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Exciting on Facebook or competent in the newspaper? Media effects on consumers’ perceptions of brands in the fashion category
Abstract
Media investments are continuously shifting from traditional media like newspapers to digital alternatives like websites and social media. This study investigated if and how media choice between the two rival channels can influence consumers’ perceptions of a novel brand. 504 Swedish retail fashion customers participated in an experiment to evaluate the identical advertisement placed either in a national newspaper or on Facebook. The results revealed that advertising in a newspaper can have a positive effect on brand equity facets and purchase intention through brand personality perceptions of being competent, while advertising on Facebook have similar effects but through perceptions of being exciting. Besides some evidence that choice between traditional and new media affects brand personality this study is one of the first attempts to incorporate media channel choice into the broader customer-based brand equity framework. The results from this particular study suggest that media channel choice should be considered from a brand equity building perspective at least in the fashion category. This study shows that different media channels could complement each other strategically, as traditional media channels still can have valuable and unique contributions to brand building through brand personality perceptions, especially for brands striving to be perceived as competent.
... Auf Basis bestehender Forschung zur Markenkommunikation muss davon ausgegangen werden, dass die Wirkung von Brand Content vom digitalen Kanal abhängt, in welchem der Brand Content ausgespielt wird (Anselmsson & Tunca, 2017;Calder, Malthouse & Schaedel, 2009;Mukherjee & Banerjee, 2017). Vor diesem Hintergrund wird in dieser Studie untersucht, wie Brand Content auf Twitter im Gegensatz zu Instagram wahrgenommen wird. ...
... Information und Unterhaltung sind zwei wesentliche Gratifikationen, die den Medienkonsum determinieren. In Übereinstimmung mit dieser breit abgestützten Erkenntnis (Breunig & Engel, 2015;Schenk & Jers, 2013) (Anselmsson & Tunca, 2017;van Reijmersdal et al., 2007). Allerdings sind die positiven Effekte, d. h. ...
... Wurde die Werbung in der Zeitung gezeigt, dann wurde die Marke als kompetenter beurteilt. Wurde dieselbe Werbung hingegen auf einer Facebook-Seite gezeigt, wurde die Marke als spannender aufgefasst(Anselmsson & Tunca, 2017).Hinweise auf ähnliche Effekte fanden M. R.Stafford und Day (1995) auch in Bezug auf Radiowerbungen. Das mit dem Sprecher der Werbung verbundene Image wurde auf die beworbenen Dienstleistungen (z. ...
In diesem Open-Access-Buch schlägt Matthias Albisser eine Konzeptualisierung von Brand Content als Botschaften der Unternehmenskommunikation vor, die gleichberechtigt eine Unternehmensperspektive (Imageaufbau) und eine Userperspektive (Mehrwert für User) einnehmen. Anhand einer experimentellen Umfrage wird der Einfluss von informativem (Tipps und Tricks) und unterhaltendem (Memes) Brand Content auf das funktionale und das emotionale Markenimage analysiert.
Der Autor
Matthias Albisser promovierte bei Prof. Dr. Diana Ingenhoff am Departement für Kommunikationswissenschaft und Medienforschung DCM der Universität Fribourg, Schweiz. Während dieser Zeit arbeitete er als Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter am Institut für Kommunikation und Marketing IKM der Hochschule Luzern – Wirtschaft.
... For instance, traditional and virtual media favor different perceptions of personality. In a recent investigation, Anselmsson and Tunca (2019 ) presented the differences between projections of brand personality in traditional and digital media. Whereas offline newspapers appeared to strengthen the inference of competence, the same advertisements presented on Facebook were associated with a more exciting brand personality. ...
... Online word of mouth recommendations have been evidenced by previous research (e.g., Roy, Datta, & Mukherjee, 2019) to have a strong influence on purchase intentions, hence actual buys. Also, favourable user-generated content on social media contributes positively to brand equity and brand attitude (Schivinski & Dabrowski, 2016), especially in the fashion industry where the choice of social media channels for marketing communications would be highly critical (Anselmsson & Tunca, 2019). Therefore, targeting younger generations who are tech-native can be more effective if fashion brands supplement the content shared with a proper blend of entertaining elements like music, games, riddles, etc., which are already doable given the fast-growing set of rich-media features within the Instagram environment. ...
