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Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
Humanities and Technology
(ICSHT, 2017) (ISBN:XXX.XXX.XXX)
Hotel Perdana, Kota Bharu
Kelantan, Malaysia
1
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TYPES OF WORK
MOTIVATION AND WORKER PROFILE IN UK
HOSPITALITY WORKERS
Yasuhiro Kotera1, Prateek Adhikari1, William Van Gordon1
1 University of Derby, Derby, United Kingdom
Emails: Y.Kotera@derby.ac.uk; P.Adhikari@derby.ac.uk; W.VanGordon@derby.ac.uk
______________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
Objectives
The UK hospitality industry employs more than two million workers and accounts for 7% of
the country’s workforce. However, despite the number of people employed, work-related
mental health issues are a cause for concern in this worker population. While our previous
research in UK hospitality workers identified that work motivation was a predictor of mental
health, the relationship between types of work motivation and worker profile (e.g.
demography, work experience, position) has not been explored to date. This study aimed to i)
identify the primary type of work motivation, and ii) explore relationships between worker
profile and types of work motivation in UK hospitality workers.
Methodology
103 UK hospitality workers completed a worker profile questionnaire and work motivation
measure. Descriptive statistics were yielded to compare each type of motivation, and
correlation analyses were conducted between worker profile and motivation type.
Findings
Levels of internal motivation were found to be significantly higher than external motivation.
Male and longer time served in the industry were associated with amotivation, the lowest
form of external motivation. A higher position in the organisation was associated with
external regulation, the second lowest form of external motivation.
Future research
Research evaluating the effectiveness of interventions to enhance intrinsic motivation,
particularly among male experienced workers or managers/owners is warranted. Furthermore,
male hospitality workers’ high levels of external motivation may highlight the UK’s strong
masculine culture as described in Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory. This echoes with our
previous research finding that shame concerning mental health issues is a problem among UK
hospitality workers. Cross-cultural comparisons of work motivation and mental health would
be an important future direction to help place these findings in a global context.
Keywords: internal motivation; external motivation; UK hospitality workers; worker profile
___________________________________________________________________________
Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
Humanities and Technology
(ICSHT, 2017) (ISBN:XXX.XXX.XXX)
Hotel Perdana, Kota Bharu
Kelantan, Malaysia
2
Introduction
Mental health of UK hospitality workers
The UK hospitality industry offers food and accommodation services (Rook, 2011),
and employs more than two million workers (7% of the total UK workforce). Relative to
other areas of employment, workers in this industry suffer from poor mental health (Kotera,
Adhikari & Van Gordon, 2017). Indeed, more than 70% of UK hospitality workers are
emotionally exhausted from work, and almost half of the individuals included in this figure
take absence due to mental health at some point in their career (Davis, 2015). The 'emotional
labor' (Hochschild, 1985) of working in hospitality arises from (i) remaining efficient yet
having to provide quality customer service (Dann, 1990), (ii) maintaining a professional
emotional display while sometimes dealing with thoughtless or rude behaviour on the part of
customers (Harris & Reynolds, 2004), and working long and anti-social hours (Kotera et al.,
2017). All of these factors increase the risk for depression and other occupational mental
health issues (Constanti & Gibbs, 2005; Gilmour & Patten, 2007).
The problems that mentally distressed workers experience are diverse. In addition to
creativity and productivity (Dunnagan, Peterson, & Haynes, 2001), work effectiveness can
also suffer (Gilmour & Patten, 2007). Depression is known to inhibit work productivity
leading to disability, absenteeism, and premature early retirement (Blackmore et al., 2007).
Furthermore, a workplace with distressed workers can incur significant turnover (i.e., of
employees) and financial costs to the organisation (International Labour Organization, 2010;
Villanueva & Djurkovic, 2009). A high turnover is a serious problem in the UK hospitality
industry where the average rate among bar staff is 180%, and more than 30% among
managers (Badger & Lashley, 2000). Replacing one member of customer-facing staff costs
approximately £1,000 or approximately £5,000 for replacing a hospitality manager (Lashley
& Best, 2002).
Relationship between worker profile and mental health
Studies demonstrate that worker profile is related to mental health problems (e.g.,
Jones & Bright, 2001; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984;). For example, female workers are more
likely to report their stress-related health concerns, whereas men are more likely to report
stressful situations (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Furthermore, women report more
psychological distress than men (Jones & Bright, 2001) which might be due to them having
relatively more demands in the home, and having less control over work processes compared
to men (Dollard, 2001).
