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Conquest strategy and political discourse: New evidence for the conquest of Dacia from LiDAR analysis at Sarmizegetusa Regia
Abstract
By the end of the 1st c. A.D., Dacia had been an intermittent thorn in Rome's side for almost two centuries. The ambitions of Burebista and the actions of his various successors continued to threaten Roman hegemony along the lower Danube, culminating in the rise of the powerful kingdom of Decebalus and a substantial Roman defeat in Moesia. Domitian sent troops against the Dacians to restore the dignity of Rome (85-86 and 88-88/89), but with mixed success, finally having to settle for buying peace at a substantial price in order to free himself to deal with threats to security in both Germany and Pannonia. No doubt both the costs involved and the perceived lack of success further contributed to the hostility of Roman authors towards Domitian and left unfinished business on the Danube frontier. It is no great surprise, therefore, that Dacia was the first area to which Trajan — to whom the attitude of contemporary sources (e.g., Pliny's Panegyricus ) could not have been in greater contrast — turned his attention within three years of his accession.
... E), the second one focuses exclusively on a strong siege of the latter [15,16]. The political implications are less clear-as a result of a peace agreement in AD 102, the Dacian king Decebalus is maintained until his final fall and eventual suicide during the latter campaign, but more recent research shows that the area may have been much more advanced towards becoming a province than previously assumed [17]. ...
... More recently, a reassessment of the archaeological landscape surrounding Sarmizegetusa Regia based on airborne LiDAR evidence [17] demonstrated the value of modern prospection methods and of landscape approaches to advancing the research agenda there. While agreeing withŞtefan's [19] interpretation of the Muncelu fortification's character as a permanent, not temporary fortification, it provided substantial new insights into the presence of the Roman army on site and in the area. ...
... For this, we have adopted a complex GIS spatial analysis approach using ArcGIS 10.7.1 (Esri, Redlands, CA, USA) to help us model the spatial relationships between Roman military sites, Dacian hillforts and the surrounding landscape based on two available digital terrain models (DTM) ( Figure 2). We derived one from a high-resolution LiDAR coverage with 0.5 m of spatial resolution (~8 points per square meter considering all returns; data processed with LAStools (https://rapidlasso.com/lastools/) (version 201124, Rapidlasso GmbH, Gilching, Germany) software dataset for the immediate surroundings of Sarmizegetusa Regia which was already available to us [17]. The second is the freely available NASA developed Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM); though at a lower resolution of 1 Arc Second~30 m, it covered the entire area of the Orăştie Mountains. ...
Generally seen as natural peripheries, upland landscapes present particular challenges both in terms of living, and of recording past human activity within. LiDAR (light detection and ranging) technology has now brought considerable improvement in our ability to record and map surviving archaeological features, but not necessarily increased our appreciation of local agency. Though the iconic landscape around the Iron Age Dacian capital of Sarmizegetusa Regia (Romania) and its Roman conquest have long caught the attention of specialists and the wider public, both previous research and more recent results from an airborne LiDAR survey leave considerable gaps in our understanding of networking potential across this challenging landscape. Based on LiDAR and satellite-generated high- and mid-resolution topographic data, our paper employs an innovative combination of GIS (geographic information system) spatial analysis tools to examine the spatial relationships between Roman military bases, Dacian targets, and the wider landscape as an integral part of a wider interdisciplinary archaeological research. This helped us formulate and test spatial and historical hypotheses, according to which all known and potential Roman military bases in the study area functioned as part of a system where each contributed individual advantages in securing their domination across the landscape. Our research highlighted the advantages and challenges for Comărnicelu as one of the key Roman logistical nodes, and for the attackers at Şesului and Muncelu working in tandem to besiege and subdue Sarmizegetusa Regia. Our study raises doubts with respect of the fall and destruction of the hillfort at Vârfu lui Hulpe as a result of a Roman siege, making space for alternative political narratives. Ultimately, our findings help build a better understanding of this iconic world heritage landscape and its Roman conquest.
... Este hecho explica el auge experimentado por la disciplina en las últimas décadas, que ha cristalizado en el descubrimiento de decenas de nuevos asentamientos en el territorio peninsular (Cordero Ruiz et al., 2017;Costa-García et al., 2019;Peralta Labrador et al., 2019;Menéndez Blanco et al., 2020;Martín Hernández et al., 2020). Sin embargo, este avance metodológico no es exclusivo del territorio peninsular, pues se documenta a escala europea (Bernardini et al., 2015;Oltean y Hanson, 2017;Laharnar y Lozić, 2019;Driver et al., 2020). ...