This study represents a novel attempt to investigate the cascading effects of COVID-19 perceptions onto behavioural patterns towards fashion brands on Instagram and across two generations tech-native vs tech non-native) in a Sub-Saharan African context. We drew our study on a sample of 338 Instagram users that experienced fashion brands on Instagram in two Sub-Saharan African countries: Uganda and Nigeria. We used partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) to test the hypothetical model. We found that COVID-19 perception positively predicted enjoyment and usefulness, leading to more satisfaction with fashion brand accounts on Instagram and hence greater intention to follow and recommend those accounts. Finally, running a multigroup analysis (MGA), we found the effects of COVID-19 perceptions pronounced into both intentions to follow and intention to recommend via the sequence of mediators: enjoyment and satisfaction were only valid amongst the tech-native generational cohort. Our research suggested a new generational categorisation based on technology nativity— offering a new direction of generational studies in digital marketing communications.
Keywords. Social media marketing; Instagram; branding; fashion; attitudes; consumer behaviour; technology-based generational differences; Sub-Saharan Africa.
... In addition, consumer reviews on social media are forcing fashion retailers to produce the products the market wants now. In fact, recent research found that Facebook, a social media platform, influences purchasing intentions through perceptions of the brand as being exciting (Anselmsson and Tunca, 2019). Moreover, influencers, those virtual stars with many virtual followers, are driving fashion retailers to stock the products they recommend in real time. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate what type of knowledge enhances the frequency of strategic renewal for organizations operating in high velocity environments. It also investigates whether strategic renewal frequency is beneficial, rather than harmful in such environments.
Design/methodology/approach
The study followed a two-step data collection process involving pilot interviews and an on-site survey data collection procedure. The authors first conducted face-to-face pilot interviews with 16 fashion retailers lasting 30 min to 2 h. They then tested their hypotheses by using a sample of 152 South Korean fashion retailers, as the fashion industry is a prototypical high velocity environment.
Findings
Firms that have a higher rate of strategic renewal frequency outperform those with a lower one. Moreover, the frequency of strategic renewal mitigates the ill effects of lack of legitimacy not imbued by a franchisor’s backing. Finally, firms can increase the frequency of their strategic renewal efforts by accessing knowledge from their main customers more efficiently.
Originality/value
The results of this study provide a refined picture of the role of knowledge acquisition efficiency and strategic renewal frequency in the pursuit of competitive advantage in high velocity environments.
In a digital world, it is becoming increasingly important for marketing researchers and practitioners to understand how consumers attribute humanlike characteristics and personality traits to brands, as the brand’s personality has a significant influence on consumers’ behavior and their brand relationships. However, despite a growth in research interest over the past two decades, the literature on consumers’ digital brand personality perceptions remains fragmented and dispersed across digital contexts. Thus, now is an opportune time to take stock of the field and build a knowledge foundation for future research to establish the domain of digital brand personality. To this end, this systematic literature review, based on the TCCM framework, identifies dominant theories, contexts, characteristics, and methodologies used to study consumers’ digital brand personality perceptions by systematically reviewing 107 peer‐reviewed journal articles published between 2005 to 2021. Using an in‐depth content analysis of the articles, this review integrates research findings from different digital contexts and provides a new conceptual framework of digital brand personality. The review concludes with a comprehensive research agenda that highlights the need to broaden the theoretical groundings of the field (theory); identifies numerous digital touchpoints and new technologies that remain underexplored (context); reveals inconsistencies and knowledge gaps regarding dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of digital brand personality (characteristics); and suggests diverse, digital‐based research approaches (methodology) to further advance the study of consumers’ digital brand personality perceptions.
In a mature retail market, branding can offer retailers opportunities for setting themselves apart. This study examines the construct ‘brand personality appeal’ (BPA; Freling et al., 2011) in retailing. Two consumer surveys are administered, on fashion retailing (n = 104) and grocery retailing (n = 101), focusing on (1) store personality, (2) BPA, and (3) retailer brand equity. A SmartPLS estimation shows that ‘enthusiasm’ is a personality trait that appeals to consumers regardless of the retail context, whereas ‘sophistication’ matters more in fashion retailing and ‘unpleasantness’ in grocery retailing. BPA is a significant driver of retail brand equity, regardless of the retail context.