In addition to gender, the age of workers is also related to mental health (Jones &
Bright, 2001). For example, Wall et al. (1997) showed that younger workers can be in better
psychological health than older workers, and that middle-aged workers report lower levels of
enthusiasm and contentment compared to younger and older workers (Wall et al., 1997). This
may be explained by job strain; negative anxiety caused by high psychological demands with
low decision scope (Kambayashi et al., 2013). A study specifically investigating this
condition showed that older workers perceive greater job strain than younger workers
(Vanagas & Axelsson, 2004).
Position in the organisation is also known to affect employee levels of mental health.
More specifically, it is generally understood that workers in a higher position have more
Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
Humanities and Technology
(ICSHT, 2017) (ISBN:XXX.XXX.XXX)
Hotel Perdana, Kota Bharu
Kelantan, Malaysia
3
control over work, which can lead to greater capacity to moderate stress levels versus
workers in a lower position (i.e., that have less control over work tasks and demands)
(Burrow, 2000). This relationship can also be observed socio-economically; workers in lower
socio-economic groups tend to have jobs with less control, which can increase the risk of
stress-related mental health problems (Bright, 2001; Dollard, 2001). However, mangers in
certain roles, such as those in the hotel industry, have been identified as experiencing more
stressors than lower-ranking hourly-paid employees (O’Neil & Davis, 2011). Thus,
regardless of the correlational direction, it appears that the impact of one’s position on mental
health is salient.
Finally, working hours also are associated with mental health. For example, a study
showed that people who work more than 50 hours per week report more stress than those who
do not (O’Neil & Davis, 2011). This is consistent with findings from a large-scale (n=2187)
longitudinal study conducted in Japan (Kuroda & Yamamoto, 2016). Furthermore, studies
demonstrate that working excessively long hours increases the risk of mental illness and
suicidal ideations (Bunting 2004; Gershuny 2000; Trades Union Council, 2015).
Significant impact of motivation on mental health
Work motivation, the psychological force driving workers to engage in work-related
activities (Pinder, 1998), has been researched in depth by organisational psychologists,
because a highly-motivated workforce is deemed to be a key asset to organisations (Kanfer,
Chen, & Pritchard, 2008). Likewise, low levels of work health and motivation are detrimental
to organisations and cost £6 billion per year to the UK economy, equivalent to 0.4% of UK
GDP in 2012 (Centre for Economics and Business Research, 2013).
One of the most prominent theories concerning work motivation is self-determination
theory (SDT), which supports our natural proclivity to use psychological energy to create an
integrated sense of self with social structure (Deci & Ryan, 1985). SDT categorises
motivation into intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation underlies
activities undertaken because they are inherently interesting and satisfying, whilst extrinsic
motivation underlies activities undertaken for an instrumental reason such as money and/or
status (Kotera et al., 2017). Ryan's model (1995) further categorises work motivation into six
types, which in order of least autonomous and internalised to the most autonomous and
internalised, are as follows:
1. Amotivation: where workers have no intention to be engaged in work.
2. External regulation: where workers do an activity only to obtain a reward (e.g., I work only
because I get paid).
3. Introjected regulation: where workers are motivated by self-worth and related factors (e.g.,
I work because I want people to think of me in a certain way).
4. Identified regulation: where workers recognise the value of the activity, and perceive it as
their own (e.g., I work because I understand that it is important to me).
5. Integrated regulation: where the value of the activity is part of a worker’s identity (e.g., I
work because it's part of who I am).
6. Intrinsic motivation: where worker find the task inherently enjoyable, challenging, and/or a
means for their self-actualisation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Kotera et al., 2017).
Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
Humanities and Technology
(ICSHT, 2017) (ISBN:XXX.XXX.XXX)
Hotel Perdana, Kota Bharu
Kelantan, Malaysia
4
The three less autonomous and internalised forms of motivation (i.e., amotivation,
external regulation and introjected regulation) are denoted as controlled motivation, while the
three more autonomous and internalised forms of motivation (i.e. identified regulation,
integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation) constitute autonomous motivation (Gagne &
Forest, 2011).