... Los yacimientos presentados en este trabajo se han identificado y analizado mediante el empleo combinado de diversas técnicas de teledetección. Esta aproximación al estudio de los asentamientos militares romanos se integra en un marco metodológico desarrollado en los últimos años en Europa (Menéndez Blanco et al., 2013;Menéndez Blanco et al., 2017;Bernardini et al., 2015;Oltean y Hanson, 2017;Hanson et al., 2019;Komoróczy et al., 2021). ...
This paper presents five new possible fortified settlements recently identified using remote sensing techniques in modern day province of Soria: La Vega and La Magdalena (Quintanas de Gormaz), La Llana-Caño (Bayubas de Abajo), Vega Fría (Berlanga de Duero) and Las Pozas (Aldealafuente). The morpho-typological characteristics and settlement patterns allow us to hypothesize that these are the remains of Roman temporary military sites. The exhaustive analysis of these new archaeological data could have considerable relevance for studying the expansion of the Roman state in this region during the Late Republic (2nd to 1st c. BC).
... Starting in 2000, the investigations have been resumed in this point under the supervision of Petculescu [63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70]. The emergence and development of Micia's human occupation during the reigns of Traianus (98)(99)(100)(101)(102)(103)(104)(105)(106)(107)(108)(109)(110)(111)(112)(113)(114)(115)(116)(117) or of Hadrianus at the latest, are both archaeologically attested. The finds prove the evolution of the site from its incipient status, illustrated by earth and timber constructions, to the almost urban phase of the locality, characterised by the edification of large size stone and brick buildings (the amphitheatre, the baths, houses with central heating installations, etc.) [37,40,61]. ...
... Actually the southern wall was documented through archaeological investigations in 2002 [104]. Notwithstanding, the almost trapezoidal shape of the fortification is a surprising choice for the construction of an auxiliary fort in the province of Dacia [53,105]. Nevertheless, even the ancient authors, like Vegetius for example, observed that a fort could have varied shapes, depending on the characteristics of the terrain [53]. ...
The capabilities of satellite remote sensing technologies and their derived data for the analysis of archaeological sites have been demonstrated in a large variety of studies over the last decades. Likewise, the Earth Observation (EO) data contribute to the disaster management process through the provision of updated information for areas under investigation. In addition, long term studies may be performed for the in–depth analysis of the disaster–prone areas using archive satellite imagery and other cartographic materials. Hence, satellite remote sensing represents an essential tool for the study of hazards in cultural heritage sites and landscapes. Depending on the size of the archaeological sites and considering the fact that some parts of the site might be covered, the main concern regards the suitability of satellite data in terms of spatial and spectral resolution. Using a multi–temporal Sentinel–2 dataset between 2016 and 2019, the present study focuses on the hazard risk identification for the Micia and Germisara archaeological sites in Romania as they are endangered by industrialisation and major infrastructure works and soil erosion, respectively. Furthermore, the study includes a performance assessment of remote sensing vegetation indices for the detection of buried structures. The results clearly indicate that Sentinel–2 imagery proved to be fundamental in meeting the objectives of the study, particularly due to the extensive archaeological knowledge that was available for the cultural heritage sites. The main conclusion to be drawn is that satellite–derived products may be enhanced by integrating valuable archaeological context, especially when the resolution of satellite data is not ideally fitting the peculiarities (e.g. in terms of size, underground structures, type of coverage) of the investigated cultural heritage sites.
... 11 Gudea 1997, 24. 12 Gudea 1997, 24. 13 Dumitrașcu 1969Benea 1994;Opreanu 2013;Lăzărescu 2016, 49-60. 14 Ștefan 2005, 545-673;Oltean and Hanson 2017;Fonte 2021. 15 Leslie 1995, 53-70;Jones 2009, 21;Jones 2017, 522-523. ...
High-resolution mapping technologies (especially LiDAR), offer a real chance for archaeology to identify and understand certain structures connected to the Roman conquest of Dacia. The western border of the province is insufficiently explored and comprehended, allowing us to raise a number of specific questions regarding the stages of the conquest or the history of Roman rule in Dacia, even in the context of the boost in research that followed the National Limes Program. This study presents a new site, identified in the Western Plain of Romania, namely in the UAT Mișca, jud. Arad. This discovery, having close morphological connections with some temporary camps documented in the mountainous area near the Dacian fortress of Sarmizegetusa, re-opens the debate concerning the first decades of the Roman province of Dacia and must be understood in the wider context of the Empire’s relations with the neighboring Barbaricum.
