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Freedom and Responsibility Go Together: Personality, Experimental, and Cultural Demonstrations
Abstract
In three cross-cultural studies we tested the premise that psychological freedom (aka autonomy) and personal responsibility are complementary rather than conflicting, and the further premise that freedom causes responsibility, rather than vice versa. In all studies, (a) supporting autonomy in an experimental context increased responsibility-taking after failure, whereas emphasizing responsibility did not; (b) measures of dispositional autonomy and dispositional responsibility were positively correlated; (c) and responsibility-taking was slightly lower in Russia, a country typically ranked lower in world freedom indices. Supporting a control sensitivity explanation of the socio-cultural differences, the last study found that Russians were inclined to take more responsibility than Americans, but only when it was requested (not demanded) by family/friends (but not by authorities or by strangers).
Supplementary resource (1)
... Specifically, responsibility is a broad construct characterized in different ways (e.g., moral, social, or personal responsibility; Sheldon et al., 2018) and is conceptualized as "feeling accountable for one's decisions and actions, reliable and dependable to others, and empowered to act on issues within one's control." (Wray-Lake & Syvertsen, 2011, pp. ...
... Although responsibility is conceptualized in many different ways, researchers have commonly focused on the personal and social aspects of it (e.g., Giacalone et al., 2008;Sheldon et al., 2018;Wong, 2019b;Wray-Lake & Syvertsen, 2011). Personal responsibility means that an individual is accountable to oneself and the needs or wellbeing of others (Ruyter, 2002), and this construct emphasizes self-accountability, representing an individual's behaviors and choices that can impact oneself and others (Mergler & Shield, 2016). ...
... After outlining a rationale for developing a new scale for measuring responsibility, a two-step process was performed to create the pilot items of the RQ. Literature and existing measures that have used to assess the personal and social responsibility were first reviewed to produce pilot items for the measure (Mergler, 2017;Mergler & Shield, 2016;Sheldon et al., 2018;Wong, 2019b). The scale's items were created to reflect the hypothesized responsibility dimensions "responsibility to self" and "responsibility to others and society" as they are represented in the literature. ...
Responsibility is regarded as essential for wellbeing, and measuring this construct is warranted to develop strategies that promote people’s mental health and wellbeing. The purpose of the current study is to investigate the initial development and validation of the Responsibility Questionnaire (RQ) to measure the sense of responsibility of individuals. Participants included two independent samples, comprising of 284 adults, ranging in age between 18 and 84 years. Sample 1 was used to conducted the exploratory factor analysis and comprised of 152 adults (65% female), ranging in age from 18 to 82 years (M = 43.18, SD = 14.68). Sample 2 was used to conduct the confirmatory factor analysis. The sample consisted of 132 adults (56% female), ranging in age from 18 to 84 years (M = 29.08, SD = 12.45). Findings from exploratory factor analysis revealed the RQ provided a two–factor solution comprising of 8 items that accounted for 46% of the variance, with equal items targeting characteristics of both personal and social responsibility. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the two–factor latent structure, providing good data-model fit statistics. Further results also showed that the internal reliability of the scale and its subscales were strong. Finally, the latent path model revealed that the first– and high–order measurement model had positive and significant predictive effects on life satisfaction and negative predictive effects on psychological distress, accounting for the approximately large variance in the variables. Overall, the results suggest that the RQ could be used to assess personal and social responsibility among adults
... All scales used in the present study have been previously translated and validated for use with Russian samples in prior research (see, e.g., Chirkov & Ryan, 2001;Lynch, La Guardia, & Ryan, 2009;Ryan et al., 1999;Sheldon et al., 2017). Because survey materials were administered to participants in Russian, they are not included here, but are available from the authors upon request. ...
... In addition, the fact that the impact of such need supports was mediated, in the present study, through students' own dispositional autonomy suggests that students, themselves, bear some important 'ownership' and responsibility for their own academic outcomes. Indeed, recent research has underscored the important link between the experience of freedom and the experience of responsibility (Sheldon et al., 2017). ...
Aim/Purpose: The present quantitative, cross-sectional study aimed to investigate objective and subjective factors in the self-determination of doctoral students in their educational activities. Objective determinants included major discipline and forms of academic and scholarly activity (that is, attending classes and writing papers), and subjective determinants included personal characteristics of the doctoral students, including dispositional autonomy and perceptions of environmental supports for students’ basic psychological needs. Background: The quality of students’ motivation for learning has been linked with many different outcomes. Specifically, students who are more internally motivated (that is, who engage in learning activities for reasons that are personally important and freely chosen) demonstrate better performance outcomes and are more likely to choose and to persist in challenging tasks, to enjoy learning, to exhibit greater creativity, and in general to experience greater psychological well-being. Important questions remain, however, regarding the sources that affect student motivation, in particular at the level of graduate school. The present study expands on existing research by exploring contributions to students’ motivation both from the students, themselves, and from supports stemming from two interpersonal contexts: close relationships and the university environment. Methodology: Participating in the study were 112 doctoral students from various natural sciences departments of a major university in the Volga region of Russia. Self-report measures included dispositional autonomy, motivation for various types of academic and scholarly activity, and satisfaction of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness in various interpersonal contexts. Analyses included descriptive statistics, comparison of mean differences, correlation, and structural equation modeling. Contribution: The present study goes beyond existing research by considering both dispositional and situational factors that influence the motivation of doctoral students for their scholarly and academic activities, and by comparing the impact on motivation of close personal relationships with that of various interpersonal contexts in the university setting. Findings: Doctoral students reported greater supports for their basic needs (for competence, autonomy, and relatedness) from their close personal relationships than in their university contexts. Students felt less support for their autonomy and competence with their research supervisor than in other university settings. The early stages of a scholarly activity, such as gathering sources and analyzing materials, were more likely to be characterized by external motivation, whereas the later stages, like the actual writing of a manuscript, were more likely to be internally motivated. When competing for variance, need supports from university-based but not from close personal relationships were significant contributors to students’ internal motivation for scholarly and academic activity; this effect, however, was fully mediated through students’ own dispositional autonomy. Recommendations for Practitioners: The present study underscores the importance of creating an environment in the university that supports doctoral students’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Educators, and in particular research supervisors, should attend to the ways in which their policies and practices support versus undermine these needs, which are shown to play an important role in promoting doctoral students’ own internal motivation for their scholarly and academic activities. Recommendation for Researchers: Although in this sample need supports from university-based interpersonal contexts outweighed the role of need supports from close personal relationships, in terms of doctoral students’ scholarly and academic motivation, it seems important to keep both contexts in mind, given the general importance of close relationships for motivation and other educational and well-being outcomes. As well, accounting for students’ own dispositional attributes, such as their own personal tendency toward autonomy, seems a critical counterpoint to looking at environmental contributions. Future Research: Future research should examine whether the mediational model tested in the present study applies to other samples of doctoral students, for example, to those from other disciplines, such as the humanities, and those in other cultural or geographic locations, where it is possible that close personal relationships may contribute more substantially to students’ motivation than was the case in the present sample. As well, future studies would do well to include other relevant outcomes, such as academic grades, successful degree completion, and measures of well-being, in order to confirm previous findings of the link between internal motivation and various educational outcomes.
... And yet an externally assigned responsibility can become personal. Some individuals make a personal choice to fulfi l their professional, social and other duties to a greater extent compared to others (Sheldon et al., 2018). ...
... The three experiments of a cross-cultural study from 2018 confi rmed that psychological freedom (autonomy) and personal responsibility are interrelated. (Sheldon et al., 2018). ...
The categorical structure of the term "responsibility" and its relations with the concept of self were revealed in a study conducted with 57 English-speaking participants with different native languages. 30 words were extracted from dictionaries and encyclopediae and the psychosemantic distances between them were measured by means of the free classification method. It seems that people perceive responsibility as relatively distant from their Self-concept. They relate it more to the narrow social sphere, and less to the wider social sphere, more to terms with a locus of responsibility closer to personality (e.g. "will"), and less - to terms with a locus of responsibility farther from personality (e.g. "obligation"), more with positive and neutral prerequisites and consequences of responsibility, and less with its negative prerequisites and consequences. Sex and native language influence the categorical structure of responsibility to some extent.
