A discourse on the Persian Chahar-Bagh as an Islamic garden

Abstract

The ancient garden plan, the Chahar-Bagh, was originally put onto ground for the purpose of organizing garden in an arid landscape of Persia besides a symbol of political territory. This quadripartite plan of garden was found as early as 600 BC during Achaemenid era. Therefore, claims made in various scholarships that referred Chahar-Bagh as an Islamic garden basic pattern is apparently deceiving the true meaning of Islam, which came into the world in seventh century. The method of content analysis and library search that emphasized on the theories and principles of Persian garden have been adopted in this study. To conclude, Chahar-Bagh pattern preceded Islam therefore, assigning it as the basic pattern of Islamic garden planning and design is irrelevant.

Full text

1 Researcher at Universiti Putra Malaysia. Email: zal4241@yahoo.com
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PLANNING MALAYSIA:
Journal of the Malaysian Institute of Planners
VOLUME 15 ISSUE 3 (2017), Page 123 – 134
A DISCOURSE ON THE PERSIAN CHAHĀR-BĀGH AS AN ISLAMIC
GARDEN
Zainab Abdul Latiff1, Mohd Yazid Mohd Yunos2, & Maheran Mohd Yaman3
1,2 Faculty of Design and Architecture
UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
3Kulliyyah of Architecture and Environmental Design
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
Abstract
The ancient garden plan, the Chahār-Bāgh, was originally put onto ground
for the purpose of organizing garden in an arid landscape of Persia besides
a symbol of political territory. This quadripartite plan of garden was found
as early as 600 BC during Achaemenid era. Therefore, claims made in
various scholarships that referred Chahār-Bāgh as an Islamic garden basic
pattern is apparently deceiving the true meaning of Islam, which came into
the world in seventh century. The method of content analysis and library
search that emphasized on the theories and principles of Persian garden
have been adopted in this study. To conclude, Chahār-Bāgh pattern
preceded Islam therefore, assigning it as the basic pattern of Islamic garden
planning and design is irrelevant.
Keyword: Persian garden, Chahār-Bāgh, Islamic garden, contemporary garden,
planning and design
Date Received: 1st November 2016
Date of Acceptance: 21st October 2017

Zainab Abdul Latiff, Mohd Yazid Mohd Yunos, & Maheran Mohd Yaman
A Discourse on the Persian Chahār-Bāgh as an Islamic Garden
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INTRODUCTION
Most of Iran is predominantly located at an altitude of more than one thousand
metres (The Board of Persian, 2010; Kohi, 2012). Strategically located, Iran was
in contact with and absorbed a variety of cultural influences from Achaemenids
and the Sassanian dynasty from Fars that once ruled the country. Conversion to
Islam followed the Arab conquest in the 7th century, and the country was
subsequently ruled by Abbasids, Seljuks, Mongols and Timurids (Kohi, 2012). Its
major area is located in the eastern Mediterranean with desert-like climate
(English, 1968; Khosravi, 2014) that hinders tree planting, thus gardens were
regarded as a supreme value (Turner, 2005). Though Persia was dominated by
various foreign rulers, its garden survived and was adopted by successive
invaders, hence the tradition became diffused throughout the world (Mahdizadeh,
2015).
THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF PERSIAN GARDEN
Iran’s Persian gardens have become known as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The gardens include nine gardens in the province (Wilber, 1962). “They
exemplify the diversity of Persian garden designs that adapted to different climate
conditions while retaining principles that have their roots in the times of Cyrus
the Great in the 6th century BC” (Wilber, 1962).
The tradition of constructing gardens and designing open-air spaces in
Iran has a long history (Asif et al., 2015; Hensel & Gharleghi, 2012; Rostami et
al., 2014; Shakiba & Kamali, 2012). It may date back as far as 4000 BCE
(Daneshdoust, 1986; English, 1968), the decorated pottery of that time displays
the typical cross plan of the Persian garden that was constructed in Mesopotamia.
“It was once believed that the Achaemenids modelled their gardens after those of
Mesopotamia” (Shakiba & Kamali, 2012).
The physical pottery evidence shows the world represented by a plaque
or bowl-appears symmetrically divided into four zones by two axes forming a
cross; at the point of intersection a pool is depicted as the focal point of the world
(Daneshdoust, 1986; Farroukh, n.d.) This plan was found in the Sassanian period
(AD 224-641) in the hunting park (Turner, 2005). The concept of privacy is the
most important concept of Persian gardens (Behbahani, Irani & Khosravi, 2006).
Several methods of garden designing have existed both in the ancient Egyptian
and Mesopotamian civilization under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562
BC) (Seddigh, Karimiazari & Ghanaati, 2014). The influence of Maghreb and
Mesopotamian (Ibn Balkhi, 1921) gardening techniques and concepts in the
renowned ‘Hanging Gardens’ of Babylon is furthermore evident in the culture of
Persia (Seddigh, Karimiazari & Ghanaati, 2014) due to the near vicinity of the
two civilizations and the geographical similarities between the three civilizations
of Persia, Maghreb and Mesopotamia (English, 1968).
The Iranian garden, as a faultless structure, has been always