... Oltean, Hanson 2017, p. 445. K. Strobel (2019, nota 153) califică drept "foarte problematice" concluziile celor doi.23 Matei-Popescu, Țentea 2021. ...
... The data, which was commissioned by the BBC for use in a public documentary, was used for scientific purposes in the years that followed. This data enabled the identification of previously unknown fortifications in the centre of the Dacian Kingdom and of potential Roman marching camps (Oltean and Hanson, 2017). Oltean and Fonte (2019) analysed the settlement aggregation in the rural area of the capital. ...
Throughout history, the Dacian landscape has aroused the imagination of many people. For decades, researchers have been fascinated by the magnificent structures the Dacians built and how they altered the mountains to their advantage. Dacian sites, despite their grandeur, remain mostly unknown due to their position deep within Romania's vast forests, generally in remote regions and hidden from the naked eye. Ground exploration in densely forested mountain regions is extremely difficult, and even if campaigns of conventional exploration had been undertaken, they would have been insufficient to provide a comprehensive picture of the Dacian world. The lack of high-resolution remote-sensing data for wide areas has made large-scale assessments of the landscape impractical. This is changing, as new large datasets of LiDAR-derived digital terrain models, covering the entire heartland of the Dacian Kingdom, are now freely available. This paper reports on one of the most recent freely available LiDAR-based high-resolution digital terrain models in Romania, its impact on Romanian mountain archaeology, and how this can shape future research directions in understanding the Dacian landscape.
... 19 GOSTAR, DAICOVICIU 1959GLODARIU, MOGA 1988. 20 MICLE et al. 2016OLTEAN, HANSON 2017;TEODOR et al. 2018. and, especially, the medieval fortification from Piatra Craivei, which dominates, at over 1000 m, the middle valley of Mureș21. ...
t. This article presents some theoretical aspects related to historical archaeology and mountain landscape
archaeology research domains. There were noted various research projects from Transylvania that involved
archaeological discoveries found at altitudes above 800 m. Regarding historical archaeology in Romania, the
concept and methodology of approaching the recent past, is a field of research that includes only a few recent
projects. That is why the Contumaz Pricske project was synthetically presented, for researching a quarantine that
operated between 1732-1808 in eastern Transylvania, on the border between the Habsburg Empire and Moldova.
This research involved the exploitation of documentary sources from various archives, the use of cartographic
sources and conducting archaeological excavations.
... These data have an average ground returns of 0.5 points/m 2 . Despite its potential for the detection and characterisation of Roman military sites elsewhere [2,[91][92][93][94], the technology shows certain limitations in zones with anthropogenic landscape modifications and extensive agricultural areas [81,83]. Given their temporary nature and the ephemeral and almost invisible materiality that makes up the Roman military camps [57], these technologies are particularly suited for their identification. ...
Sixty-six new archaeological sites have been discovered thanks to the combined use of different remote sensing techniques and open access geospatial datasets (mainly aerial photography, satellite imagery, and airborne LiDAR). These sites enhance the footprint of the Roman military presence in the northern fringe of the River Duero basin (León, Palencia, Burgos and Cantabria provinces, Spain). This paper provides a detailed morphological description of 66 Roman military camps in northwestern Iberia that date to the late Republic or early Imperial eras. We discuss the different spatial datasets and GIS tools used for different geographic contexts of varied terrain and vegetation. Finally, it stresses out the relevance of these novel data to delve into the rationale behind the Roman army movements between the northern Duero valley and the southern foothills of the Cantabrian Mountains. We conclude that methodological approaches stimulated by open-access geospatial datasets and enriched by geoscientific techniques are fundamental to understand the expansion of the Roman state in northwestern Iberia during the 1st c. BC properly. This renewed context set up a challenging scenario to overcome traditional archaeological perspectives still influenced by the cultural-historical paradigm and the pre-eminence of classical written sources.
... Bellón Ruiz et al., 2016;Berrocal-Rangel et al., 2017;Cordero Ruiz et al., 2017) and beyond (e.g. Bernardini et al., 2015;Hanson et al., 2019;Jones, 2012;Oltean and Hanson, 2017). In Spain, earlier examples of the application of remote sensing techniques, in particular airborne LiDAR, to study other types of archaeological landscapes have been successfully reported (e.g. ...