... Responsibility is a broad construct conceptualised through personal, moral, or social decision-making, with responsibility research commonly focusing on social and personal aspects (Giacalone et al., 2008;Sheldon et al., 2018;Wray-Lake & Syvertsen, 2011). Personal responsibility emphasises self-accountability, whereby the individual is accountable to oneself and the wellbeing and needs of others as a result of the personal choices and behaviours that will impact others (Arslan & Wong, 2022). ...
Adolescence is a pivotal time for social and emotional wellbeing development, and the literature calls for psychosocial support approaches in this population. Outdoor adventure education (OAE), programs that contain activities perceived as risky by participants but undertaken in an environment of risk management and social support, provide a holistic approach to protecting and enhancing adolescent mental health. A qualitative descriptive methodology using purposive sampling was employed to recruit adolescents and teachers from Western Australia involved in OAE. Template thematic analysis was used to analyse the semi-structured interview data of five focus groups with adolescents and four key informant interviews with OAE teachers. Our findings suggest that developing and maintaining connections with others during OAE programming are powerful protective factors for psychosocial outcomes in adolescent participants. The tangible responsibilities and inherent challenges of OAE programming created opportunities for multifaceted successes, which also featured as an important finding in our study. We conclude that deliberate, critical OAE programming decisions with opportunities for connections, tangible responsibilities and challenges, and the nurturing of individual empowerment in participants, may positively impact psychosocial outcomes. Further research is needed to understand the psychosocial impacts of OAE on adolescent participants as it relates to individual empowerment.
... 이처럼 맞벌이 부모가 일과 가정에서 다양한 역할을 한꺼번에 수행하며 어려움을 느낄 때 나타날 수 있는 아동의 경험을 잘 설 명할 수 있는 변인은 부모화(parentification)이다 (Chee et al., 2014;Grollman & Sweder, 1988 (Hooper, 2008 (Chase, 1999;Earley & Cushway, 2002 (Jurkovic, 1997;Sheldon et al., 2018;Wong et al., 2015). (King, 1998;King & Emmons, 1990 (Chase, 1999;Emmons & Colby, 1995 (Emmons & King, 1988;Hooper, 2008;Robinson, 1998 (Chase, 1999;Rohner & Lansford, 2017 (Grollman & Sweder, 1988;Jeon et al., 2018;Robinson, 1998 (Park & Park, 2014;Suk & Kim, 2022 (Jeon et al., 2018;Mongrain & Vettese, 2003;Shen & Wang, 2019 (Reis & Shaver, 1988;Uchida et al., 2022 (Emmons & Colby, 1995;Uchida et al., 2022;Yu & Chung, 2023 (Chase, 1999;Grollman & Sweder, 1988 ...
This study aimed to examine the effect of parentification on the smartphone dependency of upper elementary school children in double-income families and to verify whether ambivalence over emotional expression and loneliness sequentially mediates the relationship between parentification and smartphone dependency. The participants were 311 upper-elementary school students (4th to 6th graders; 126 boys, 40.5%) in double-income households residing in Seoul, Gyeong-gi, and Incheon. The data were collected through an online self-report questionnaire completed by the participants and were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 8.7 software. The results can be summarized as follows. Firstly, the direct effect of parentification on the smartphone dependency of the children from double-income families was statistically insignificant. Secondly, ambivalence over emotional expression mediated the effect of parentification on smartphone dependency, while loneliness did not. Lastly, parentification influenced smartphone dependency through the sequential mediating channel of ambivalence over emotional expression and loneliness. In conclusion, these findings indicate that interventions for smartphone-overdependent children from double-income families should place emphasis on children’s psychological difficulties attributed to parentification. Specifically, this study highlights the importance of alleviating the levels of ambivalence over emotional expression and loneliness to address the issue of children’s smartphone dependency in double-income families, suggesting possible involvement and support at both household and societal levels.
... Una vez logrado el objetivo, los motivos se ajustan ya sea por el cumplimiento de dicho logro o integrándose a nuevos motivos de acción. La esfera volitiva le permite a la personalidad establecer diversos vínculos poli-motivacionales para orientarse hacia diversas acciones en distintos momentos y situaciones (LURIA,1976;LEONTIEV, 1969;SHELDON et al, 2018). ...
No México, os programas da alfabetização do adultos (INEA, 2011; INEA, 2016) geralmente se referem a suas implicações no ensino, na aprendizagem ou nos recursos educacionais envolvidos; no entanto - do um abordagem histórico-cultural -, os processos de alfabetização têm um impacto direto no desenvolvimento da personalidade e em identidade-cidadania (MALAGÓN, 2020). Neste estudo, a personalidade é entendida como a manifestação mais alta da atividade psíquica (VYGOTSKY, 1995), que muda constantemente devido à integração do cognitivo, do afetivo e do volitivo em diversos processos culturais (LEONTIEV, 1978; BOZHOVICH, 1976; ASMOLOV, 2002) tal como é a educação. O objetivo desta pesquisa é analisar e interpretar os sentidos e significados configurados no processo de alfabetização do Instituto Nacional de Educação de Adultos (INEA) sobre a personalidade dos alunos. Para atingir esse objetivo, etnografia e entrevista são utilizadas como recursos metodológicos que permitem recuperar as experiências de alunos e educadores na rotina educacional. As informações foram interpretadas utilizando a técnica de análise temática proposta por Van Manen (2003), obtendo a recuperação dos sentidos e significados dos agentes educacionais participantes. Os resultados obtidos na análise temática permitem identificar o impacto que a alfabetização tem no desenvolvimento da personalidade, devido ao seu caráter comunicativo, mediação, representação da realidade e intercâmbio de significados.
... И именно эта модель взаимоотношений преподавателя и студента является сегодня императивом в современных условиях. Эксперты выявили особенность: русские склонны брать на себя больше ответственности, чем американцы, но только тогда, когда об этом просят, а не требуют, и -если этого просит семья или друзья, но не власти или незнакомцы [17]. Поэтому успешное внедре-ние описанной модели в учебный процесс в вузе, создание доверительной, дружественной атмосферы позволят выпускнику транслировать усвоенные гуманистические нормы профессионально-ответственного поведения в коммуникации с работодателями и коллегами. ...
The article substantiates the relevance of the professional responsibility development of a university graduate. The contradictions between the need for specialists with a high level of professional responsibility and the insufficiently realized potential of universities in its development is revealed. The purpose of the paper is to substantiate the features and pedagogical conditions for the development of professional responsibility of the future information security specialist in a university environment. The theory of responsibility as a manifestation of a person's inner freedom, and the theory of the evolution of corporate culture paradigms were used as methodological basis. The theoretical significance of the study is in the identification of specific factors in the development of professional responsibility of future information security specialists based on the characteristics of their future activities. The scientific novelty of the work is in the substantiation of the pedagogical conditions for the development of professional responsibility of the future information security specialist in a university environment.
... As anxious students begin to internalize the belief that their instructor views them as capable and worthy, their self-confidence should increase, and their overdependence on instructors for reassurance and approval should decrease (Mikulciner & Shaver, 2016). Finally, instructors can both challenge and support students' development of autonomous functioning by increasing students' self-awareness and endorsement of their own actions (Sheldon et al., 2018). Rather than telling students what to do, instructors can ask them questions like "What do you think? ...
Greater attention to the intersection of cognitive, emotional, and motivational variables/dynamics may provide the most promising future directions for teaching and learning. Here we consider the intersection of growth mindset, attachment, and self-determination theory among first-year students. More specifically, we considered whether attachment theory (e.g., relationship functioning) and self-determination theory (e.g., autonomous functioning) might inform the trajectory of student success by influencing the extent to which students are able to mobilize a growth mindset when they encounter academic struggles.