Autonomous motivation relates to various positive organisational outcomes (Gagne &
Forest, 2011) including high-engagement with information searching (Koestner & Losier,
2002), outcome attainment (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999), higher work productivity (Baard, Deci,
& Ryan, 2004; Miller, 2002), well-being (Ilardi, Leone, Kasser, & Ryan, 1993), work-life
satisfaction (Locke & Latham, 2004), and prosocial behaviour including volunteering
(Gagne, 2003). Studies report that satisfying the three psychological needs of competence,
autonomy, and relatedness coupled with a cooperative organisational culture can help to
cultivate autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gagne & Deci, 2005). On the other
hand, controlled motivation relates to negative consequences (Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002)
such as burnout, as well as physical and mental health problems (Houkes, Jassen, de Jonge, &
Bakker, 2003) such as depression (Blais, et al., 1993), turnover intentions (Quast &
Kleinbeck, 1990), unplanned effort to achieve goals (Koestner, Losier, Vallerand & Carducci,
1996), unstable communication (Koestner & Losier, 2002), and limited performance for low
attention and memory (Vallerand, 1997).
To date, the relationships between these types of work motivation and their impacts
on mental health in the hospitality workers worldwide have not been thoroughly investigated
(Kotera et al., 2017). However, in Northern Cyprus, autonomous motivation was positively
related to job satisfaction and organisational attachment, and negatively related to emotional
burnout among hotel workers (Karatepe & Uludag, 2007). Among Turkish hotel employees,
autonomous motivation and job resources were also reported to reduce emotional burnout
(Babakus, Yavas, & Karatepe, 2008). Additionally, a Nigerian study (Karatepe &
Aleshinloye, 2009) reported autonomous motivation was positively related to work
performance, and negatively related to burnout, emotional incongruence and turnover
intentions.
Prior studies have observed that some hospitality workers experience challenges
relating to work motivation (Martin, Mactaggart, & Bowden, 2006) and that there exists a
significant relationship between work motivation and job performance (Jayaveera, 2015) in
UK hospitality workers. Furthermore, our previous research identified that work motivation
was significantly related to, and a significant predictor of, mental health problems (Kotera et
al., 2017). However, to date, no study has investigated the relationship between types of work
motivation and worker profile in UK hospitality workers.
Objectives
|Given the aforementioned gap in understanding the relationship between work
motivation and worker profile in UK hospitality workers, this study aimed to i) identify the
primary type of work motivation in a sample of UK hospitality workers, and ii) explore
relationships between worker profile and types of work motivation in the same population
group.
Methodology
Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
Humanities and Technology
(ICSHT, 2017) (ISBN:XXX.XXX.XXX)
Hotel Perdana, Kota Bharu
Kelantan, Malaysia
5
Participants
UK hospitality workers were recruited using the authors’ professional networks. A
total of 116 workers agreed to participate of which 103 (47 male, 56 female) completed the
worker profile questionnaire and motivation measure. Participants were included in the study
if they were aged 18 years or older and had been working for at least for one year in the UK
hospitality industry. Due to the prevalence of part-time work in the UK hospitality industry
(People 1st, 2013b), both full-time and part-time workers were included (55 full-time, 48
part-time). The age range of participants was 18-55 years (M=28.2, SD=8.6) with 40%
working in a hotel, 36% in a restaurant, and the remaining 24% in other hospitality outlets.
The average number of hours worked each week was 46.4 hours for full-time workers
(SD=8.3) and 20.7 hours for part-time workers (SD=6.9). In terms of length of service, 39%
of participants had been working in hospitality for more than five years, 33% for two to five
years, and the remaining 28% for less than two years. The same participants were also
included in a parallel study by the same authors that focussed on mental health-related
outcomes (Kotera et al., 2017).
Procedure
Ethical approval was obtained from the authors’ University research ethics
committee. After providing informed consent, participants were sent links to a worker profile
questionnaire as well as the work motivation measure detailed below. Descriptive statistics
were yielded, and levels of each type of work motivation were identified. Correlation
analyses were then performed to investigate relationships between work motivation subscales
and worker profile. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS version 24.0.
Measures
Worker Profile Questionnaire
The worker profile questionnaire was devised by the authors and elicited information relating
to (i) gender, (ii) age, (iii) years of experience working in the hospitality industry, (iv)
average weekly working hours, (v) work setting (e.g. restaurant, hotel), (vi) position in the
organisation, and (vii) geographic location of work.
Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS).