This research argues that the meaning embedded in consumption symbols, such as commercial brands, can serve to represent and institutionalize the values and beliefs of a culture. Relying on a combined emic-etic approach, the authors conducted 4 studies to examine how symbolic and expressive attributes associated with commercial brands are structured and how this structure varies across 3 cultures. Studies 1 and 2 revealed a set of "brand personality" dimensions common to both Japan and the United States (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, and Sophistication), as well as culture-specific Japanese (Peacefulness) and American (Ruggedness) dimensions. Studied 3 and 4, which extended this set of findings to Spain, yielded brand personality dimensions common to both Spain and the United States (Sincerity, Excitement, and Sophistication), plus nonshared Spanish (Passion) and American (Competence and Ruggedness) dimensions. The meaning of these brand personality dimensions is discussed in the context of cross-cultural research on values and affect, globalization issues, and cultural frame shifting.
The digital revolution has enabled important changes in political life. Opportunities to engage in participatory politics have expanded significantly. Participatory politics differ from institutional politics in that they are peer-based, interactive, and not guided by deference to traditional elites and institutions. These changes require a response from civic educators. Core practices of civic and political engagement, such as investigation, dialogue, circulation, production, and mobilization, must be taught differently because they are now frequently enacted differently and in different contexts. This article conceptualizes these changes, draws on a nationally representative survey to assess the frequency and expansion of these new practices, and highlights examples of curricular reform to help frame an expanded agenda for civic education in the digital age.
This study explores the personality of Internet media and develops a multidimensional measurement scale to assess personality across diverse entities, including social networking sites, search engines, portals, and shopping sites. Through a series of qualitative and quantitative methods, including exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis, the present study identifies a set of 30 personality traits that represent five unique dimensions of Internet media personality: Intelligent, Amusing, Convenient, Sociable, and Confusing. This study found that different pairs of brand and Internet media personality dimensions yield different effects on attitude toward advertising brands. Practical implications for marketers and advertisers, as well as theoretical implications for advertising researchers, are discussed.
Brand personality is an important topic in marketing studies already for several decades. It is proven that brand personality plays a significant role in ensuring brand loyalty, forming favourable attitudes towards the brand and enlarging brand equity. However, very little attention is paid to the topic, how different brand elements, attributes or factors shape in consumers’ minds the perception of brand personality. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to fill the existing gap in the literature by providing a better understanding about what factors form the perception of brand personality. The qualitative study consisting of in-depth interviews was done in beer market, investigating how different attributes shape the consumers’ perception of beer brands personalities. The study revealed that brand personalities were mostly impacted by design of bottle and label, design colours and advertisements. However, such factors as position of brand in the market, brand name, and perceived typical user should be also considered as important in forming consumers’ perception of brand personality
Purpose – The purpose of this article is to fill the gap in the discussion of the ways in which firm-created and user-generated social media brand communication impacts consumer-based brand equity (CBBE) metrics through Facebook.
Design/methodology/approach – We evaluated 302 data sets that were generated through a standardized online survey to investigate the impact of firm-created and user-generated social media brand communication on brand awareness/associations, perceived quality and brand loyalty across 60 brands within three different industries: non-alcoholic beverages, clothing and mobile network providers. We applied a structural equation modeling technique to investigate the effects of social media communication on consumers' perception of brand equity metrics, as well as in an examination of industry-specific differences.
Findings – The results of our empirical studies showed that both firm-created and user-generated social media brand communication influence brand awareness/associations; whereas user-generated social media brand communication had a positive impact on brand loyalty and perceived brand quality. Additionally, there are significant differences between the industries being investigated.
Originality/value – This article is pioneering in that it exposes the effects of two different types of social media communication (i.e. firm-created and user-generated social media brand communication) on CBBE metrics, a topic of relevance for both marketers and scholars in the era of social media. Additionally, it differentiates the effects of social media brand communication across industries, which indicate that practitioners should implement social media strategies according to industry specifics to lever CBBE metrics.