Traditionally, the study of the Roman military presence in Galicia (Spain) and Northern Portugal has been based on the fragmentary documentation offered by Greek and Latin authors or epigraphy, with archaeology occupying a very secondary place in these historical narratives. In particular, the information is very scarce for the period between the 2 nd century BCE and 1 st century CE, when these territories were conquered and integrated into the Roman world. This work presents new Roman military sites discovered through an integrated methodology involving an intensive application of remote sensing techniques in order to provide information to foster a paradigm shift in this field of study. Distributed over a wide geographical area and displaying a wide morpho-typological and locational diversity, this new archaeological evidence not only reflects the ability of the Roman army to adapt to local natural and cultural environments, but also reveals a major operational and logistical assortment that may relate to the diachronic nature of the military presence in the region.
Between 2009 and 2019 we conducted aerial archaeological research in Transylvania and in Western
Romania 11 times, spending 114.85 hours in the air. The research was funded by Hungarian and Romanian
research funds (OTKA, CNCS‑UEFISCDI), the Institute of Archaeological Sciences of the Eötvös Loránd
University (hereafter IAS ELTE) Budapest, the Satu Mare County Museum (Satu Mare / Szatmárnémeti),
the Mureş County Museum (Târgu Mureş / Marosvásárhely) and the National Museum of Union (Alba
Iulia / Gyulafehérvár). More than 12 000 digital recordings were taken during the flights which will be made
accessible for the scientific community via a web‑based searchable database, operating on the backend server
of the IAS ELTE. The terms of use include registration, accurate description of the technical details of the
images in the scientific publication, and a reference to this paper and to the ID generated by the database
Many hypotheses have been proposed over the last decades regarding the evolution, planimetry and chronological modelling of the various phases of construction, destruction and restoration of the fortress at Grădiştea de Munte – Sarmizegetusa Regia. The archaeological data certifying the existence of a fortified site dating before the Roman conquest of the capital of the Dacian Kingdom, while not negligible, are so dissimilar that recomposing its plan becomes a significant challenge. The present article focuses on recent archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Gate area, an important reference point for re-discussing the particularities of the initial Dacian fortress.
Se presentan una serie de datos obtenidos de la interpretación de imágenes LiDAR (MDT y MDE), así como de ortofotografías históricas de la Sierra de Carpurias, especialmente al este del castro de Las Labradas-El Marrón. Se estima que dichos datos deben ponerse en relación con la existencia de un campamento y un posible castellum, como indicios más importantes, que podrían formar parte del dispositivo establecido por los romanos para asediar y conquistar ese importante oppidum astur.
The book focuses on mountain archaeology, specifically in the South-Eastern Carpathians, and presents a variety of research methods and approaches, including the use of LIDAR technology and other related sciences. This will make a significant contribution to the development of archaeology, as it will provide a better understanding of how people have lived and moved through mountains over time and open up new opportunities for archaeological research in mountainous regions. The book also addresses important themes such as the theory and practice of archaeology and fighting and traveling in and across mountains, providing a broad and integrated perspective on mountain archaeology.