... 9. Шкала персональной ответственности (Sheldon et al., 2018), состоящая из 8 пунктов, измеряет уровень личной ответственности человека за собственные действия (␣ = 0.78). ...
The article examines the relationship between characteristics of text messages, composed by users of social network (VKontakte), and intelligence. The analysis is conducted on the regional level: we compared the regional IQ with the text parameters averaged over the users living in one region. The text parameters include formal, grammatical and emotional indexes. The regional IQ is computed as an average z-score of the Unified State Examination score (high school entrants, 2018) and IQ score of the attendees to the volunteer military service. Four text parameters that can be considered as markers of the text cognitive complexity (mean word length, mean sentence length, percent of the parenthetic words and phrases, percent of the simple propositions) predicted regional IQ independently and explained 60% of its variance. Emotional index correlates with regional IQ, but does not predict regional IQ independently of cognitive complexity markers. Moreover, we revealed correlations between regional IQ and literacy of VKontakte users. The significancy of these results is creating the new IQ measure, which allows evaluating regional IQ and its dynamics by means of text analysis. The method has an advantage over the traditional psychometric IQ measures in this field of research. © 2021 National Research University Higher School of Economics. All rights reserved.
... Responsibility is a state or fact of something. When people are responsible, they are entitled to accept the consequences of positive or negative results [18]. This paper focuses on students' responsibilities. ...
... The extrinsic aim/extrinsic reason complex directly references acquisitiveness, in combination with a rationale that one is doing it at the behest of external forces. This decoupling of self from prescription may provide a ready-made excuse, licensing the commitment of immoral acts (Sheldon et al., 2018). The Nuremberg defense that "I was only following orders" illustrates the risk that this line of thinking poses for moral behavior. ...
We created a life-goal assessment drawing from self-determination theory and achievement goal literature, examining its predictive power regarding immoral behavior and subjective well-being. Our source items assessed direction and energization of motivation, via the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic aims and between intrinsic and extrinsic reasons for acting, respectively. Fused source items assessed four goal complexes representing a combination of direction and energization. Across three studies (Ns = 109, 121, and 398), the extrinsic aim/extrinsic reason complex was consistently associated with immoral and/or unethical behavior beyond four source and three other goal complex variables. This was consistent with the triangle model of responsibility’s claim that immoral behaviors may result when individuals disengage the self from moral prescriptions. The extrinsic/extrinsic complex also predicted lower subjective well-being, albeit less consistently. Our goal complex approach sheds light on how self-determination theory’s goal contents and organismic integration mini-theories interact, particularly with respect to unethical behavior.
This chapter attempts to address the issue of freedom-responsibility nexus in the era of Education 5.0, defining and establishing the rationale between freedom and responsibility and their resilience in the educational realm through reviewing relevant literature from various respects steering towards education and particularly Education 5.0. This chapter also discusses the space of freedom anticipated and the extent of responsibility it places. It also discusses the opportunities and challenges that freedom-responsibility nexus in the era of Education 5.0 is prone to offer. The intersection between freedom, responsibility and education is further demonstrated with reference to historical and philosophical perspectives, and through analyzing three relevant case studies from different contexts to recommend a three-pillar method for introducing the change into education. Bearing in mind the impact of conceptualizing and reconceptualizing the nexus across freedom, responsibility and education alongside the massive new possibilities Education 5.0 offers.
Purpose
The New York Times has suggested replacing sustainable fashion with responsible fashion, emphasizing the need for joint efforts by both individual consumers and retailers to take responsibility for their own decisions and actions. This study seeks to investigate the mechanism that activates individuals' personal social responsibility (PSR) and its association with their perceived corporate social responsibility (CSR) from a responsible luxury fashion retailer.
Design/methodology/approach
An online experiment was conducted with a nationwide US sample of luxury consumers who were randomly assigned to either individuation or deindividuation groups. Covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) and multi-group SEM were employed to test the hypotheses.
Findings
Individuals' universalism positively affected PSR, which then enhanced their recognition of a responsible luxury retailer’s CSR and led to a greater willingness to pay a premium. More importantly, the positive effect of universalism on PSR was strengthened when consumers’ unique individuality, rather than their deindividuated state, was emphasized. Moreover, the moderating effect of individuation was indirectly transmitted through PSR to perceived CSR, hence reinforcing the relationship between PSR and CSR.
Originality/value
This study significantly advances existing scholarship on sustainable luxury retailing and adds rigor to deindividuation theory by demonstrating the central role of PSR and the moderating effect of individuation in enhancing recognition of a luxury fashion retailer’s CSR commitments. The findings provide luxury fashion retailers with communication and marketing strategies that highlight consumers' unique individuality to more effectively activate their sense of personal responsibility and thereby increase their recognition of the retailer’s CSR.
The concept of personal social responsibility is a crucial notion that significantly impacts both individuals and society as a whole. Individuals' embrace of social responsibility leads to positive developments economically, ecologically, psychologically, and socially. It also plays a protective role factor against potential risks and crises. The purpose of this research is to adapt the Personal Social Responsibility Scale into Turkish and to test its validity and reliability within the context of a sample from Turkey. The research sample comprises 223 individuals between the ages of 20 and 65 years, including 111 males and 112 females, all of whom have a steady income. Translation efforts were conducted in line with the research objective, followed by the use of confirmatory factor analysis and discriminant validity methods to test validity and reliability. The confirmatory factor analysis resulted in the desired fit and item-total correlation values, ensuring the expected differentiation regarding the scale. As a result, a valid, reliable, and practical tool for assessing the level of personal social responsibility within the Turkish sample was developed through this research.
p>One of the key issues in contemporary psychology is a correlation between determinism and indeterminism in understanding human behaviour. Autonomy as self-determined behaviour, as an individual's autonomous choice of behaviour, is one of the most significant and sought-after constructs in the study of personality functioning. In E. Deci and R. Ryan's self-determination theory (SDT), the need for autonomy is one of the basic innate needs of the personality, and this confirms the need for a person to feel as an actor, an initiator, the cause of one's own life and to act in harmony with one's integrated Self. The article presents the procedure of adaptation of the Russian-language version of the “Index of Autonomous Functioning” (IAF) developed within the macro-theory of self-determination by E. Deci and R. Ryan. The methodology assesses the need for autonomy, including such characteristics as authorship in life, self-interest and susceptibility to external control. In the article we studied the results of reliability and accuracy assessment (Cronbach's coefficient – 0,774) on a sample of 689 university students in Saint Petersburg. The structure of the questionnaire had three scales: authorship, susceptibility to control, and interest. Correlation analysis confirmed the correlation of the scales with other methods of measuring autonomous behavior, such as "Subjective Quality of Choice", "The Existence Scale", "World Assumptions Scale" and "Stolin Self-Relationship Questionnaire". Testing of diagnostic sensitivity of the Russian version of the questionnaire showed positive results, revealing significant level differences between three clusters: respondents with high, medium and low autonomous functioning index, as well as significant differences in gender and level of education of the respondents. A positive correlation was found between the overall IAF score, the interest-taking subscale, and the age of respondents (within Russian sample). According to the results, the Russian-language version of the “Index of Autonomous Functioning” has good psychometric characteristics and can be used as a qualitative research tool.</p
In this paper, we introduce the construct of proactive auditing behaviors to the accounting literature and report the first experimental investigation of their antecedents. Regulators and practitioners agree that proactive behaviors are needed to consistently achieve high quality audit outcomes, but also that these behaviors are scarce. Drawing on theory from management, accounting, and psychology, we predict that an environmental factor (autonomy) and a dispositional factor (tacit knowledge) interact to increase a range of distinct proactive auditing behaviors. These behaviors involve responding to evidence that has out‐of‐task implications, coordinating with clients to acquire task‐related evidence, and two forms of coaching junior auditors. As predicted, we find that auditors are more proactive when they have both higher autonomy and higher tacit knowledge than when they lack either or both of these factors. Our theory and findings inform academics, regulators, and practitioners about the types of work environments and policies that can promote auditor proactivity successfully.