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demonstrated a close relationship between its cultural and natural basis (Asif et
al., 2015; Daneshdoust,1986; Koshravi, 2014; Ruggles; 2008). This tradition of
respecting the environment of trees and green areas was continued by the
Achaemenid (550-330 BCE), the first Persian empire, and continued in the
Parthian and Sassanid eras. Consequently, the Achaemenian became the novice
in actualizing the concept of four-garden or Chahār-Bāgh (Seddigh, Karimiazari
& Ghanaati, 2014) and the innovation of dry-land irrigation called ‘qanat’.
The concept of fourfold-garden or Chahār-Bāgh started in the
Achaemenid era when Cyrus the Great (6th century BC) built a royal city (Asif
et al., 2015; Lehrman,1980; Lincoln, 2003). Pasargadae with a rectangular garden
bed opposite the throne hall with symmetric streets and trees (Ibn Balkhi,1921).
Cyrus the Great has undoubtedly employed methods inherited from Assyria and
Babylon in order to deliver political messages through the architecture of Royal
Gardens (English, 1968). This fourfold-garden became a quintessential structure
through many centuries of later Persian garden design. This form of Chahār-Bāgh
was also introduced into India in the 16th century by the first Mughal emperor,
Babur (Mahdizadeh, 2015).
Pasargadae was the place where the “Persian Gardens” were formed
(Mahdizadeh, 2015). Persian gardens usually made use of pools and axial canals
and especially pavilions. In the royal garden of Pasargadae which appears to have
been divided into four equal plots by a watercourse and a path, later became
known as a Chahār-Bāgh may have contributed further to the design of earthly
garden crossed by canals to imitate four rivers in the paradise (Bennis, 2006).
Figure 1 The Chahār-Bāgh water system in Islamic gardens
This is also the point where the application of symmetry, the Chahār-
Bāgh and use of defining water courses, avenues, and the closure of vistas,
terraces and kiosks originated (Kohi, 2012). “In Chahār-Bāghs, terraces
symbolize the cosmic mountains, the creation of the edifice or throne at the

Zainab Abdul Latiff, Mohd Yazid Mohd Yunos, & Maheran Mohd Yaman
A Discourse on the Persian Chahār-Bāgh as an Islamic Garden
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126
highest level represents the position of God. A great pool is placed in front of the
edifice representing the cosmic ocean as the source of allwaters which can irrigate
the whole garden. Thepresence of trees, flowers and animals around theedifice
complement the figure of the universe” (Farahani, Motamed & Jamei, 2016). The
gardens of the ancient world lived on in various forms and were sources of
motivation for other cultures in the centuries after the end of antiquity and later,
been found in Achaemenid dwellings and Parthian and Sassanian palaces
(Khademi, Kabiri & Khan, 2013; Pour, Rad & Pishe, 2012; Shakiba & Kamali,
2012). The classical Persian Chahār-Bāgh layout was found in the ancient royal
garden of Achaemenid, the Pasargadae (Mahdizadeh & Sara, 2015), as one of the
oldest example of fourfold prestigious garden (Pour, Rad & Pishe, 2012). “This
classical layout of thegarden is the ideal model of the blissful paradise, a garden
of perpetual spring, promised as a reward in the afterlife” (Mahdizadeh, 2015).
Thisquadripartite (Chahār-Bāgh or four-part plan) layout is found on the land of
Pasargadae, which further defines the plan of a rectilinear orchard, with pavilions
that open through loggias on four sides (Shakiba & Kamali, 2012). The walled
orchard, water channels, basins, fruits and shady trees, pavilions, baths and
towers certainly lead us to conclude that there was some continuity in the idea of
a garden through the centuries. It is necessary to define the features of the royal
garden type in each period in order to retrace its evolution (Alemi, 1997). As a
consequence, the concept of a walled, quadripartite garden containing a pavilion
was established (Stronach, 1994).
Figure 2 The plan of the Royal City of Pasargadae (Koshravi, 2014) (left) has
become the basic pattern of Persian gardens (Halsted, 2014) (right)
The enclosed Persian garden became the prototype for the Islamic garden
and the gardens of Mughal India. When adopted by nature loving nomadic central
Asians, the gardens became royal encampments (Mahdizadeh, 2003). There is a
consensus among scholars that the Chahār-Bāgh is a rectangular walled garden