"1. About the legionary fort at Sarmizegetusa in AD 102–105 (Cassius Dio 68.9.7). Cassius Dio (68.9.7) writes that after the end of the first Dacian war of Trajan, in 102 AD, the emperor left a legion in Dacia at Sarmizegetusa and auxiliary troops in other locations. Over time, the fragmentary accounts of Cassius Dio have been interpreted in two main ways. On one hand, the presence of a legionary fort was presumed in Hațeg Country, on the territory of future Colonia Ulpia Traiana Dacica Sarmizegetusa. On the other hand, this fort (stratopedon) was presumed to have functioned in the Orăștie Mountains, in or next to the Dacian fortress at Grădiștea de Munte, the residence of King Decebalus. The debate has recently been reopened by F. Matei-Popescu and O. Țentea. They place this Roman fort in the Orăștie Mountains, in the close vicinity of the former residence of King Decebalus. Their arguments are based mostly on the recently acquired LiDAR images of the area in question. On these images appears an almost rectangular earthen structure which preceded the stone enclosure and was also ascribed to a Roman fort built after the conquest of Dacia. F. Matei-Popescu and O. Țentea consider that, if the stone enclosure belongs to the period after the second Dacian war of Trajan, the enclosure having an earthen wall must be older, belonging to the period between the two Dacian wars, that is, between AD 102 and 105, this being the fort mentioned in the fragmentary accounts of Cassius Dio. Analysing the available information, the author concluding that the earthen fort from Grădiștea de Munte was more likely built in the context of the second Dacian war, in 105/106 AD. The stratopedon mentioned by Cassius Dio was more likely located on the future place of Colonia Ulpia Traiana Dacica Sarmizegetusa. Finally, the name of the royal residence of Decebalus, it is less likely to be Sarmizegetusa. This was more likely the indigenous toponym of the place where Colonia Ulpia Traiana Dacica was later established. The possible identification with Ranisstorum, the place where Tiberius Claudius Maximus brought the severed head and right hand of King Decebalus to Trajan to be shown to the army, can be perhaps taken into the consideration as a working hypothesis. 2. The destiny of the “Dacian gold”. About a Koson-type coin reused in the 16th century in a Christian (Renaissance) context. The “Dacian gold” fired the imagination of many people each time a hoard emerged in the mountains hosting the ruins of the royal residence of King Decebalus. One of the largest hoards was discovered in 1543 (containing coins of Lysimachus and perhaps Koson-types). Before this great hoard, a document from 1494 mentions the discovery in 1491 of a hoard consisting of “small and big” gold coins by some gold panners in the vicinity of Sebeș. There was already a number of Koson-type coins “in circulation” among the Renaissance collectors of antiquities at the end of the 15th century or the beginning of the 16th century. In 1520 Erasmus of Rotterdam describes and tries to identify a Koson-type coin, an issue which have also caused difficulties to other scholars. In this context, the author is analysing a liturgical chalice of the first half of the 16th century, which was once in Alba Iulia and is now preserved in the collections of the Catholic Cathedral of Nitra, Slovakia. The chalice is decorated with ancient gold coins. Among them is a Koson-type coin. Both the manufacturing and the biography of the chalice are relevant from the perspective of the destiny of “Dacian gold” during the late Renaissance. The vessel was first mentioned in an inventory from 1531 of the treasury of the Catholic Cathedral at Alba Iulia. The chalice was donated by a certain Udalricus of Buda, who was the prebendary of a cathedral chapel between 1504 and 1523. At a later date, the chalice was owned by Paul Bornemisza, who was Bishop of Alba Iulia in 1553–1556. He had to leave Transylvania, becoming Bishop of Nitra in 1557. On this occasion he brought over the chalice decorated with ancient gold coins. Udalricus of Buda was a member of the Renaissance humanist circle from Alba Iulia, which included a number of scholars, publishers of ancient texts, epigraphists and antiquities collectors. It might be presumed that the Koson-type coin which Erasmus of Rotterdam attempted to analyse was received through the connections with the humanist scholars from Alba Iulia. This coin, as well as the one inserted into the chalice of Udalricus, could have belonged to a hoard which was perhaps discovered a few decades before the one from 1543. Perhaps the coins in question were found in 1491 by the gold panners from Sebeș. It is however certain that the interest of the Transylvanian and European humanist scholars in this kind of “exotic” discoveries arose during this period, alongside the interest in other types of antiquities of the pre-Roman and Roman Dacia. The chalice from Nitra includes probably the oldest discovery of a Koson-type coin for which we have so far the physical evidence."
The archaeological site at Grădiștea de Munte-Sub Cununi is located in the vicinity of Sarmizegetusa Regia, the capital of the Dacian Kingdom. As early as the first half of the 19th century, Dacian and Roman relics were mentioned in this area. The ruins of some buildings made of shaped stones and bound with mortar drew the attention, being at that time above ground level. The place became notorious after two Roman votive altars were discovered; they were dedicated to goddess Victoria Augusta, respectively to Apollo Augustus by two governors of Roman Dacia from the latter half of the 2nd century AD. Several interpretations were given with respect to the Roman presence in this region: summer residence (villa), Roman camp or statio, fortified dwelling, civil settlement related to iron processing, sanctuary or commemorating monument (tropaeum) or even Decebalus’ royal residence. The place was related either to the end of Trajan’s wars
against the Dacians (identified by some historians with Ranisstorum, where Trajan had his camp in 106 AD when king Decebalus killed himself), or to the events around 158 AD, when the first inscription is dated. Despite its importance, the site never benefited from systematic archaeological research. The vestiges are no longer visible nowadays and their localization is uncertain. This paper brings together all the documentary information available as well as a recent LiDAR dataset, which help in making some aspects clear and invite
to starting off the field research.