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İnsan yaşamının gelişim evrelerinden biri olan, hayatın gençlik ve yaşlılık arasındaki kısmı olarak nitelendirilen orta yetişkinlik, gelişimin tepe noktası olarak ifade edilmekte ve yaşam serüveninin verimli yılları olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, ifade edilen verimli yıllar içerisinde insanın yaşam serüveninde etkin rol oynadığı düşünülen orta yetişkinlik döneminde sorumluluk ve dindarlık kavramı ele alınacaktır. Bu bağlamda çalışmanın amacı, orta yetişkinlik döneminde bulunan bireylerin sorumluluk ve dindarlık düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkiyi ve orta yetişkinlerin sorumluluk ve dindarlık düzeylerinin bazı demografik değişkenlere (cinsiyet, yaş, medeni durum, gelir durumu) göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını incelemektir. Araştırma 2022 yılında, Samsun ve Ordu illerinde ikamet etmekte olan, 35-55 yaş aralığında bulunan, kolay örnekleme yöntemiyle seçilmiş 365 orta yetişkin üzerinde yürütülmüştür. Araştırmada kullanılan veriler Kişisel Bilgi Formu, Sorumluluk Duygusu ve Davranışı Ölçeği ve Dindarlık Ölçeği ile toplanmıştır. Araştırmada nicel araştırma modellerinden ilişkisel tarama yöntemi kullanılmış olup online uygulama sonucunda elde edilen veriler SPSS 22 paket programı ile analiz edilmiştir. Veriler normal dağılım göstermediğinden gruplar arası farklılaşmayı tespit etmek için ikili gruplandırmalarda Mann Whitney U ve çoklu gruplandırmalarda Kruskal Wallis H testi uygulanırken, sorumluluk ve dindarlık arasındaki ilişkinin anlamlılığını, kuvvetini ve yönünü belirlemek için Spearman Brown (Korelasyon) analizi uygulanmıştır. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, orta yetişkinlerin sorumluluk duygu ve davranış düzeylerinin cinsiyete göre farklılık gösterdiği, gelir durumuna göre ise sorumluluk duygu düzeylerinde farklılık gösterip davranış düzeylerinde farklılık göstermediği ve yaş, medeni durum gibi demografik değişkenlere göre sorumluluğun hem duygu hem de davranış boyutunda anlamlı bir farklılık göstermediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Orta yetişkinlerin dindarlık düzeyleri ise cinsiyet, yaş, gelir ve medeni duruma göre incelendiğinde yapılan analizler neticesinde anlamlı bir farklılık gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte araştırmanın temel problemini teşkil eden orta yetişkinlerin sorumluluk duygu ve davranışı ile dindarlık düzeyleri arasında ise anlamlı bir ilişkinin olduğu görülmektedir. Buna göre sorumluluk ile dindarlık arasında hem duygu hem de davranış boyutunda pozitif yönde ve orta düzeyde bir ilişkinin olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.
Social pathologies have been recognised to be very complex problems as they affect the individual's psychology as well as his/her body. As a result, they have been approached from a normativist way as well as a naturist way by considering society as an organic or normative entity. There is no consensus whether social pathologies are the result of social ills that affect the individual or the reverse. Whichever way one approaches them, they are there, and a social pedagogue is the key to alleviating or minimising the impact of such pathologies on the individual and society at large. His/her role in making such valuable contribution can not be disputed. Due to a great number of factors that give rise to such pathologies as they are context and content dependent, one size does not fit all. It is the social pedagogue that has to act in a prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic way and thus his/her role needs to be clearly defined.
Эксплицитные и имплицитные положительные и отрицательные эмоции измерялись у 151 человека ежедневно в течение месяца. В течение этого месяца испытуемые (студенты бакалавриата – 85 человек) находились в стрессовой ситуации, вызванной участием в интенсивном образовательном курсе, а остальные 66 были первокурсниками, и их стресс был вызван причинами адаптации. Динамические характеристики для каждого испытуемого по четырем видам эмоций измерялись с помощью энтропии Шеннона и лямбда-параметра из логистического отображения, позволяющего описать уровень каждой эмоции в момент времени (n + 1) как функцию от уровня той же эмоции в момент n. Для сравнения в качестве статических характеристик процесса были рассчитаны средние значения и дисперсии. Один раз каждый испытуемый проходил тестирование по методикам личностного потенциала, определяющим характеристики, реализующие оптимальное личностное функционирование или препятствующие ему (аспекты саморегуляции, стили личностного взаимодействия и различные виды деятельности). Знаки корреляций статических показателей (средние и дисперсии) с личностными характеристиками гораздо легче интерпретировать, чем знаки корреляций динамических показателей. Статические показатели положительных эмоций положительно коррелируют с характеристиками личностного потенциала, а статические показатели отрицательных эмоций связанны с характеристиками, которые препятствуют оптимальному функционированию человека. Эмоциональная активация в динамическом аспекте (общий уровень одноточечных аттракторов и для положительных, и для отрицательных эмоций в человеке, то есть тех значений, к которым стремится процесс в отсутствие внешнего влияния) положительно коррелирует с чертами личного потенциала. То есть здесь важен общий эмоциональный фон – уровень одновременного выражения положительных или отрицательных эмоций, а не знак эмоций. Взаимосвязь между личностными характеристиками и показателями эмоционального состояния для эксплицитного и имплицитного уровня проявляется по-разному. На имплицитном уровне в большей степени выражены связи с динамическими показателями (энтропия, аттрактор), а для эксплицитного уровня значимыми являются корреляции со статическими показателями эмоциональных состояний (среднее, дисперсия). Можно предположить, что эмоциональные состояния, определенные на эксплицитном уровне, в большей степени отражают стабильные личностные качества, а не динамику эмоциональных состояний.
Background: Health professionals must change the ethics of the "third person", where moral actions carried out by other people are judged as correct / incorrect, for the ethics of the first person oriented to personal excellence, vocation to good and to dignity of a person. Objective: To explore the knowledge and ethical training of health professionals working in the field of Nephrology. Method: A survey of 37 items on the basic notions of ethics was applied to the participants of the annual IMIN Meeting. Results: 85 surveys were obtained, 79% think that the laws enacted today respond to economic interests; 82% express that we cannot accept moral absolutes, however, 89% think that practical reason that directs our behavior recognizes human good in search of plenitude. 44% feel that it is not possible to act according to justice on a regular basis, and 94% express that virtue ethics look to the integral good of the person. Conclusions: The philosophical reflection, so typical of the human being, constitutes an ethical requirement in search of the truth of the good that must be chosen to achieve fullness, in the work of health agents in the field of Nephrology. Keywords: bioethics, nephrology, personal autonomy.
This book addresses the sustainability of happiness and well-being in Chinese societies. It starts by introducing the various conceptions of well-being, particularly in the Chinese sociocultural context.
The book then proceeds with the examination of the sustainability of well-being by scrutinizing the effects of sociocultural, contextual, and personal factors on well-being. The contextual factors are the aggregates or averages of personal factors at the contextual levels of the regions and colleges in Mainland China, its special administrative region, and Taiwan. These factors cover personality traits, strengths, orientations, beliefs, values, and idolizing.
By bringing together empirical studies and theoretical perspectives applied to Chinese societies, this book offers researchers in social science and humanities a valuable reference work on happiness and well-being in Chinese societies.