The 18-item Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS) self-report instrument
is based on SDT theory and assesses levels of different types of work motivation (Tremblay,
Blanchard, Taylor, Pelletier, & Villeneuve, 2009). The 18 items comprise three questions for
each of the following six forms of motivation: (i) amotivation, (ii) external regulation, (iii)
introjected regulation, (iv) identified regulation, (v) integrated regulation, and (vi) intrinsic
motivation. Each item is scored on a seven-point Likert scale (from 1 = 'Does not correspond
at all' to 7 = 'Corresponds exactly'). All of the subscales have adequate Cronbach’s alphas of
between .64 and .83 (Tremblay et al., 2009).
Results
Descriptive Statistics and T-Test
Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
Humanities and Technology
(ICSHT, 2017) (ISBN:XXX.XXX.XXX)
Hotel Perdana, Kota Bharu
Kelantan, Malaysia
6
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics for worker profile and work motivation. Three
scores in WEIMS were identified as outliers using the outlier labelling rule (Hoaglin &
Iglewicz, 1987) (i.e., and were thus winsorised; Turkey, 1962).
Table 1: Descriptive statistics of UK hospitality workers’ profile and work motivation (n=103)
M
SD
Skewness
Kurtosis
Age
28.18
8.63
1.45
1.72
WE
5.93
5.56
2.02
5.28
WWH
34.81
14.61
0.12
-0.83
IM
17.38
2.86
-1.17
1.19
ITR
17.54
3.22
-1.44
2.00
IDR
17.06
2.93
-1.09
1.09
IJR
17.48
3.02
-1.25
1.48
ER
16.26
2.76
-0.59
0.03
AM
15.75
5.45
-1.24
0.31
WE = Work Experience (years); WWH = Weekly Working Hours; IM = Intrinsic Motivation; ITR = Integrated
Regulation; IDR = Identified Regulation; IJR = Introjected Regulation; ER = External Regulation; AM =
Amotivation
UK hospitality workers’ integrated regulation (ITR) was the highest type of work
motivation, while amotivation (AM) was the lowest. Overall, autonomous motivation (IM,
ITR, and IDR) was higher than controlled motivation (IJR, ER, and AM). A total score for
autonomous motivation and controlled motivation was calculated (i.e., by combining the
relevant subscales) and a t-test was then conducted (Table 2).
Table 2: T-test for autonomous motivation and controlled motivation (n=103)
Autonomous motivation
Controlled motivation
M
SD
M
SD
17.31*
2.64
16.47*
2.97
* There was significant difference between the two.
As shown in Table 2, UK hospitality workers’ autonomous motivation was
significantly higher than controlled motivation (P<.05).
Correlations
Kendall's tau-b correlations were used to examine relationships between work
motivation and worker profile (Table 3).
Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
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Hotel Perdana, Kota Bharu
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7
Table 3: Correlations between worker profile and work motivation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
GN
.19*
.32**
.26**
.24*
.14
-.001
.02
.06
.10
.06
.26**
1. Age
-
.56**
.41**
.47**
.12
-.04
.03
.03
-.08
-.08
-.04
2. WE
-
.60**
.43**
.19*
.06
.13
.16*
.06
.03
.24**
3. WWH
-
.44**
.17*
.15*
.18*
.23**
.10
.03
.15*
4. Posi
-
.06
.08
.05
.02
-.05
-.16*
.06
5. PWC
-
.01
.02
-.02
.05
-.07
-.09
6. IM
-
.46**
.48**
.29**
.22**
.15*
7. ITR
-
.53**
.45**
.25**
.30**
8. IDR
-
.38**
.36**
.30**
9. IJR
-
.19*
.37**
10. ER
-
.19**
11. AM
-
*. Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the.01 level (2-tailed).
WE = Work Experience (years); WWH = Weekly Working Hours; Posi = Position in the Organisation; PWC =
Population of the Working City; IM = Intrinsic Motivation; ITR = Integrated Regulation; IDR = Identified
Regulation; IJR = Introjected Regulation; ER = External Regulation; AM = Amotivation
There were significant correlations between worker profile and work motivation.
These included a significantly association between (i) gender and amotivation, (ii) work
experience and amotivation, (iii) weekly working hours and all three autonomous motivation
measures, and (iv) position in the organisation and external regulation.
Discussion
This study evaluated the levels of different types of work motivation in UK
hospitality workers, and then explored the relationship between worker profile and work
motivation. The current sample of UK hospitality workers scored highest on integrated
regulation, while amotivation was the lowest scoring of all the six types of work motivation.
