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28th IAPRI World Symposium on Packaging
503
Using Eye Tracking and Task Analysis for Analysing
Usability Interactions!
Irene Carbonell1, Javier de la Fuente1*, Trevor Lowe1, Jordan Hill1, Soma Roy2, Colleen
Twomey3
1 Industrial Technology and Packaging, California Polytechnic State University, United States
2 Statistics Department, California Polytechnic State University, United States
3 Graphic Communication, California Polytechnic State University, United States
*Corresponding author name. Email: jdelafue@calpoly.edu
Keywords: package design, eye tracking, usability, affordances, medical device packaging, ergonom-
ics, task analysis.
Abstract: The objective of this study is to characterize and analyse how affordances of packages are
perceived by users and what type of behaviour affordances trigger. In order to characterize the effect
of individual design features on user attention and behaviour, a commercially available package for
epinephrine was redesigned and tested with a panel of participants (n=39). Each experiment was
conducted as a randomized complete block design with three factors: location of opening mechanism
(top or bottom), type of opening mechanism (press-in or pull tab), and colour contrast in opening area
(with or without). By crossing all possible conditions (2x2x2), eight different folding carton designs re-
sulted. Each participant was treated as a block and presented all eight designs in a random order.
Participants stood behind a counter of a fixed height wearing an ASL Mobile 5 glasses and completed
eight opening tasks in a lab facility. They were instructed to imagine an emergency scenario where
they needed to remove all contents from each package as quickly as possible.
Each opening trial was analysed using task analysis (TA) and eye tracking analysis (EA). TA relied on
video feeding from the eye-tracker’s scene camera and eye movement information to divide the hu-
man-package interaction in five subtasks (i.e., reaching package, scanning for opening mechanism,
improper attempt to open, proper attempt to open, and removing contents). EA used eye-movement
data and three areas of interest (i.e., package’s opening end, package’s body text, package’s non-
opening end) to determine; overall mean fixation duration, overall number of fixations, number of fixa-
tions per AOI, total dwell duration per AOI, percentage of total dwell duration per AOI.
The TA revealed significant differences (p<0.008) in time spent in four subtasks (i.e., scanning for
opening mechanism, improper attempt to open, proper attempt to open, and reaching for contents)
when comparing designs with a pull tab and designs with press-in mechanisms. TA also revealed sig-
nificant differences (p<0.008) in time spent in two subtasks (i.e., scanning for opening mechanism,
improper attempt to open) when comparing designs with an opening mechanism at the top and de-
signs with an opening mechanism at the bottom of the package. The TA revealed no significant differ-
ences (p<0.008) for colour contrast (with and without) in the opening area.
The EA shed light about the efficiency of different design factors in grabbing the participants’ attention
and conveying information. Significant differences (p<0.008) were found in overall number of fixations
when comparing designs with a pull tab and designs with a press-in mechanism. A closer look at the
number of fixations per AOI, revealed significant differences (p<0.008) in number of fixations at pack-
age’s non-opening end when comparing designs with a pull tab and designs with press-in mechanism.
EA also revealed significant differences (p<0.008) in total dwell duration at packages’ non-opening
end when comparing two design factors; opening mechanism (pull tab vs press-in mechanism), and
opening location (top vs bottom). Further analysis comparing percentage of total dwell time spent on
each AOI revealed significant differences in packages’ opening end and non-opening end when com-
paring two design factors; opening mechanism, and opening location.
All these findings have critical implications to understand how packaging design can guide cognitive
efforts effectively towards areas that accurately deliver information to fulfil a task.
504
1 Introduction
Numerous research has been conducted on the use of eye tracking technology to investigate cognitive
processes. This is because eye movements reflect the human thought processes; so the observer’s
thought may be followed from records of eye-movement [1]. Therefore, by measuring eye movements,
one can find functional links between what is observed and cognitive processing of the particular ob-
ject. Studies have focused on multiple and diverse areas of academic research.