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layout, crossed by two main walkways (Rostami et al., 2014) or streams lined
with trees and plants on their banks, intersecting at right angles (Pour, Rad &
Pishe, 2012) with a kiosk or pavilion and a square basin (Kohi, 2014; Pour, Rad
& Pishe, 2012), open to four views at the cross section which eventually a four-
part garden is created (Rostami et al., 2014). Its major components are the kiosk,
alleys, waterways, pools and planted parterres (Habashi, 2000). “It is planted with
tall cypresses cast shade over most of the garden, and grass grows in place of the
shrub. Roses pomegranates, jasmine, lilac and spring flowering bulbs are grown
originally” (Kohi, 2014). There are four plots each with a single species of fruit
tree and planted round with clover. Meanwhile, cucumbers and mulberries are
planted around the base of the pavilion, apples on its south side where they are
shaded by the south wall of the garden and vines on its north side where they are
sheltered from the wind (Pour, Rad & Pishe, 2012).
The Chahār-Bāgh appears just like a simple manual for gardeners, as a
good way of mapping out land in order to obtain an ideal garden (Habashi, 2000).
“The Chahār-Bāgh is a symbol of political territory, to organize gardens, highly
structured geometrical scheme. Historians believed that the term Chahār-Bāgh
referred literally to a garden divided into four parts, or a multiple of four. There
is no evidence to assign an Islamic identity to this garden type because the
concept of quadripartite planning preceded Islam; versions of it appeared in both
Mediterranean and Persian history”.
The Chahār-Bāgh concept blended into Islamic gardens design through
the Arabs conquest in Persia in 651. They applied Persian garden tradition at their
earliest capitals at Baghdad and Samarra in the 8th and 9th centuries (Asif et al.,
2015).“This quadripartite order of Pasargadae gardens has been transferred to
Timurid gardens in Samarkand, gardens that were created and shaped in India
during Mongol empire and Andalusian gardens in Spain” (Asif et al., 2015).
Another factor is due to the incorporation of Mesopotamian and Persian tradition
into the Islamic world thus the concept being carried to Syria, Egypt, Maghribi
(Pour, Rad & Pishe, 2012). Spain and Kashmir (Rostami et al., 2014). Later, the
Mongol empire (l286 - l353) conquest Persia then carried the Persian garden
tradition to their empire to India. Accordingly, Babur introduced the Persian
Garden to India in Ram Bagh garden in Agra consequently to Taj Mahal (English,
1968). The second achievement is the innovation of qanats (Tajaddini, 2011),
which became one of the most important methods of dryland irrigation during the
pre-Islamic era constructed by the Achaemenid. Qanats are gently sloping tunnels
dug nearly horizontally into an alluvial fan until the water table is pierced. Once
constructed, ground water filters into the channel, runs down its gentle slope, and
emerges at the surface as a stream (Dickie, 1976; The Board of Persian Garden,
2010; Turner, 2005). These tunnel-wells that consist of a series of wells linked up
at a considerable distance (Wescoat, 1999) are widely used in the deserts for