This qualitative research seeks to investigate the characteristics of construction and enactment of teacher professionalism and its changes, through a qualitative study carried out in a Chinese higher educational institution. To achieve this, the study examined the factors contributing to the formation and change of the characteristics based on the three rounds of semi-structured interviews with fifteen participants from a University in China. The findings show that teachers‘ professional responsibility is a multi-faceted and relatively stable concept and plays an important role in their perceptions of professionalism. The findings also reveal that factors including personal biography, institutional environment and social culture intertwine to shape the formation, fluctuation and development of responsibility. In addition, the study reveals that responsibility is an expression of a particular professional identity and identity is an indication of the strength of responsibility. Both professional responsibility and identity serve as important integral aspects of professionalism. Moreover, teacher professional responsibility has significant impact on teacher passion and agency in enacting professionalism and professional development. The research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of teacher professionalism by identifying teacher professional responsibility as the core element of professionalism in the context of Chinese higher education. This research also serves to add knowledge about, and advance the understanding of professional responsibility, identity and professionalism by uncovering explicit connections among them. This research has important implications for higher education front-line teachers by developing their awareness of the importance that needs to be attached to the maintenance and development of professional responsibility. It also serves to raise university policy makers' awareness of the significant influence the leadership, nature of institution and policies could exert on teachers and to suggest that leaders re-examine the way they design policy and the support they provide to the teachers.
This study aims to clarify the methodological status of the category “activity experience”. A sample of the study consists of first-year students of a Moscow university. Study 1 (N = 104) attended by respondent aged 17 to 28 years (M = 18.30; SD = 1.40), 82% are female, and in study 2 (N = 93), aged 17 to 28 20 years old (M = 18.02; SD = 0.61), 55% are female. Study 2 includes three measurements of activity-related experiences with an interval of 10—15 days. We use the Activity-Related Experience Assessment (AREA), the Universal Perceived Locus of Causality Scale (UPLOC), the Responsibility Scale, and a brief version of the Psychological Health Continuum. The results of the study demonstrate that the activity-related experiences are neither personality traits, that are inherent in the individual regardless of situations, nor emotional states that change over time. Evidence of reliability, construct validity and criterion validity of the Activity-Related Experiences Assessment Scale is given. The measure of academic success is better predicted not by those experiences that are manifested during study activities, but those that arise along on the way to university. There is a slight effect of the influence of time on the measure of effort.
Objective:
We examined the mechanisms involved in integrating positive and negative ingroup identities, as well as related outcomes.
Method:
In three experiments, participants (N=332) high and low in autonomy identified either positive or negative aspects of their ingroup, and then indicated the extent to which they integrated the attribute.
Results:
Those high in personal autonomy integrated both positive and negative identities, whereas those low in autonomy acknowledged only positive identities. Study 2 showed that, regardless of identity valence, those high in autonomy felt satisfied and close with their group. Conversely, those low in autonomy felt less close and more dissatisfied with their group after reflecting on negative identities. Finally, reflecting on a negative identity reduced prejudice, but only for those high in autonomy.
Conclusions:
Owning up to negative group traits is facilitated by autonomy and demonstrates benefits for ingroup and intergroup processes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Like other fundamental needs, recent studies have shown that the need for autonomy elicits goal-ori- ented behaviors that aim to its restoration when it is thwarted. However, no research has yet examined the factors that moderate the restoration process. In the present studies, we investigated the moderating role of perceived competence in the restoration of autonomy. We monitored autonomy restoration behaviors by assessing the extent to which participants turn away from a controlling function in a computerized puzzle task. Across the two studies, the results suggested that, in comparison with baseline partic- ipants, autonomy-deprived participants acted to regain their autonomy but only when their level of perceived compe- tence in the task was high. When perceived competence was low, participants disengaged from autonomy restora- tion, seemingly to favor competence. These findings are discussed using self-determination theory and models of stress and coping.
The importance of autonomous motivation in improving self-regulation has been a focal topic of motivation research for almost 3 decades. Despite this extensive research, however, there has not yet been a mechanistic account of how autonomous motivation works to boost self-regulatory functioning. To address this issue, we examined the role of autonomy in 2 basic self-regulation tasks while recording a neural signal of self-regulation failure (i.e., the error-related negativity; ERN). Based on the notion that autonomy improves self-regulation, we anticipated that autonomous motivation would enhance neuroaffective responsiveness to self-regulatory failure and thus improve performance relative to controlled motivation. In Study 1 (N = 43), we found that trait autonomy was positively associated with self-regulatory performance and that this effect was mediated by increased brain-based sensitivity to self-regulation failure, as demonstrated by a larger ERN. Study 2 (N = 55) replicated and extended this pattern using an experimental manipulation of autonomy; when autonomous motivation was contextually supported, task performance increased relative to those for whom autonomy was undermined and those in a neutral condition. In addition, this effect was mediated by both increased perceptions of autonomy and larger ERN amplitudes. These findings offer deeper insight into the links among motivational orientation, brain-based performance monitoring, and self-regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Philosophers working in the nascent field of 'experimental philosophy' have begun using methods borrowed from psychology to collect data about folk intuitions concerning debates ranging from action theory to ethics to epistemology. In this paper we present the results of our attempts to apply this approach to the free will debate, in which philosophers on opposing sides claim that their view best accounts for and accords with folk intuitions. After discussing the motivation for such research, we describe our methodology of surveying people's prephilosophical judgments about the freedom and responsibility of agents in deterministic scenarios. In two studies, we found that a majority of participants judged that such agents act of their own free will and are morally responsible for their actions. We then discuss the philosophical implications of our results as well as various difficulties inherent in such research.
Exerting self-control appears to deplete a needed resource, which leads to poorer self-control subsequently. However, the
amount of depletion may vary, based on how controlling versus autonomy supportive the situation is. In particular, feeling
compelled to exert self-control may deplete more strength than having more freedom when exerting self-control. In three experiments,
participants who were given performance contingent rewards to exert self-control performed more poorly on a subsequent test
of self-control than participants who were non-contingent rewards. There were no differences in mood, arousal, or anxiety
between the groups; however, feelings of autonomy were related to self-control performance. The results have implications
for understanding self-control depletion, as well as the impact of autonomous motivation on self-control performance.
ObjectivesBased on the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [Vallerand, R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 271–360). New York: Academic Press], the purpose of this study was to propose and test a model which posits that coaches' autonomy support facilitates athletes' self-determined motivation toward a sport activity (i.e., judo). Self-determined motivation promotes athletes' situational self-determined motivation before a competition, that in turn, predicts their sport performance.MethodA total of 101 judokas completed questionnaires after the weighting session (i.e., between one and two hours before the beginning of the competitive event). Athletes' objective performance during the competition was obtained via the French Judo Federation.ResultsResults from structural equation modeling analyses provided support for the hypothesized model. These results are in accordance with self-determination theory and the hierarchical model.ConclusionsBy showing that coaches' autonomy support facilitates self-determined motivation and sport performance, the present findings have important implications for a better understanding of the determinants of athletes' performance.
When individuals grow up with autonomy-thwarting parents, they may be prevented from exploring internally endorsed values and identities and as a result shut out aspects of the self perceived to be unacceptable. Given the stigmatization of homosexuality, individuals perceiving low autonomy support from parents may be especially motivated to conceal same-sex sexual attraction, leading to defensive processes such as reaction formation. Four studies tested a model wherein perceived parental autonomy support is associated with lower discrepancies between self-reported sexual orientation and implicit sexual orientation (assessed with a reaction time task). These indices interacted to predict anti-gay responding indicative of reaction formation. Studies 2-4 showed that an implicit/explicit discrepancy was particularly pronounced in participants who experienced their fathers as both low in autonomy support and homophobic, though results were inconsistent for mothers. Findings of Study 3 suggested contingent self-esteem as a link between parenting styles and discrepancies in sexual orientation measures.
Autonomy is described by self-determination theory as a basic psychological need, essential for individuals' well-being. While basic needs are generally thought to induce a restorative response when thwarted, evidence for such a process is lacking for autonomy. To date, most evidence indicates that autonomy deprivation leads to disaffection of this need in favor of other motives. A temporal model based on the general adaptation syndrome was adapted to reconcile this seeming contradiction. Specifically, it is hypothesized that an early alarm response aimed at restoring the satisfaction of the need for autonomy should precede the later relinquishment and compensation of this need that would result from a prolonged deprivation. Three studies provide support for this model by showing the existence of the immediate autonomy restorative response. Using a controlling situation to manipulate autonomy deprivation, the authors demonstrate in Experiments 1 and 2 that a controlling context leads to enhanced accessibility and an approach bias for autonomy-related stimuli. Experiment 3 indicates that the urge to restore autonomy can also affect personal judgment, leading individuals to make more independent judgments, exercising a nonreactive form of autonomy. Integration of this model within self-determination theory is discussed.