Researchers and brand managers have limited understanding of the effects social media communication has on how consumers perceive brands. We investigated 504 Facebook users in order to observe the impact of firm-created and user-generated (UG) social media communication on brand equity (BE), brand attitude (BA) and purchase intention (PI) by using a standardized online survey throughout Poland. To test the conceptual model, we analyzed 60 brands across three different industries: non- alcoholic beverages, clothing and mobile network operators. When analyzing the data, we applied the structural equation modeling technique to both investigate the interplay of firm-created and user-generated social media communication and examine industry- specific differences. The results of the empirical studies showed that user-generated social media communication had a positive influence on both brand equity and brand attitude, whereas firm-created social media communication affected only brand attitude. Both brand equity and brand attitude were shown to have a positive influence on purchase intention. In addition, we assessed measurement invariance using a multi- group structural modeling equation. The findings revealed that the proposed measurement model was invariant across the researched industries. However, structural path differences were detected across the models.
Since Aaker's (1997) seminal article, in which a general measurement scale of brand personality was developed and tested, research on brand personality has burgeoned. However, there are still important gaps in the literature. The primary focus of previous studies has been either on understanding the effects of brand personality or on measurement issues. There is little research on how brand personalities are formed, a fundamental issue for marketers. To fill this gap, we identify in two studies the potential sources of brand personality, and assess their relevance for forming different brand personality dimensions. The pattern of results across studies provides a general framework for selecting the most relevant sources for each of five dimensions of the Aaker's brand personality concept: sincerity, competence, sophistication, excitement and ruggedness.
During the past couple of decades, brand equity has emerged as one of the key concepts in marketing. Literature concerned with consumer brand relationship is calling for more studies in order to increase understanding of brand equity dimensions. Therefore, this study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by examining the strength of relational variables on brand equity perceived by consumers. Findings support the proposed model in the service industry revealing that brand loyalty, brand identification, trust, brand personality and brand awareness are the variables that have a greatest impact on brand equity. Thus, this study is the first to measure the strength of assorted relational variables, and variables related with identification and personality on brand equity for brands in the service industry. In this vein, brand managers should be aware of the importance of building a brand regarding the way they communicate the features of the brand.
Purpose ‐ The importance of employer branding to attract talent in organizations is increasing rapidly. Brand personality traits, particularly, have been shown to explain considerable variance in employer brand attractiveness. Despite such awareness, little is known about the underlying processes of this effect. The purpose of the authors is to close the research gap by drawing on a consumer brand model of brand affect and trust as a means of explaining employer brand attractiveness. Design/methodology/approach ‐ Students interested in working in the consultancy industry completed a survey designed to evaluate consultancy employer brands. Established scales for brand personality, trust, and affect, and employer brand attractiveness were used to test the conceptual model. Findings ‐ The results indicate that employer brand trust and affect are both influenced by the brand personality trait sincerity. Further, employer brand affect was positively affected by the traits excitement and sophistication, while negatively affected by ruggedness. Together, employer brand affect and trust explain 71 per cent of the variance in employer brand attractiveness. Research limitations/implications ‐ While the results show the importance of branding an organization as a sincere, exciting, and sophisticated employer, future research is needed to identify adequate marketing tools to achieve this goal, also in other industries besides the one investigated here. Originality/value ‐ This study is the first to apply a model that includes brand personality, trust, and affect to employer branding. By doing so, the variance explained in employer brand attractiveness could be increased substantially.
Paper ist currently FREE accesible at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/EJM-02-2012-0113
Purpose
Seeks to provide empirical support for the “brand personality effect”, that is, the direct influence that brand personality will have on a variety of consumer‐driven outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach
Tests a series of hypotheses using experimental research design with 192 subjects.
Findings
Support is found for all proposed hypotheses. These findings indicate that brand personality will have a positive influence on product evaluations and that subjects exposed to a brand's personality will have a significantly greater number of brand associations; significantly greater proportion of brand associations; significantly greater unique brand associations; significantly greater proportion of congruent brand associations; and significantly greater proportion of strong brand associations.
Practical implications
This paper conceptually establishes brand personality and empirically demonstrates the brand personality effect on consumer‐based outcomes. This finding strengthens the brand personality literature and establishes a baseline study for future empirical research.
Originality/value
Brand personality has received levels of research from academics and practitioners alike, but this research presents the first empirical test of the direct effect of brand personality and how it drives consumer behavior.