Zainab Abdul Latiff, Mohd Yazid Mohd Yunos, & Maheran Mohd Yaman
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several causes. First, qanats require no power source other than gravity to
maintain flow. Second, water can be moved substantial distances in these
underground conduits with least evaporation losses and little danger of pollution.
Third, the flow of water in qanats is balanced to the available supply in the
aquifer, and, if properly maintained, these infiltration channels yield a dependable
supply of water for centuries (Dickie, 1976; Koshravi, 2014). Most of the times,
these underground networks were constructed before building the actual physical
structure of the cities and gardens and are widely used even in modern gardening
styles (Khademi, Kabiri & Khan 2013; Khosravi, 2014).
Later, during the reign of Sassanids (3rd to 7th century CE), under the
influence of Zoroastrianism, four element theory preceded. The theory was
founded by Zarathustra (600-583) or also known as Zoroaster by the Greeks
(Faghih & Sadeghy, 2012). Zoroastrianism was the religion of pre-Islamic Persia
(The Board of the Persian, 2010). The religion set a high value for nature
especially admiring and respecting the water, its mythical role has had a great
influence on palace-gardens of this era. Most of the gardens in this era were
founded next to springs and ponds. The figure square and number four are
considered as holy. The number four shows four cardinal points (North, south,
East, and west), mankind’s special body features (front, back, left, and right), four
basic existence elements (water, wind, soil and fire) (Akhgar & Soheilipour,
2010; Ibn Balkhi, 1921), the year seasons (spring, summer, autumn, and winter)
and the number of square sides and angles. Square is also a figure having
symmetry, balance, and equilibrium (Ibn Balkhi, 1921).
Zoroastrianism remained one of the most influential in the Middle East
until the advent of Islam. Its followers praised trees, plants, flowers and rivers as
blessed elements and they are strongly encouraged to paint and cultivate.
Meanwhile, the wind, stars, the moon, the sun, springs, rivers, lands and plants
are called holy creatures. Water, fire and plants are elements to be worshipped.
They worship the goods and best waters (Lincoln, 2003).
During the Sasanid era, gardening and garden-making have grown and
developed widely. Sasanian kings preferred to construct and built their own
palaces in a place that was dominated by big pools that were filled with natural
springs and fountains. Probably these natural pools and ponds have inspired the
pools in the Islamic gardens. Geometrical variety is the most distinctive
characteristic of the gardens of this age and the axial, central and quadripartite
order and organization have been improved during this era.
Later the invasion of large parts of the Sassanid and Byzantine empires
by recently converted Muslim Arabs after the seventh century CE resulted in the
diffusion of the concept of the Persian garden in the Middle East. While the
tradition of hunting parks declined after the advent of Islam, the design of
pleasure gardens, which represented the Qur'anic paradise, was pursued by both
the political authorities and the wealthy. During this period, the underground

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irrigation system of qanat allowed the construction of gardens in remote areas
despite climatic difficulties (Faghih & Sadeghy, 2012).
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objective of the study is to revisit the assignment of Chahār-Bāgh plan
as an Islamic garden design pattern whereas the plan was long adopted in the past,
in the organization of agricultural land of ancient Mesopotamia, Achaemenid and
Sassanid.
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
The following methods have been carried out in this study:
1. A close examination on written documents and plans of Pasargadae and
Chahār-Bāgh; and
2. Constant comparison analysis (Onwuegbuzie, Nancy & Kathleen, 2012)
on the physical features of Persian garden by grouping the texts to codes,
then themes to become the key points to be discussed in each paragraph
in the article.
PERSIAN GARDEN CONCEPT
Among the terms referred to garden by the Persians are rose garden (bustan,
bostan, gulistan), flower gardens (Gulshan and Gulzar), pleasure ground
(gulghasht), flower bed (gulkari), a nosegay (guldasta), garden of tulips (lalehzar)
and the most common one is bagh. Due to a great interest in gardening among the
Persians, they named their garden as ‘pearadeasa’, which mean ‘surrounding the
fort (building)’, or, as they called it, ‘dis’. The word ‘dis’ means building, and the
person who constructed it is known as ‘disa’. The Persian word ‘pairidaeza’ was
derived from pairi (around) and daeza (wall), which means ‘enclosed space’
(Subtelny, 1997) or accumulating and fencing, which on the whole means
planting trees and flowers around the building as described by Dehkhoda. This
term, ‘pairidaeza’ is what Cyrus the Great called his garden (Ruggles, 2008) and
it has been applied twice in the Zoroaster’s religious book (Ibn Balkhi, 1921).
Persian gardens are always behind a wall (Chardin, 1335; Ibn Balkhi,
1921; Khademi, Kabiri & Khan, 2013), that is made up of clay, to mark the
garden’s boundary and as a border between the dry land outside and shady and
cooling area inside (English, 1968). This wall made with no ornaments so as to
create both a resting place and a secured place (Chardin, 1335; Ibn Balkhi, 1921).
The walls also can be simple or carved and decorated producing a private place
for relaxation and also serves as a safety protection. Wall in itself gives out a
mystery and the symbol of the third dimension of the space, the wall is considered
as a living spatial thing. It is a man-made ecological environment, especially its
water and terrain element. Persian garden isusually referred to as having a
quadripartite layout to maximize and highlight the role of geometry in the garden.