Extensive eye movement data has proven useful, for example, in studying reading tasks [2]–[5], scene
perception [6], and computer interface evaluation [7]. Use of eye-tracking technology for human fac-
tors research has also been conducted in a wide-ranging set of areas, including automotive [8], [9]
aviation [10], [11], and household products [12], [13]. Eye tracking research on human perception of
product design using a screen image of the product has also been reported [14], [15].
In packaging research, eye tracking technology has been used for measuring the effect of package
design on shelf impact [16], warning noticeability [17], and processing of written information [18].
However, there are no reports on using this technology to understand how structural and graphic de-
sign affect package usability.
This study proposes the use of task analysis and eye tracking analysis to investigate the effect that
various design affordances have on the ability for users to locate and understand opening mecha-
nisms of a package. The package selected to develop this methodology is a folding carton package
found in emergency room crash carts. A crash cart is a wheeled cabinet with drawers used in hospi-
tals for transporting and dispensing emergency medication and equipment during life support proto-
cols (Figures 1 and 2). These crash cart drugs are used in contexts where high emotional stress and
fast pace are the norm. Most of these drugs are packaged in folding cartons with opening mechanisms
that involve press-in and tearing on the bottom of the package (Figure 3). Previous research by de la
Fuente et al. [19], [20] suggests that these packages are counterintuitive for lay users and healthcare
professionals. They also showed a relationship between design affordances, opening times, and
opening errors. The present study aimed to explain the reasons behind this relation and to provide
data that supports the importance of affordances in usability.
!
Figure 1: Crash
cart.
Figure 2: A crash cart drugs’ tray at Sierra
Vista Regional Medical Center,
San Luis Obispo, CA.
Figure 3: A typical press-in
opening mechanism for crash
cart drugs packaged in folding
cartons.
505
2 Materials and Methods
In order to measure the effect of individual folding carton design features on several eye-tracking
measures and time spent on opening subtasks, a commercially available crash cart drug package was
redesigned and tested with lay users. The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block
design with three factors: location of opening mechanism (top or bottom of the package), type of open-
ing mechanism (pull tab or press-in and tear), and colour contrast in opening area (with and without
contrast). The existing standard package utilizes a press-in and tear on the bottom of the package
without a colour contrast. Crossing the three design factors resulted in a 2x2x2 design of experiment,
resulting in eight different folding carton designs (Table 1). Each participant was treated as a block,
and all eight designs were presented to each participant in a random order to ensure an equal distribu-
tion of first exposure of each package design.
Table 1: Characteristics of the eight package design variations tested.
Design
Variation
ID
Opening
Mechanism
Opening
Location
Coloured
Opening
1
Press-in
Bottom
No
2
Press-in
Top
No
3
Press-in
Bottom
Yes
4
Press-in
Top
Yes
5
Pull tab
Bottom
No
6
Pull tab
Top
No
7
Pull tab
Bottom
Yes
8
Pull tab
Top
Yes
2.1 Participants
Using procedures approved by Cal Poly’s Human Subjects Committee, participants were recruited on
the campus of California Polytechnic State University (San Luis Obispo, CA). Prior to testing, re-
searchers gathered information from each participant regarding gender, age, preferred hand, visual
acuity, colour blindness, and whether or not they had professional experience opening packages con-
taining crash cart drugs. Each participant’s visual acuity was determined using a Snellen chart from
Eye Chart (Dok LLC). Subjects stood 4 feet away from the chart posted on a wall and were asked to
read the lowest line possible. Ishihara plates number one and two were used to evaluate participants’
colour deficiencies [21].
