverse community of pollinators, the insects that are present provide sufficient pollinator services for many native plants. This study therefore supports the use of biotically pollinated native forbs in future green roof design.
Article
Awareness of the need for biodiversity conservation is now universally accepted, but most often recent conservation activities have focused on wild species. Crop species and the diversity between and within them has significant socioeconomic as well as heritage value. The bulk of genetic diversity in domesticated species is located in traditional varieties maintained by traditional farming systems. These traditional varieties, commonly referred to as landraces, are severely threatened by genetic extinction primarily due to their replacement by modern genetically uniform varieties. The conservation of landrace diversity has been hindered in part by the lack of an accepted definition to define the entity universally recognized as landraces. Without a definition it would be impossible to prepare an inventory and without an inventory changes in landrace constituency could not be recognized over time. Therefore, based on a literature review, workshop discussion and interviews with key informants, common characteristics of landraces were identified, such as: historical origin, high genetic diversity, local genetic adaptation, recognizable identity, lack of formal genetic improvement, and whether associated with traditional farming systems. However, although these characteristics are commonly present they are not always all present for any individual landrace; several crop-specific exceptions were noted relating to crop propagation method (sexual or asexual), breeding system (self-fertilized or cross-fertilized species), length of formal crop improvement, seed management (selection or random propagation) and use. This paper discusses the characteristics that generally constitute a landrace, reviews the exceptions to these characteristics and provides a working definition of a landrace. The working definition proposed is as follows: ‘a landrace is a dynamic population(s) of a cultivated plant that has historical origin, distinct identity and lacks formal crop improvement, as well as often being genetically diverse, locally adapted and associated with traditional farming systems’.
Article
‘Broccolo fiolaro’ (Brassica oleracea L. convar. Italica) is a typical vegetable produced in a restricted hill country area around Creazzo (Vicenza) in north-eastern Italy. The cultivation of this vegetable dates back several centuries ago, but a very few farms are still involved in the production. ‘Broccolo fiolaro’ is a variety of broccoli highly valued for its agronomic and organoleptic features.Four ‘Broccolo fiolaro’ selections were characterized by simple sequence repeats (SSRs) molecular markers and compared with other five cultivated varieties of broccoli of the Italica group in order to reconstruct their genetic structure and evaluate the degree of similarity among and within populations. The analysis of 12 SSR polymorphic loci pointed out a low genetic variability among the four ‘Broccolo fiolaro’ selections. Moreover, the whole ‘Fiolaro’ group showed significant differentiation from the other broccoli cultivars and could be easily distinguished by cluster analysis. An assignment test on ~30 genotyped plants randomly chosen from each broccoli population correctly recognized the proper accession 88% of the time, proving this method to be useful for cultivar identification.