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What is actually meant by symmetry in Persian gardens, however, is visual
symmetry in the position and viewpoint of the onlooker from certain spots of the
place in the garden (Pinder-Wilson, 1976; Titley, 1979).
A Persian garden always employs the concept of order and symmetry,
owns the respect and privacy, lacks the uselessness and extremism, and is suitable
for economy and resistance (Ruggles, 2008). Straight lines were used to design
the garden to reduce water wastages, while at the same time divided the garden
into geometrical shapes (Chardin, 1335; Stronach, 1989) of four parts, which
were mostly square, or square-like rectangles that were divided into four other
squares. This division continues according to the total area of the land (Chardin,
1335; Ibn Balkhi, 1921).
Persian garden is linked with water as the main source of life and
abundance (Lincoln, 2003). Due to the process of irrigation, which is directly
dependent on the land type, gardens were usually constructed on a steep hill with
a natural slope so that natural flux could therefore create natural waterfalls
(Stronach, 1989). The irrigating system of Chahār-Bāgh was used so that water
comes again from the upper level to the lower one and gardener irrigates
respectively each one of the four pieces by building temporary dams (Chardin,
1335; Ibn Balkhi, 1921). Water was used for irrigation and ornamentation
(Khademi, Kabiri & Khan, 2013). Drowning was another irrigation scheme
where all plants of a certain patch were watered by drowning of its whole area.
For ornamentation purpose, centrally-placed pools (Kohi, 2012), fountains and
waterways were used. Rounded pools, which later were replaced by square or
rectangular shape or basins, which were sometimes shallower, were placed
opposite of the garden (Stronach, 1989). From the pool, clearly defined canals
stretched out along the garden’s length, and often across it (Kohi, 2012).
There was also a big pond in the middle of each garden and there was a
water map that run in the middle of the complex into a large pond with water view
or at least a fountain, whose floors have been covered with white stones
(sometimes carved to make the attractive noise of water movement possible), or
glazed turquoise tiles (Chardin, 1335; Ibn Balkhi, 1921). The main waterways
were lined by shady trees to maximize the functionality of water in both
mythological and ornamental, besides cooling and moistening the air. Waterfalls
and fountains were made wherever the natural slope allowed (Chardin, 1335; Ibn
Balkhi, 1921; Subtelny, 1997) in order to produce a more interesting watercourse
so that staircase could be built in the middle for the water crossing for a
pleasurable sound (Chardin, 1335; Ibn Balkhi, 1921). Water features worked to
increase the evaporation, and consequently to make the garden cooler and more
pleasant.
Short plants were planted in half waterways; the agricultural fruit gardens
were formed in geometrical separation. Evergreen and long acarpous trees were
planted based on their medicinal, food and other similar qualities along with

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aesthetic factors were considered (Hensel & Gharleghi, 2012). The plants were
coordinated with water resources to make shadows and shades as much as
possible (Moynihan,1980). Fruit trees were more common due to their
usefulness. Every part of the garden was allocated to one type of fruit and good
smelling flowers such as rose and damask roses were planted beside the water
paths (Kohi, 2012; Shakiba & Kamali, 2012).
Vegetation includes a range of trees (Chardin, 1335; Ibn Balkhi, 1921;
Khademi, Kabiri & Khan, 2013) and other plants of diverse types and functions,
with or without flowers and lawn. Trees were planted according to its medicinal,
food, aestheticism or any other purposeful causes (Carroll, 2003), which mainly
were of three types; evergreens such as cedar, deciduous such as pine, and fruit
trees (Halsted, 2014; Ibn Balkhi, 1921). Trees provided shades (Chardin, 1335;
Ibn Balkhi, 1921; Khademi, Kabiri & Khan, 2013) to this arid and rainless climate
to make the environment pleasant, and protected it from the intense sunlight.
More fruit trees were planted in direct lines as the area of the land increases.
Irrigating the trees was done by brooks and regular streams which prevented
wastage of water. Because of this, most of the Persian gardens were of the same
shape including a square (Arianpoor, 1365).
The soothing sound was created by the trickling water of fountains and
the song of birds, as well as by conversation and song accompanied by stringed
instruments (Kohi, 2012). Also present were small buildings, castles, pavilions,
kiosk and other structures (Chardin, 1335; Ibn Balkhi, 1921). The garden offered
passer-bys a series of spaces ideally suited for solitary meditation, while pleasing
the senses. It offered the warmth of the sun and the freshness of its shade, the
whispering of breezes in the leaves and the murmur of running water in the
channels, the song of birds, the perfume of flowers, and the bursts of colour
(Subtelny, 1997).
CONCLUSION
This article presented the origin of the ancient Persian garden’s plan, the Chahār-
Bāgh which was highly influenced by Zoroastrianism, and how it has influenced
the Persian and Mughal gardens in later periods. It is also evident that the plan
has been alleged as an Islamic garden layout plan that emulates the description of
the paradise in the Qur’an. However, the Chāhār Bāgh was an irrigation plan that
had already been used to irrigate Achaemenid gardens that had existed long
before Islam. Since interpretations are unavoidable, therefore, contemporary
Islamic garden design should cater the current needs and culture of local Muslim
society and address the climate change, rather than imitating quadripartite plan in
the garden’s planning and design.

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