2.2 Packages
Three hundred and twelve folding cartons (39 participants × 8 designs) were printed on white paper-
board (coated SBS 18 points, 100 pounds) in a production printer (Konica Minolta C1100 BizHub, To-
kyo, Japan), and cut/creased on a computer-controlled cutting and creasing table (Kongsberg i-XE1
by Esko-Graphics bvba, Ghent, Belgium). The 8 designs were designed using illustration software (Il-
lustrator® CC by Adobe®, San Jose, CA, USA). Names for a fictitious pharmaceutical company (i.e.,
Pharm®) and a non-existent drug (i.e., Tyvedron®) were created to make the designs more credible
and realistic to the user. The combination of three design factors resulted in eight different designs
(Figure 4). The colour contrast combination (i.e., light blue and dark orange) selected can be per-
ceived by subjects with total colour blindness.
506
Figure 4: Eight package design variations.
2.3 Experimental Setup
2.3.1 Eye-tracking Equipment
Participants’ eye movements and scene video from their point of view were recorded using a mobile
eye-tracking device (MobileEye-5 by Applied Science Laboratories Inc., Bedford, MA, USA). The cali-
bration sequence employed a letter-size calibration board with five dots distributed across its surface,
and placed on the testing counter. This board was used before each trial to verify calibration accuracy.
2.3.2 Setup and Tasks
Participants stood behind a table (90 cm) and completed eight opening tasks in a lab facility. Partici-
pants were instructed to imagine an emergency scenario where they needed to remove all contents
from each package as quickly as possible. Plastic trays were placed over each package so partici-
pants could not see them until instructed (Figure 5). Packages were positioned so that the longest di-
mension of the folding carton was horizontal and the drug name was on the left. Participants were in-
structed to remove all contents (one PVC tube and one wooden dowel whose weight and size emulat-
ed an epinephrine-type product) from the package as quickly as possible and to place the contents in
a plastic tray. In between opening tasks, participants spent one minute playing a game on a tablet
computer.
Figure 5: Testing area setup.
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2.4 Data Analysis
Statistical analyses were performed using JMP® [22]. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted
to investigate whether and how variables related to package design features. Each opening trial was
analysed using ASL Results Plus [23] to perform a task analysis and an eye tracking analysis.
2.4.1 Task Analysis (TA)
TA relied on video from the eye-tracker’s scene camera to divide the human-package interaction in
subtasks. Ten events were coded to perform time calculations (Table 2). Using these events, five sub-
tasks were calculated:
• Reaching: Time from when package is first visible in its entirety until time package is first touched.
• Scanning for opening mechanism: Time from when package is first touched until time subject at-
tempts to open package.
• Improper attempt to open: Time from when subject attempts to open package at non-opening end
(NE) until time subject opens package at NE, or abandons attempt.
• Proper attempt to open: Time from when subject attempts to open package at opening end (OE)
until time subject opens package at OE, or abandons attempt.
• Removing contents: Time from when subject opens package until time subject places contents in
basket.
Calculations of the time spent on each subtask are conditional and depend on the sequence of events
(Table 3). Total opening time was defined as the time participants took to understand the package,
find the opening mechanism, open the package, and remove its contents, or in other words, time sub-
ject spent on all five subtasks.
Table 2: Coded events.
EVENTS
CODE
Visible
V
Touch
T
Attempt opening at NE
ANE
Package opened at NE
ONE
Abandon attempt at NE
ABNE
First dowel in basket
D1
Attempt opening at OE
AOE
Package opened at OE
OOE
Abandon attempt at OE
ABOE
All dowels in basket
D2
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Table 3: Subtasks’ time calculations.