Starting with late 2018, a new archaeological research project has been unfolding in the framework funded by the Romanian Governmental Unit for Research and Development (UEFISCDI) dedicated to top fundamental research, as one of the few winners of 2016 edition (the single to date) of ‘Complex Projects for Frontier Research’ competition. The Project, whose aims and methods will be shortly presented further, is entitled ‘Hidden Landscapes: Exploratory Remote-sensing for the Archaeology of the Lost Roads, Borders and Battlefields of South-Eastern Carpathians’ (HiLands). It implements a systematic and diachronic investigation of the historic strategic circulation corridors crossing the South-Eastern part of the Carpathian Mountains – the main gate used along ages by people transiting between Transylvania and the Danube or the Black Sea. In order to achieve such aims we have been exploring, starting from large scale LiDAR surveys, the circulation corridors’ diachronic archaeological fingerprint, preserved in the shape of repeatedly fortified landscapes. LiDAR surveys have been carried on continuously since 2018, by airplane, but also with portable sensors based on SLAM technology. The results of the LiDAR explorations were enhanced by field surveys, geophysical prospections and pin-pointed excavations, in order to elucidate the nature of anomalies or better contextualize the significance and layout of the roads’ routes. The results of these activities are resumed in a constantly updated, open access, online data base of archaeological sites - The archaeological index of South-Eastern Carpathians (AISEC). The current contribution details the essentials of HiLands research (aims, concepts, methods), in order to introduce in the scientific circuit the AISEC’s functions and instruments, ready to be used as citable work.
A new Roman camp was documented – mainly for its topographical features – far away from any known camp from Şureanu Mountains. It has a typical size of the encampments from around Sarmizegetusa Regia, 5 hectares, as no one reaches a full-size legionary camp. Having tituli and being made of two parts separated by a palisade, it finds also analogies in the region (as Comărnicel 1). What is really outstanding at the encampment from Cracul Găurilor is the steep slope on which it is standing with more than half of its surface. Its location raises the problem of new routes driving to the Dacian capital. One of them could have its departure point at the lower end of the Jiu Gorges, at the Vârtop fort. Another – less plausible but still possible – would start on the Middle Olt River, at Buridava.
Rezumat. Ne referim la fortificaţia cunoscută în literatură sub numele Muncel, aflată pe mun-tele de la nord de capitala regatului dacic, la o mică distanţă dar 500 de m mai sus, reprezentând cheia defensivei (sau ofensivei) din războaiele daco-romane de la începutul sec. II dHr. Există practic un consens în a atribui lucrările de acolo romanilor, deşi sondajele arheologice minuscule , de până acum, indică inventar de tip dacic. Ultima luare de poziţie în materie 1 reprezintă un moment important, câtă vreme este semnată de autori cu un renume solid în cercetarea aeriană şi arheologia militară romană; mai mult, studiul respectiv beneficiază de modelul teren de tip LiDAR, care reprezintă premiza unei expertize topografice de fineţe. Din nefericire, nu a fost cazul. Am profitat de pre-existenţa unui model-teren realizat în 2016 (din dronă) pentru a verifica analiza cercetătorilor britanici şi am ajuns la concluzii diametral opuse. Între motivele unei asemenea încheieri enumerăm aici absenţa unui şanţ exterior (susţinută de autorii menţi-onaţi, dar şi de Al. Stefan, cu peste un deceniu în urmă), existenţa unui larg şanţ interior (carac-teristică tipic dacică), grosimea neobişnuită a valului (pentru castrele de marş), existenţa unor "anexe" fără analogie funcţională în lumea romană (în special dubla palisadă de la vest), absen-ţa porţilor (care ar trebui să fie vizibile în plan, în ipoteza menţionată), prezenţa gropilor mari de pe conturul interior (care nu sunt moderne), dar şi recentele descoperirile "întâmplătoare" (cu detectorul de metale) din urmă cu un deceniu. Analiza unui model-teren nu poate substitui cercetarea arheologică prin săpătură, dar o poate orienta, ceea ce şi cititorul român poate aprecia fie şi doar din ilustraţia ataşată. Cuvinte cheie: topografie, model teren, amenajări defensive, fortificaţii dacice, castre de marş.
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