In this article we suggest that events and contexts relevant to the initiation and regulation of intentional behavior can function either to support autonomy (i.e., to promote choice) or to control behavior (i.e., to pressure one toward specific outcomes). Research herein reviewed indicates that this distinction is relevant to specific external events and to general interpersonal contexts as well as to specific internal events and to general personality orientations. That is, the distinction is relevant whether one's analysis focuses on social psychological variables or on personality variables. The research review details those contextual and person factors that tend to promote autonomy and those that tend to control. Furthermore, it shows that autonomy support has generally been associated with more intrinsic motivation, greater interest, less pressure and tension, more creativity, more cognitive flexibility, better conceptual learning, a more positive emotional tone, higher self-esteem, more trust, greater persistence of behavior change, and better physical and psychological health than has control. Also, these results have converged across different assessment procedures, different research methods, and different subject populations. On the basis of these results, we present an organismic perspective in which we argue that the regulation of intentional behavior varies along a continuum from autonomous (i.e., self-determined) to controlled. The relation of this organismic perspective to historical developments in empirical psychology is discussed, with a particular emphasis on its implications for the study of social psychology and personality.
A culpable control model is advanced to describe the conditions that encourage as well as mitigate blame and to assess the process by which blame and mitigation occur. The fundamental assumptions of the model are that evidence concerning harmful events is scrutinized for its contribution to personal control and spontaneously evaluated for its favorableness or unfavorableness. Spontaneous evaluations encourage a blame-validation mode of processing in which evidence concerning the event is reviewed in a manner that favors ascribing blame to the person or persons who evoke the most negative affect or whose behavior confirms unfavorable expectations. The author delineates the elements of perceived control and then discusses spontaneous evaluation influences on control and blame assessments. The blame-validation process is described next. Finally, the culpable control model is compared with extant theories of blame and responsibility and its basic tenets summarized.
Despite impressive advances in recent years with respect to theory and research, personality psychology has yet to articulate clearly a comprehensive framework for understanding the whole person. In an effort to achieve that aim, the current article draws on the most promising empirical and theoretical trends in personality psychology today to articulate 5 big principles for an integrative science of the whole person. Personality is conceived as (a) an individual's unique variation on the general evolutionary design for human nature, expressed as a developing pattern of (b) dispositional traits, (c) characteristic adaptations, and (d) self-defining life narratives, complexly and differentially situated (e) in culture and social context. The 5 principles suggest a framework for integrating the Big Five model of personality traits with those self-defining features of psychological individuality constructed in response to situated social tasks and the human need to make meaning in culture.
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
Individual differences researchers very commonly report Pearson correlations between their variables of interest. Cohen (1988) provided guidelines for the purposes of interpreting the magnitude of a correlation, as well as estimating power. Specifically, r = 0.10, r = 0.30, and r = 0.50 were recommended to be considered small, medium , and large in magnitude, respectively. However, Cohen's effect size guidelines were based principally upon an essentially qualitative impression, rather than a systematic, quantitative analysis of data. Consequently, the purpose of this investigation was to develop a large sample of previously published meta-analytically derived correlations which would allow for an evaluation of Cohen's guidelines from an empirical perspective. Based on 708 meta-analytically derived correlations, the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles corresponded to correlations of 0.11, 0.19, and 0.29, respectively. Based on the results, it is suggested that Cohen's correlation guidelines are too exigent, as b3% of correlations in the literature were found to be as large as r = 0.50. Consequently, in the absence of any other information, individual differences researchers are recommended to consider correlations of 0.10, 0.20, and 0.30 as relatively small, typical, and relatively large, in the context of a power analysis, as well as the interpretation of statistical results from a normative perspective.
Baumeister discusses determinism and reductionism with emphases on self-regulation and conscious and meaningful causation of behavior. Baumeister concludes that freedom exists but can only be seen by looking at the proper level of analysis. In their comments, Holton questions some of Baumeister's philosophical moves, and then Payne and Cameron suggest new psychological methods (centrally the process dissociation procedure) to better understand conscious intentions and their causal roles. Baumeister responds appreciatively but defends his claim that “rational choice deserves a role in a psychological theory of free will.”
Self-determination theory is grounded in the belief that people work best and are happiest when they feel that they are in control of their own lives. This invaluable book explains the ramifications of the theory and provides clinical examples to show that it can be used to motivate patients undergoing treatment for such physical or psychological issues as diabetes management, smoking cessation, post-traumatic stress, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression. The first part of the book provides historical background to self-determination theory, showing that it is humanistically oriented and has three decades of empirical research behind it. In the process, the authors discuss why humanistic psychology fell out of favor in academic psychology; why "self-help" and New Age books have such perennial popularity; and why it is so important for authorities to support patients' sense of self. The remainder of the book presents many specific case examples to describe the theory's application. © 2003 by Kennon M. Sheldon, Geoffrey Williams, and Thomas Joiner. All rights reserved.
The subject of this paper is a certain strength inherent in the age of youth. I call it the sense of and the capacity for Fidelity. Such a strength, to me, is not a moral trait to be acquired by individual effort. Rather, I believe it to be part of the human equipment evolved with socio-genetic evolution. This assertion I could not undertake to defend here; nor could I make plausible the fact that, in the schedule of individual growth, Fidelity could not mature earlier in life and must not, in the crises of youth, fail its time of ascendance if human adaptation is to remain intact. Nor (to complete the list of limitations) could I review the other stages of life and the specific strengths and weaknesses contributed by each to man’s precarious adaptation. We can take only a brief look at the stage of life which immediately precedes youth, the school age, and then turn to youth itself. I regret this; for even as one can understand oneself only by looking at and away from oneself, one can recognize the meaning of a stage only by studying it in the context of all the others.
Autonomy supportive (rather than controlling) coaching has been shown to be important for motivating athletes and for boosting their performance. However, is this especially true for elite-level athletes, who presumably face greater stress and performance pressure? To address this question we surveyed 264 student athletes (141 recreational, 83 club sport, and 40 varsity) playing on sports teams at a U.S. public university. As expected, varsity athletes were higher than the other groups in external reward motivation and lower in intrinsic motivation. Consistent with past selfdetermination theory findings, coach's autonomy supportive behavior predicted intrinsic and identified motivation in all athletes, and also positive appraisals of the team experience. Most importantly, coach's autonomy support was a significantly stronger predictor of these outcomes in the varsity compared to the recreational and club groups. These findings suggest that elite-level coaches should make special efforts to be autonomy supportive (rather than controlling) with their athletes.
Despite the wealth of information which exists concerning environmental behavior, it is not known which variable or variables appear to be most influential in motivating individuals to take responsible environmental action. A meta-analysis of environmental behavior research was undertaken in an attempt to determine this. An exhaustive search of the empirically based environmental behavior research conducted over the past decade yielded a substantial number of studies representative of a broad academic base. The characteristics and findings of these studies served as the data for the meta-analysis. As a result of the meta-analysis, the following variables were found to be associated with responsible environmental behavior: knowledge of issues, knowledge of action strategies, locus of control, attitudes, verbal commitment, and an individual's sense of responsibility. A model of predictors of environmental behavior is proposed.