SUBTASKS
CALCULATION
DESCRIPTION
Reaching
T - V
Time from when package is first visible in its entirety until time
package is first touched
Scanning
ANE - T
Time from when package is first touched until time subject
begins to open package at NE
AOE - T
Time from when package is first touched until time subject
begins to open package at OE
(ANE - T) + (AOE - ONE)
(Time from when package is first touched until time subject
begins to open package at NE) + (Time from when package is
opened at NE until time subject attempts to open package at
OE)
(ANE - T) + (AOE - ABNE)
(Time from when package is first touched until time subject
begins to open package at NE) + (Time from when subject
abandons attempt to open package at NE until time subject
attempts to open package at OE)
(ANE - T) + (AOE - D1)
(Time from when package is first touched until time subject
begins to open package at NE) + (Time from when first dowel
is in basket until time subject attempts to open package at
OE)
Improper
attempt
0
There is no improper attempt to open package
ONE - ANE
Time from when subjects attempts to open package at NE
until time subject opens package at NE
ABNE - ANE
Time from when subjects attempts to open package at NE
until time subject abandons attempt at NE
Proper
attempt
0
There is no proper attempt to open package
OOE - AOE
Time from when subject attempts to open package at OE until
time subject opens package at OE
ABOE - AOE
Time from when subject attempts to open package at OE until
time subject abandons attempt at OE
Removing
contents
D2 - ONE
Time from when subject opens package at NE until time sub-
ject places second dowel in basket
D2 - OOE
Time from when subject opens package at OE until time sub-
ject places second dowel in basket
(D1 - ONE ) + (D2 - OOE)
(Time from when subject opens package at NE until time sub-
ject places first dowel in basket) + (Time from when subject
opens package at OE until time subject places second dowel
in basket)
509
2.4.2 Eye Tracking Analysis (EA)
Eye tracking videos were analysed to determine fixations and dwell in relation to predefined areas of
interest. Fixation is the state in which the eye remains static over a period of time. A maximum visual
angle variation and a minimum time have to be defined to consider a fixation has started. For this
study, they were defined as 1 degree and 100 milliseconds. Areas of interest (AOIs) are regions the
researcher is interested in gathering data about. For this study, we defined three areas of interest:
Opening End (OE), Main Body (MB), and Non-opening End (NE) of package (Figure 6). Dwell
measures how long gaze remains inside an AOI. The properties of five commonly used measures
were used to extract useful information:
• Overall average fixation duration
• Overall number of fixations
• Number of fixations per AOI
• Total dwell duration on each AOI
• Percentage of total dwell time on each AOI
Figure 6: Screen capture of ASL Results Plus software showing current point of gaze (green cross-
hair), gaze trail (red circles), fixations (green circles), and the three areas of interest (AOIs): Opening
End (dark red), Main Body (orange), and Non-opening End (blue).
3 Results
3.1 Participants
A total of 39 participants tested the eight folding carton designs. None of the participants had profes-
sional experience using folding carton packages for vial and syringe medical products found in crash
carts. Four participants were discarded due to technical issues with equipment and/or packages. Par-
ticipants’ visual acuity was distributed as follows: 20/15 (44%), 20/20 (38%), 20/25 (8%), 20/30 (5%),
20/40 (3%), and 20/50 (3%). None of the participant had total colour blindness; two participants (5%)
exhibited signs of red-green deficiencies.
3.2 Task Analysis (TA)
A total of 23 participants were used to perform analyses of variance. These ANOVAs accounted for
2x2x2 factorial treatment structure and randomized complete block design. A bar chart for time spent
on the five subtasks for each design variation is shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8; all subtasks’ times
were adjusted and normalized to account for person-to-person variability.
510
Separate ANOVA models were run for each of the following response variables, and the same ex-
planatory variables: opening location, opening mechanism, coloured opening, and two-way interaction,
as well as subject identification as the random effect to account for user variability. TA results for each
subtask revealed the following:
a) Reaching: There was no evidence for an effect of any of the design factors in reaching time.
b) Scanning for opening mechanism: Having a pull tab opening mechanism significantly reduced
scanning time (p<0.0001). Having the opening mechanism on the top of the package also signifi-
cantly reduced scanning time (p<0.0001). More specifically, using Tukey’s HSD method, compar-
ing the location of the press-in mechanism (bottom or top), shows packages having a press-in
mechanism at the bottom rather than the top exhibit significantly increased scanning times
(p<0.0001).