A t-test revealed that autonomous motivation was significantly higher than controlled
motivation. This suggests that overall, UK hospitality workers are engaged in their services
for internal satisfaction rather than external rewards such as money and status. This may be
related to the fact that many of the jobs in the hospitality industry are classified amongst the
lowest paid occupations in the UK (Office for National Statistics, 2013; Wildes, 2005).
Another potential explanation is that to be considered eligible for the study, the current
sample of UK hospitality workers had to have more than one year of work experience. This is
Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
Humanities and Technology
(ICSHT, 2017) (ISBN:XXX.XXX.XXX)
Hotel Perdana, Kota Bharu
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8
relevant because if an employee was highly motivated externally, s/he might not be
committed to working for long periods of time on relatively low wages. In the future, it
would be worthwhile to explore specifically what stimulates the internal motivation of UK
hospitality workers whilst undertaking daily job activities. Qualitative studies are likely to be
a useful means of exploring such a research question.
There are several implications associated with the mild correlations between gender
and work motivation, particularly the fact that male workers tended to have higher levels of
amotivation compared to female workers. Indeed, this appears to be supportive of the view
that the UK has a masculine culture, as described by Hofstede and Minkov’s (2010) cultural
dimension theory (Kotera et al., 2017). Cultural dimension theory evaluates cultures
according to six indices: i) power distance, ii) individualism versus collectivism, iii)
uncertainty avoidance, iv) masculinity versus femininity, v) long-term orientation versus
short-term orientation, and vi) indulgence versus restraint. A masculine culture values
success, and people are ambitious and live in order to work, while a feminine culture values
relationships and quality of life, and people are drawn toward doing what they love, rather
than climbing up the socioeconomic ladder. In other words, people in a masculine culture are
driven by external motivation, while people in a feminine culture are inspired by internal
motivation. The outcome is relevant given that the UK’s level of masculinity ranked 11th
among 76 countries (Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). Future research could investigate the
relationship between work motivation and masculine/feminine culture. For example, UK
workers could be compared with Dutch workers, as the Netherlands has a similar culture and
socio-economic status to the UK but with a much lower level of masculinity.
External motivation was significantly related to work experience and the position in
the organisation. More specifically, the longer participants had worked in the hospitality
industry, and the higher their position in the organisation, the more likely they were to have
higher levels of external motivation. This gives rise to a concern in terms of the future health
and development of the industry, as experienced managers/owners are the key players in
terms of influencing the future direction of the industry. Accordingly, initiatives to improve
employee levels of internal motivation are likely to be warranted, as high internal motivation
is associated with health and work-related positive outcomes (Gagne & Forest, 2011; Ilardi et
al., 1993). An example of such an initiative might be the Disney strategy, a Neuro-Linguistic
Programming intervention (Dilts, 1998) deemed to enhance internal motivation by making
use of active physical movements and exploring dreams and future plans (Kotera & Sheffield,
2017). This is different from psychological approaches such as cognitive behavioural therapy
that arguably rely too heavily on clients applying logical thinking and verbalisation of their
delicate feelings (National Health Services, 2016). By accessing the ‘dreamer’, ‘realist’, and
‘spoiler’ aspects of creativity, the Disney strategy could help identify what hospitality
managers and owners want internally from their lives and career. Another example is the
izakaya (Japanese pub) industry of Japan where it has become common to have a daily staff
meeting where employees share their dreams and aspirations with each other (e.g., Teppen,
2012).
There were several limitations to the present study. In particular, participant
recruitment was conducted via opportunity sampling, which compromises the generalisability
of the study findings. Also, although this study identified the levels of each type of work
motivation, what affects them has not yet been investigated. Future studies could investigate
Proceeding: International Conference on Social Sciences,
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the factors that contribute to the different types of work motivation in UK hospitality
workers.
Employees in the fast-growing UK hospitality industry suffer from high levels of
psychological distress and mental illness. While other studies have investigated the
relationship between mental health and work motivation, this is the first study to explore the
relationship between work motivation and worker profile in UK hospitality workers. The
study showed that internal motivation was higher than external motivation overall, and that
external motivation was significantly correlated with gender, work experience, and position
in the organisation. Initiatives focussing on augmenting internal motivation of male
experienced manager/owners may be an effective step for improving levels of work
motivation in the UK hospitality industry.
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Kelantan, Malaysia
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