In three experimental studies, with managers and students as participants, we explore in this paper the relation between two kinds of responsibility judgments, called Responsibility 1 (R1) and Responsibility 2 (R2). Decision makers can be viewed as being more or less responsible for their choice and its consequences (R1). Their actions can also be evaluated, from a normative point of view, as instances of more or less responsible behavior (R2). Experiment 1 showed that managers who depart from the default or “normal” course of action, by choosing a new (versus familiar) alternative, changing (versus sticking to) an initial decision, or going against (versus following) the advice of a management team, are rated as more responsible (R1) for the outcomes of their decision. At the same time, they are perceived to act in a less responsible way (R2). Experiment 2 compared decision makers choosing between more or less risky options. High risk takers were held more responsible (R1) for their choice and for its consequences, but were again viewed as behaving in a less responsible way (R2) than low risk takers. In Experiment 3, participants judged decision makers who followed or opposed others' advice by choosing either a high or a low risk option. Opposing others' advice led to higher R1 and lower R2 scores, especially when choosing the high risk option, moderated by outcome (successful decisions appearing more responsible than those that went wrong). Thus R1 and R2 judgments should be distinguished as having different and sometimes even opposite determinants.
A growing interest in the functional importance of dispositional autonomy led to the development and validation of the Index of Autonomous Functioning (IAF) across seven studies. The IAF provides a measure of trait autonomy based on three theoretically derived subscales assessing authorship/self-congruence, interest-taking, and low susceptibility to control. Results showed consistency within and across subscales, and appropriate placement within a nomological network of constructs. Diary studies demonstrated IAF relations with higher well-being, greater daily satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and more autonomous engagement in daily activities. Using an experimental approach, the IAF was shown to predict more positive interactions among dyads. The studies provided a systematic development and validation of a measure of autonomy that is brief and reliable.
A new measurement tool for individualism and collectivism has been developed to address critical methodological issues in this field of social psychology. This new measure, the Auckland Individualism and Collectivism Scale (AICS), defines three dimensions of individualism: (a) responsibility (acknowledging one's responsibility for one's actions), (b) uniqueness (distinction of the self from the other), and (c) competitiveness (striving for personal goals is one's prime interest). The scale also defines two dimensions of collectivism: (a) advice (seeking advice from people close to one, before taking decisions) and (b) harmony (seeking to avoid conflict). The AICS avoids the need for measuring horizontal and vertical dimensions of collectivism and individualism and the confounding effect of familialism on the collectivism-individualism constructs.
A 1993 survey of Moscow adults explored the on going relevance of the authoritarian personality in Russia following the colapse of communism. Authoritarianism correlated positively with procommunist beliefs and negatively with support for capitalist and democratic reforms, but these relationships were weaker than in 1989 and 1991. Among those low in communist beliefs only, authoritarianism predicted increased religious faith. Russian, like American, authoritarianism predicted negative attitudes toward people with AIDS and environmentalists. However, Russian authoritarianism, opposite to American authoritarianism, provokes blaming society rather than the individual for homelessness and poverty. These results appear compatible with both authoritarianism theory and differing American-Russian conventional norms.
Although some have suggested that humanistic theories and quantitative methodologies are inherently contradictory, this article will try to demonstrate that they can be quite complementary. To this end, the authors will review their own findings with regard to the nature of “positive motivation,” research that has been based in humanistic theoretical ideas but that also has employed state-of-the-art quantitative methodologies, longitudinal designs, and causal modeling techniques. First, the article discusses numerous studies that have shown that striving for authentic, self-concordant reasons yields greater goal attainment and enhanced well-being. Second, the article reviews evidence that well-being and relationship quality are also better when people orient toward intrinsic values such as intimacy, community, and growth, rather than extrinsic values such as status, money, and image. The authors conclude that the positive psychology movement offers important new opportunities to bridge the gap between humanistic and more mainstream psychologies, to the potential enrichment of both fields.
Management as the word is presently used is an American invention. In other parts of the world not only the practices but the entire concept of management may differ, and the theories needed to understand it, may deviate considerably from what is considered normal and desirable in the USA. The reader is invited on a trip around the world, and both local management practices and theories are explained from the different contexts and histories of the places visited: Germany, Japan, France, Holland, the countries of the overseas Chinese, South-East Asia, Africa, Russia, and finally mainland China. A model in which worldwide differences in national cultures are categorized according to five independent dimensions helps in explaining the differences in management found; although the situation in each country or region has unique characteristics that no model can account for. One practical application of the model is in demonstrating the relative position of the U.S. versus other parts of the world. In a global perspective, U.S. management theories contain a number of idiosyncracies not necessarily shared by management elsewhere. Three such indiosyncracies are mentioned: a stress on market processes, a stress on the individual, and a focus on managers rather than on workers. A plea is made for an internationalization not only of business, but also of management theories, as a way of enriching theories at the national level.
Subjective well-being (SWB) is defined as people's evaluations of their lives, and includes variables such as life satisfaction, the frequent experience of pleasant emotions, the infrequent experience of unpleasant emotions, satisfaction with domains such as marriage and work, and feelings of fulfillment and meaning. In this chapter we first describe the basic findings on levels of SWB in Asian versus nonAsian nations, as well as whether the causes of SWB are universal or vary across societies. We conclude that Asian nations show diverse levels of SWB, and that the low levels of SWB in certain of these countries occur for several reasons, such as cultural norms, poverty, and deteriorating economic conditions. We next discuss a few of the more technical and complex issues that are often raised in analyzing differences in SWB across cultures. We discuss whether SWB is a desirable characteristic, and what we know about the consequences of happiness. Several implications of the SWB findings for governance and economic policy are described.
The tort law system is designed to assure that a harmed individual has recourse to the legal system. That serves the common good. Over the past few decades, however, tort law has changed so that it now encourages lawsuits designed to maximize recovery regardless of culpability. This comes at great expense to the community-affirming values of apology, acceptance of responsibility, and forgiveness. As legislators and judges consider reforms, the goal must be to return to a system which affirms the dignity of the person and affirms the community by placing blame only on those who are truly responsible.
The proposition, derived from self-determination theory (SDT), that autonomy-support has a positive effect on self-motivation and well-being, is examined in two distinct cultural settings. Participants were 264 high school students from Russia and the United States who completed measures of perceived parental- and teacher-autonomy-support, academic motivation, and well-being. Means and covariance structure analyses were used to examine the cultural comparability of measured constructs. Results supported the hypotheses that Russian adolescents would perceive parents and teachers as more controlling than U.S. students; and in both samples, perceived autonomy-support would predict greater academic self-motivation and well-being. Results are discussed in terms of SDT’s postulate of a basic human need for autonomy in the context of cultural variations.
Introduction This chapter addresses the methodological issues associated with equivalence and bias in cross-cultural research. These issues are a consequence of the nonexperimental nature of the research designs of cross-cultural studies. True experiments are based on the random assignment of participants to different experimental conditions, which presumably ensures that confounding variables are equated across experimental conditions. However, participants cannot be randomly assigned to cultures, and groups that are compared in cross-cultural studies can hardly ever be seen as matched on all background variables that are relevant for the constructs of interest. Cross-cultural psychology is not unique in the impossibility of matching groups; many studies in clinical and educational psychology involve situations in which intact groups are studied, and the assumption of the similarity of background characteristics across groups is unrealistic. The inability to conduct true experiments to address essential questions in cross-cultural psychology implies that we have to be careful in conducting our studies, being cognizant of relevant methodological knowledge and tools. It also implies that cross-cultural studies are always threatened by bias and inequivalence when cultural groups are being compared. This chapter reviews the extant knowledge of these methodological issues. Our main message is that maximizing the validity of inferences should be the main concern of cross-cultural research and that methodological rigor in terms of establishing cross-cultural equivalence and suppressing bias across cultures plays a crucial role in this endeavor. We first describe a taxonomy of equivalence and bias, how they can be assessed, and the measures that can be taken to increase the validity of cross-cultural inferences. The second part gives an overview of procedures for adapting tests and survey questionnaires across cultures. Conclusions are presented in the final section.
Research has provided mixed support for the hypothesis that when an incident results in a more severe outcome, more responsibility will be attributed to a potentially responsible actor. This paper uses the techniques of meta-analysis to examine this literature. The results support the contention that people attribute greater responsibility for the outcome of a negative incident when that outcome is more severe than when the outcome is minor. The direction of this relationship is consistent across methodologies. However, the strength of the correlation varies depending on which type of judgment participants are asked to make. Because many of these variables are tied to legal concepts, the results are discussed in the context of the expectations of the legal system regarding the impact of outcome severity on each variable.