c) Improper attempt to open: Having a pull tab opening mechanism significantly reduced time spent
in improper attempt to open (p<0.0001). Having the opening mechanism on the top of the package
significantly reduced the time spent in improper attempt to open (p=0.0002). More specifically, us-
ing Tukey’s HSD method, comparing the location of the press-in mechanism (bottom or top),
shows packages having a press-in mechanism at the bottom rather than the top exhibit significant-
ly increased improper attempt to open times (p<0.0075).
d) Proper attempt to open: Packages with a pull tab showed statistically significantly shorter times for
trying to open the package from the opening end (p<0.0001).
e) Removing contents: Packages with pull tab mechanism showed statistically significantly shorter
times for removing contents from the package (p=0.0047). There was no evidence for an effect of
opening location or colour contrast.
Overall, the use of a pull tab and the top opening location significantly increased users’ ability to locate
the opening mechanism as well as reduced time wasted attempting to open the package at an im-
proper location. Additionally, the pull tab facilitated a faster total opening time, granting users access
to the contents sooner.
Figure 7: Segmented bar chart of Task Analysis for each package design.
Opening times have been adjusted for person-to-person variability.
Means not sharing a letter are significantly different (p<0.008).
511
Figure 8: Segmented bar chart of Task Analysis for each package design.
Opening times have been adjusted for person-to-person variability.
Means not sharing a letter are significantly different (p<0.008).
3.3 Eye Tracking Analysis (EA)
Analyses of variance were run on JMPⓇ, focusing on the first package trial of 24 subjects to control
the effect that previous experiences might have on the outcome.
3.3.1 Overall average fixation duration
We could not find evidence for an effect of opening mechanism, opening location, or colour on overall
average fixation duration. Longer fixation duration is often associated with a deeper, more effortful
cognitive processing. In usability research, this generally indicates difficulty in extracting information
from the object.
3.3.2 Overall average number of fixations
Packages with a pull tab showed statistically significantly fewer fixations (p=0.0007). There was no
evidence of an effect of opening location or colour. The overall number of fixations is thought to be
negatively correlated with the efficiency of given tasks in usability research [6]. Therefore, having a
pull tab increased the efficiency of opening the package by reducing the overall number of fixations
required. A bar chart for overall average number of fixations per design factor is shown on Figure 9.
512
3.3.3 Number of fixations per AOI
• Opening End (OE): There was no evidence of an effect of opening mechanism, opening location, or
colour, in the number of fixations on OE.
• Main Body (MB): There was no evidence of an effect of opening mechanism, opening location, or
colour, in the number of fixations on MB.
• Non-Opening End (NE): There was no evidence for an effect of colour contrast on number of fixa-
tions on NE, but having a press-in opening mechanism significantly increased the number of fixa-
tions on the NE (p=0.0026). More specifically, using Tukey’s HSD method, comparing the location of
the pull tab (bottom or top) shows no significance difference in regards to number of fixations on NE.
However, having a press-in mechanism at the top rather than the bottom shows significant reduction
in the number of fixations on NE (p=0.0033).
The number of fixations on a given area could reflect its importance [7]. These results show that, for
designs that had a press-in opening mechanism located at the bottom of the package, subjects con-
sidered the non-opening end of the package to be important to fulfil their task.
3.3.4 Total dwell duration per AOI
• Opening End (OE): There was no evidence of an effect of opening mechanism, opening location, or
colour contrast in the total dwell duration on the OE.
• Main Body (MB): There was no evidence of an effect of opening mechanism, opening location, or
colour contrast in the total dwell duration on the MB.
• Non-Opening End (NE): Packages with a press-in opening mechanism exhibited statistically signifi-
cantly longer dwell times on the NE (p=0.0007) than packages with a pull tab mechanism. Having a
bottom opening location as compared to a top opening location also resulted in significantly in-
creased total dwell duration on the NE (p=0.0021). More specifically, using Tukey’s HSD method,
comparing the location of the press-in mechanism (bottom or top) shows having a press-in mecha-
nism at the bottom rather than the top shows significantly increased total dwell duration on the NE
(p=0.0003). There was no evidence for an effect of colour contrast on the total dwell duration on NE.