Purpose
– In recent years, brand personality as a branding construct has received considerable interest, which has led to a significant effort to develop tools to measure the personality of brands. Although the majority of these studies have focused on the brand personality of conventional product brands, the new boundaries of marketing obviously necessitate the application of branding constructs to non‐traditional products such as places. This study aims to focus on brand personalities of places, and to examine the applicability of this concept for city brands.
Design/methodology/approach
– The research employs a factor analysis method based on data collected from 898 college students.
Findings
– The findings of the study reveal that differentiating places with regard to their brand personalities is achievable. The paper introduces two new dimensions of brand personality for cities.
Originality/value
– The extraction of two new factors that contribute to place brand personalities is considered a major contribution of this research to the marketing literature.
During recent years the number of World Wide Web (WWW) sites and visitors has increased very rapidly. WWW site evaluation has focused more on click-through rates than on brand effects. Nevertheless, there are few studies on the effects of WWW site exposure on brand image. The aim of this research was to illustrate brand association changes after a WWW site visit. More precisely, the paper describes the effect of a forced visit on the global brand image of two bricks-and-mortar companies. The results indicate that some positive brand associations increase significantly after the visit and that attitude towards the WWW site has an impact on attitude towards the brand.
This study focuses on comparison of the importance of product-brand personality and importance of company-brand personality characteristics as well as on investigation of product-/company-brand congruity and self-image congruence on purchase intention, within the context of Chinese Mainland's automobile industry. Results reveal that product-brand personality is more significant in affecting purchase intention than company-brand personality. Furthermore, it is found that congruity between product-brand personality and company-brand personality acts as a moderating variable between product-/company-brand personality and purchase intention. Of equal importance, it is found that self-image congruence with product-/company-brand personality positively affects purchase intention, at a statistically significant level, and plays a moderating role between product-/company-brand personality and purchase intention. Implications for research, as well as for business practices, are discussed.
Abstract Consumers often describe brands by using adjectival descriptors of personality traits, and marketers often create or reinforce these perceptions by their brand positioning. Successfully positioning a brand's personality withina pr oduct category requires measurement,models that are ableto disentangle a brand's unique personality traits from those traits that are common,to all brands in the product category. This paper proposes a factor model that separates the two by using category-level and brand-level randomeffects. It illustrates the model on a data-set about brand personalities in three categories (Jeans, Magazines and Cars), and investigates the marketing implications of the results obtained with the model, through analysis of the parameter estimates. The analyses provide support for our
Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the “Big Five” dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality. Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been limited in the consumer behavior literature. In this research, the author develops a theoretical framework of the brand personality construct by determining the number and nature of dimensions of brand personality (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness). To measure the five brand personality dimensions, a reliable, valid, and generalizable measurement scale is created. Finally, theoretical and practical implications regarding the symbolic use of brands are discussed.
Similarities of brand images with self images were tested to determine differences between (a) most preferred and least preferred brands, (b) socially consumed and privately consumed products, and (c) real-self and ideal-self image relationships.
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less) favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image (i.e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory. Issues in building, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
The present study aims to understand the impact of congruence between brand and celebrity personality on consumers attitude and purchase intentions. The data were collected from 382 business school students in India. Drawing from the theoretical frameworks of Attribution theory, Attitude theory, User imagery, Elaboration Likelihood Model, and match-up hypothesis, results reveals that congruence between celebrity and brand personality positively impacts the brand recall, brand associations, and reinforces the brand personality. Which favorably and significantly impacted attitude toward the advertisement and brand. Attitude toward brand has positively impacted purchase intention. ‘Brand personality self-image congruence’ and ‘involvement level with the brand’ were found to moderate the impact of brand association and brand personality reinforcement on attitude toward advertisements and brand. The paper provides practical implications for the advertisement agencies and media managers.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine how brand personality and brand equity affect intentions to revisit a city tourism destination.
Design/methodology/approach
Statistical population of this research consisted of those visitors who traveled to Pool city in Iran during Spring 2015. A structural equation model test with maximum likelihood estimation was performed to test the relationship among the research variables using 367 participants.
Findings
The empirical results from the structural model suggest that brand personality and brand equity positively influenced revisit intention. Furthermore, brand personality was a direct antecedent of brand equity.
Originality/value
An integrated model of brand personality, brand equity and revisit intention was tested in a tourism city in the context of a developing economy. The combination of a developing country context and the significance of destination brand enhance the contextual contribution of the paper.
Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the ''Big Five'' dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality, Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been limited in the consumer behavior literature. In this research, the author develops a theoretical framework of the brand personality construct by determining the number and nature of dimensions of brand personality (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness). Tc, measure the five brand personality dimensions, a reliable, valid, and generalizable measurement scale is created. Finally, theoretical and practical implications regarding the symbolic use of brands are discussed.
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less) favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image (i. e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory. Issues in building, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
Similarities of brand images with self images were tested to determine differences between (a) most preferred and least preferred brands, (b) socially consumed and privately consumed products, and (c) real-self and ideal-self image relationships.
This article presents managers with a framework for measuring the strength of a brand. It specifically examines ten sets of measures grouped into five categories: loyalty, perceived quality, associations, awareness, and market behavior. Employing these measures can be difficult and their results must be used carefully. However, they have the capacity to provide managers with a set of important and extremely useful measurement tools.
Many advertisers are reluctant to shift a large proportion of their advertising budgets to the Internet because they still view television advertising as the main vehicle for building a brand. Using a unique and rich data set comprising 20 campaigns across a variety of industries, this study demonstrates that Internet ads perform on par with television ads on the brand-building metrics that advertisers use and trust. The authors extend traditional brand-message recall measurements to facilitate comparisons between Internet formats and television by supplementing brand-message surveys conducted during the campaign with a set of precampaign surveys to control for preexisting brand knowledge. They find that accounting for differences in preexisting brand knowledge is paramount in obtaining valid comparisons across advertising formats because people who are exposed to Internet display ads have significantly lower levels of preexisting brand knowledge than television viewers. Without considering the differences in these "initial conditions," television advertising seems to be more effective than advertising on the Internet, but when the preexisting differences among media formats are taken into account, the brand recall lift measures for Internet ads are statistically indistinguishable from comparable television lift measures.
To help marketers to build and manage their brands in a dramatically changing marketing communications environment, the customer-based brand equity model that emphasizes the importance of understanding consumer brand knowledge structures is put forth. Specifically, the brand resonance pyramid is reviewed as a means to track how marketing communications can create intense, active loyalty relationships and affect brand equity. According to this model, integrating marketing communications involves mixing and matching different communication options to establish the desired awareness and image in the minds of consumers. The versatility of on-line, interactive marketing communications to marketers in brand building is also addressed.
The issue of brand equity has emerged as one of the most critical areas for marketing management in the 1990s. Despite strong interest in the subject, however, there is little empirical evidence of how brand value is created and what its precise effects are. This study explores some of the consequences of brand equity. In particular, the authors examine the effect of brand equity on consumer preferences and purchase intentions. For comparative purposes, two sets of brands are tested, one from a service category characterized by fairly high financial and functional risk (hotels), and one from a generally lower risk product category (household cleansers). Each set includes two brands that are objectively similar (based on Consumer Reports ratings), but they have invested markedly different levels of advertising spending over the past decade. Across both categories, the brand with the higher advertising budget yielded substantially higher levels of brand equity. In turn, the brand with the higher equity in each category generated significantly greater preferences and purchase intentions.
Brand equity is now receiving significant attention, both as a result of changes to international accounting standards relating to intangible assets and as a result of the renewed focus on the impact of marketing communications on brand performance. This paper reports on an investigation of the perceptions of senior marketing and advertising agency personnel regarding (1) the importance of brand equity as a valuation and performance measurement tool and (2) whether financially based brand equity measures and marketing-oriented measures can be translated into a single composite measure of brand equity/value. The findings reported herein indicate that, although financially based brand equity valuations have been a low priority in the past, there is increasing interest in this area and in the evaluation of the long-term impact of promotional activity as part of a wider drive for marketing accountability.
In light of a growing interest in the use of social media marketing (SMM) among luxury fashion brands, this study set out to identify attributes of SMM activities and examine the relationships among those perceived activities, value equity, relationship equity, brand equity, customer equity, and purchase intention through a structural equation model. Five constructs of perceived SSM activities of luxury fashion brands are entertainment, interaction, trendiness, customization, and word of mouth. Their effects on value equity, relationship equity, and brand equity are significantly positive. For the relationship between customer equity drivers and customer equity, brand equity has significant negative effect on customer equity while value equity and relationship equity show no significant effect. As for purchase intention, value equity and relationship equity had significant positive effects, while relationship equity had no significant influence. Finally, the relationship between purchase intention and customer equity has significance. The findings of this study can enable luxury brands to forecast the future purchasing behavior of their customers more accurately and provide a guide to managing their assets and marketing activities as well.