This study tested the Triangle Model of Responsibility in predicting the experience and effects of self-engagement among U.S. Army soldiers. The different components of the Triangle Model independently predicted engagement in different samples. Furthermore, differences in engagement among units during a military operation were a function of the components of the model. Another study showed that soldiers’ perceptions of their leaders’ views of the components of the model predicted soldiers’ views of how much their leaders thought they were engaged in their job and that discrepancies between soldiers’ own views and their views of their leaders were related to lower trust and confidence in unit leaders. Finally, work-related experiences were more likely to be related to the psychological health of soldiers when they were engaged in their jobs than when they were disengaged. The results shed light on the role of self-engagement in the process of self-regulation.
This study investigated cultural variations in perceived control over personal goals in Russian and American college students. Several appraisal dimensions of personal goals were studied including goals' importance, their attainability, and sources of control over goal attainment, such as self, others, luck, and fate. The association between assimilative (tenacious goal pursuit) and accommodative (flexible goal adjustment) control strategies and perceived attainability of goals was also examined. The results indicated that both Russian and American students gave higher priority to work- and education-related goals and lower priority to the familial goal. In both samples, the familial goal was the most influenced and health was the least influenced by luck/chance and fate. Overall, American students were more optimistic about the perceived probability to attain their goals, which may be affected by a cultural tendency for self-enhancement and positive outlook. Russian students had a stronger belief in control by luck/chance and fate over personal goals, which coincides with a less agentic orientation of Russian culture. Regardless of culture and goal content, goal importance was associated with greater perceived success in goal attainment. However, control strategies (assimilative and accommodative) as well as internal control differentially predicted perceived attainability of goals depending on the goals' content. For both Russians and Americans, perceived attainability of education-related goals was associated with assimilative strategies and internal control; leisure was associated with accommodative strategies and health-related goals were associated with internal control. Characteristics of cultural contexts accountable for crosscultural differences in perceived control over personal goals are discussed.
This prospective study applied self-determination theory to investigate the effects of students' course-specific self-regulation and their perceptions of their instructors' autonomy support on adjustment and academic performance in a college-level organic chemistry course. The study revealed that: (1) students' reports of entering the course for relatively autonomous (vs. controlled) reasons predicted higher perceived competence and interest/enjoyment and lower anxiety and grade-focused performance goals during the course, and were related to whether or not the students dropped the course; and (2) students' perceptions of their instructors' autonomy support predicted increases in autonomous self-regulation, perceived competence, and interest/enjoyment, and decreases in anxiety over the semester. The change in autonomous self-regulation in turn predicted students' performance in the course. Further, instructor autonomy support also predicted course performance directly, although differences in the initial level of students' autonomous self-regulation moderated that effect, with autonomy support relating strongly to academic performance for students initially low in autonomous self-regulation but not for students initially high in autonomous self-regulation. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sci Ed84:740–756, 2000.
ABSTRACT The assumption that there are innate integrative or actualizing tendencies underlying personality and social development is reexamined. Rather than viewing such processes as either nonexistent or as automatic, I argue that they are dynamic and dependent upon social-contextual supports Pertaining to basic human psychological needs. To develop this viewpoint, I conceptually link the notion of integrative tendencies to specific developmental processes, namely intrinsic motivation; internalization; and emotional integration. These processes are then shown to be facilitated by conditions that fulfill psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and forestalled within contexts that frustrate these needs. Interactions between psychological needs and contextual supports account, in part, for the domain and situational specificity of motivation, experience, and relative integration. The meaning of psychological needs (vs. wants) is directly considered, as are the relations between concepts of integration and autonomy and those of independence, individualism, efficacy, and cognitive models of “multiple selves.”
This paper describes the development and validation of a general causality orientations scale. Causality orientations are conceptualized as relatively enduring aspects of people that characterize the source of initiation and regulation, and thus the degree of self-determination, of their behavior. Three orientations—autonomy, control, and impersonal—are measured by the three subscales of the instrument. Individuals are given a score on each orientation, thus allowing the use of the theoretically appropriate subscale (or, in some cases, a combination of subscales) to predict affects, cognitions, and behaviors. The scale was shown to have internal consistency and temporal stability. The orientations were shown to fit appropriately into a nomological network of constructs and to relate to various behaviors that were hypothesized to be theoretically relevant.
Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.
The concept of an ability to make choices and to determine one's own outcomes fits well with experiences that most people have, and these experiences form the basis for beliefs in free will. However, the existence of conscious free will is challenged by modern research findings highlighting the unconscious origins of goal-directed behavior that gives rise to free-will beliefs. This report expands on these insights by revealing that both conscious and unconscious processes play an important role in free-will beliefs. Specifically, Experiment 1 demonstrates that free-will beliefs are strengthened when conscious intentions to produce action outcomes bind the perception of action and outcome together in time. Experiment 2 shows that these beliefs are strengthened when unconscious priming of action outcomes creates illusory experiences of self-agency when the primed outcomes occur. Together, these findings suggest that beliefs in free will are associated with self-agency and are enhanced by both conscious and unconscious information processing of goal-directed behavior.
The concept of personal responsibility has been central to social, legal, and political approaches to obesity. It evokes language of blame, weakness, and vice and is a leading basis for inadequate government efforts, given the importance of environmental conditions in explaining high rates of obesity. These environmental conditions can override individual physical and psychological regulatory systems that might otherwise stand in the way of weight gain and obesity, hence undermining personal responsibility, narrowing choices, and eroding personal freedoms. Personal responsibility can be embraced as a value by placing priority on legislative and regulatory actions such as improving school nutrition, menu labeling, altering industry marketing practices, and even such controversial measures as the use of food taxes that create healthier defaults, thus supporting responsible behavior and bridging the divide between views based on individualistic versus collective responsibility.
Responsibility acts as a psychological adhesive that connects an actor to an event and to relevant prescriptions that should govern conduct. People are held responsible to the extent that (a) a clear, well-defined set of prescriptions is applicable to an event (prescription-event link); (b) the actor is perceived to be bound by the prescriptions by virtue of his or her identity (prescription-identity link); and (c) the actor is connected to the event, especially by virtue of appearing to have personal control over it (identity-event link). Studies supported the model, showing that attributions of responsibility are a direct function of the combined strengths of the 3 linkages (Study 1) and that, when judging responsibility, people seek out information that is relevant to the linkages (Study 2). The model clarifies prior multiple meanings of responsibility and provides a coherent framework for understanding social judgment.
Schlenker's triangle model (Schlenker, Britt, Pennington, Murphy, & Doherty, 1994, Schlenker, Pontari, & Christopher, 2001) identifies three excuses people use to avoid taking responsibility after failure: that one had no control in the situation, that the obligation was unclear, and that it was not really one's obligation. Three retrospective studies tested the presumed negative association between excuse making and responsibility taking. The studies also examined the effects of self-determination theory's concept of motivational internalization (Deci & Ryan, 2000) upon these variables. A complex but replicable pattern emerged, such that responsibility taking and motivational internalization correlated with adaptive outcomes such as future commitment and positive expectancy and excuse making did not. Of particular interest, perceiving that the person levying the obligation internalized motivation predicted responsibility taking, in all three studies. Implications for the triangle model, as well as for theories of maturity and personality development, are considered.
What makes parents controlling
- W S Grolnick
- N H Apostoleris
Grolnick, W. S., & Apostoleris, N. H. (2002). What makes parents controlling? In E. L.
Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 161-181).
When freedom meets responsibility: Adolescence as the critical point of positive personality development
- E Kaliteyevskaya
- D Leontiev
Kaliteyevskaya, E., & Leontiev, D. (2004). When freedom meets responsibility:
Adolescence as the critical point of positive personality development. Ricerche
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