Longer total dwell duration on a given AOI could indicate difficulty in extracting or interpreting infor-
mation from that area [7]. These results show that, for designs that had a press-in opening mechanism
and/or the opening mechanism located at the bottom of the package, subjects spent a significant
amount of time trying to understand how to open the package from the non-opening end.
3.3.5 Percentage of total dwell time per AOI
• Opening End (OE): Having a press-in opening mechanism significantly decreased the percentage
total dwell time on the OE (p=0.0018). Having the opening location at the bottom of the package
significantly decreased the total dwell time on the OE (p=0.0051). More specifically, using Tukey’s
HSD method, comparing the location of the press-in mechanism (bottom or top) shows having a
press-in mechanism at the bottom rather than the top shows significantly decreased percentage of
total dwell time spent on OE (p=0.0002). There was no evidence for an effect of colour contrast on
the percentage of total dwell time on OE.
• Main Body (MB): There was no evidence for an effect of opening mechanism, opening location, or
colour contrast in the percentage of total dwell time spent on the MB.
• Non-Opening End (NE): Having a press-in opening mechanism significantly increased the percent-
age of total dwell time spent on the NE (p<0.0001). Having the opening location at the bottom of the
package significantly increased the percentage of total dwell time spent on the NE (p<0.0001). More
specifically, using Tukey’s HSD method, comparing the location of the press-in mechanism (bottom
or top) shows having a press-in mechanism at the bottom rather than the top shows significantly in-
creased percentage of total dwell time spent on NE (p<0.0001). There was no evidence for an effect
of colour contrast on the percentage of total dwell time on NE.
The proportion of time looking at a particular AOI could reflect the importance the subjects gives to this
particular AOI. A line graph for percentage of total dwell time per AOI is shown on Figure 10. These
results show that packages with a press-in opening mechanism and/or a bottom opening location will
increase the perceived importance of the non-opening end, while reducing the perceived importance
of the opening end, to fulfil the task. Figure 11 shows percentage of total dwell time per AOI and de-
513
sign factor.
Figure 9:
Overall average number of fixations per design factor
* indicates significant difference (p<0.008)
Figure 10
: Percentage of total dwell time per AOI.
514
Figure 11
: Percentage of total dwell time per AOI and design factor.
* indicates significant difference (p<0.008)
515
4 Conclusions
This study explored the use of two complementary analyses to understand human-packaging interac-
tions. The use of task analysis and eye tracking analysis proved to be valuable in identifying how
packaging design features can significantly improve the efficiency of common tasks involved in the
use of a package. The following remarks are possible interpretations of the analysed measures and
their meaning in the context of usability testing:
Task Analysis
• Packages with affordances that clearly communicate opening regions exhibit shorter scanning task
times as well as reduced time spent attempting to open at an improper location.
• Package designs that are easy to understand and operate will reduce time spent attempting to open
package at proper location.
Eye Tracking Analysis
• Packages with strong affordances (e.g., having a very visible tab) will likely result in interactions in
which the overall number of fixations is minimized, thus creating a more efficient (e.g., faster, with
less errors, etc.) and pleasant experience.
• Number of fixations per AOI can be used as an indicator of how well the package is communicating
its affordances. Packages that do not communicate well and contain misleading affordances can di-
rect user’s attention away from the area of interest needed to fulfil a task.
• Total dwell duration on AOIs provide evidence about how a poor package design can guide sub-
ject’s cognitive efforts towards areas with non-relevant information for the task at hand.
• Percentage of total dwell duration on AOIs can shed light about the role of design features and their
perceived importance. An increase of the perceived importance of non-relevant areas will reduce the
perceived importance of relevant areas.
5 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the participants who took part in the experiments, the National Center
for Patient Safety who initially suggested this issue as a healthcare problem, and the Orfalea College
of Business for funding this project through the Interdisciplinary Research Grant Program.
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