This study investigates the moderating effects of the brand concept on the relationship between brand personality and perceived quality. Analysis of the data collected from a sample of respondents using a questionnaire with six products and six brands as stimuli revealed that, among the five brand personality dimensions studied, excitement and sophistication were the most strongly associated with perceived quality. The dimensions of excitement and sophistication were also found to be positively related to perceived quality when the brands have symbolic and experiential brand concepts, respectively. In addition to the traditional use of price signals, guarantees and brand name, brand personality is an important cue that marketers can use to signal the brand's perceived quality to the consumer. As a result, brand personality must be consistent and congruent with the brand's positioning and brand image.Journal of Brand Management (2007) 14, 458–466. doi:10.1057/palgrave.bm.2550090; published online 4 May 2007
This paper examines methods for comparing the suitability of alternative models for covariance matrices. A cross-validation procedure is suggested and its properties are examined. To motivate the discussion, a series of examples is presented using longitudinal data.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relative impact of brand communication on brand equity through social media as compared to traditional media. In a juxtaposition of different industries it aims at: investigating whether both communication instruments have an impact on consumer‐based brand equity; comparing the effect sizes of these two communication instruments; and separating the effects of firm‐created and user‐generated social media communication.
Design/methodology/approach
– A total of 393 data sets from three different industries, namely tourism, telecommunications, and pharmaceuticals, were generated using a standardized online‐survey. Structural equation modeling was used in the analysis of the data obtained to investigate the interplay of social media and traditional media in general, as well as in an examination of industry‐specific differences.
Findings
– The results of the empirical study show that both traditional communications and social media communications have a significant impact on brand equity. While traditional media has a stronger impact on brand awareness, social media communications strongly influence brand image. Firm‐created social media communication is shown to have an important impact on functional brand image, while user‐generated social media communication exerts a major influence on hedonic brand image. Furthermore, the present study highlights significant differences between the industries under investigation.
Originality/value
– The research described in this paper is pioneering in that it juxtaposes the impacts of social media and traditional media on brand equity – a topic of increasing interest to firms in the era of Facebook and Twitter but so far largely uninvestigated. Moreover, the differentiation between firm‐created and user‐generated social media communication, which is gaining increasingly in importance, as companies see their brand marketing power devolve to the consumer through social media platforms, offers valuable insights to marketing practitioners and academics.
To better understand how a brand is performing in the marketplace, firms employ a wide variety of measures, with consumer-based surveys often playing a central role. The authors identify some core dimensions of survey-based measures of brand performance, explore how they link to one another, and examine how they vary across both countries and categories. Studies in the United States and China of soft drinks, toothpaste, and fast food suggest that survey-based brand metrics can be categorized into six main dimensions that reflect a fourstage, hierarchy-of-effects awareness-interest-desire-action-type ordering: (1) comprehension; (2) comparative advantage, interpersonal relations, and history; (3) preference; and (4) attachment. Despite differences in culture and their history, these dimensions usefully portray different brands and products across the different countries.
This study examines the preferences and purchase intentions of young South-east Asian consumers. Specifically, the study focuses on the non-product brand associations proposed by Keller (1998) and tests their effects on brand preference rating and purchase intentions toward different brands of fashion apparel. Data were gathered in Singapore via a self-administered survey and the results indicate differential effects of brand associations such as price perceptions, brand personality, brand-elicited feelings, self-image and brand-user-image congruency on consumer brand preferences and purchase intentions.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
Business managers that use the Internet as a major component of their marketing communications strategy face great challenges. The popularity of the Internet with consumers and businesses drives thousands of firms to promote their products and services using World Wide Web (known hereinafter as the Web) sites. Technology has created a competitive arena that enables exposure to consumers worldwide, who can now easily communicate with each other. This potential for exposure has dramatic implications for any business considering the Internet as a promotional vehicle. The growing popularity of Internet sites, where users may discuss their feelings about companies and products, allows an increased scrutiny of all aspects of business. If companies do not deal effectively with this scrutiny, brand equity is vulnerable to erosion. Therefore, all contingencies inherent in promotional efforts on the Internet must be weighed carefully. Businesses which examine the ramifications of on-line exposure are better able to create and maintain a positive Internet presence which facilitates effective Web site promotion. Planning, implementation and control must be integrated into the on-line marketing communications of businesses, regardless of business size.
Although a considerable amount of research has been conducted to conceptualize brand personality, no study yet examined the structure of brand personality dimensions in China. This research identifies a theoretical framework of six brand personality dimensions in China. Of the six dimensions identified, three dimensions (Competence, Excitement, and Sophistication) are consistent with those found in the USA, whereas three dimensions carry culture-specific meaning (Traditionalism, Joyfulness, and Trendiness), supporting our prediction that Chinese brand personality structure shows the coexistence of traditional and changing cultural values in contemporary Chinese society. The findings suggest that the symbolic meaning embedded in Chinese commercial brands is under considerable influence of both western modernism and Chinese traditionalism. Theoretical and managerial implications regarding the symbolic use of commercial brands are discussed.
The antecedents of brand equity are considered to be brand attitude and brand image, and the consequences of brand equity are considered to be brand preference and purchase intentions. This study concentrates on service brands, selecting 18 from 3 service categories. A structural equation model is presented. Not only does it show a good fit with the research constructs but also the relationships between brand image and brand equity, and brand attitude and brand equity. The impact of brand equity on customer preference and purchase intentions is confirmed as well, which tends to validate the proposed research framework.
Spector (1987) recently concluded that there is little evidence of method variance in multitrait-multimethod studies of self-reported affect and perceptions at work. In this article we propose that this conclusion was incorrect and was the result of improper analytical procedures. Spector's data were reanalyzed by using a more powerful approach: confirmatory factor analysis. Model comparisons and variance partitioning indicated that method variance is present and accounts for approximately 25% of the variance in the measures examined by Spector. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Management is increasingly under pressure to increase shareholder value. Given the immediate pressures of meeting short-term targets, many managers opt for reductions in long-term investments to achieve short-term goals. An empirical study conducted by Mizik and Jacobson (2006) found that 65% of organisations were applying this "myopic management", thus harming intangible marketing assets and consequently destroying shareholder value in the long term. Part of the challenge lies in the increasing importance of intangible assets to the value of the firm. For the S&P 500 companies in 1980, traditional accounting assets composed on average 80% of market value; by 2002, this had fallen to 25% (Ballow, Abstract Marketers are under increasing pressure to become more accountable and build shareholder value. Two major marketing intangibles at their disposal are Customer Equity, the net present value of the future profit streams from all its customers, and Brand Equity, the inherent value of the brand to the firm and the customer. This paper reviews the current state of the Brand Equity/Customer Equity debate, analysing the different models of Customer Equity and the different measurements of Brand Equity, and draws some comparisons between the similarities and differences of the two approaches. It then develops a model or framework to guide research and to drive an organisation's focus on either or both of the two concepts.
This article examines the adequacy of the “rules of thumb” conventional cutoff criteria and several new alternatives for various fit indexes used to evaluate model fit in practice. Using a 2‐index presentation strategy, which includes using the maximum likelihood (ML)‐based standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) and supplementing it with either Tucker‐Lewis Index (TLI), Bollen's (1989) Fit Index (BL89), Relative Noncentrality Index (RNI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Gamma Hat, McDonald's Centrality Index (Mc), or root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), various combinations of cutoff values from selected ranges of cutoff criteria for the ML‐based SRMR and a given supplemental fit index were used to calculate rejection rates for various types of true‐population and misspecified models; that is, models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and models with misspecified factor loading(s). The results suggest that, for the ML method, a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI, BL89, CFI, RNI, and Gamma Hat; a cutoff value close to .90 for Mc; a cutoff value close to .08 for SRMR; and a cutoff value close to .06 for RMSEA are needed before we can conclude that there is a relatively good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Furthermore, the 2‐index presentation strategy is required to reject reasonable proportions of various types of true‐population and misspecified models. Finally, using the proposed cutoff criteria, the ML‐based TLI, Mc, and RMSEA tend to overreject true‐population models at small sample size and thus are less preferable when sample size is small.