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Smartphone based bioanalytical and diagnosis applications: A review
Abstract
A smartphone is a facile, handy-analytical device that makes our lives comfortable and stress-free in terms of health care diagnostic assessments. Due to recent advancements in the technology and the introduction of user friendly operating systems and applications, the smartphones have replaced laptops and desktop computers. Taking this fact into account, researchers have designed sensing systems which are more compatible with smartphones. Consequently, these devices are attracting the attention of researchers from fields such as telemedicine, biotechnology, chemical sciences and environmental sciences. In this review, our focus is on recent advances on smartphone based sensing and diagnosis applications.
... This simple way of querying the database shows the growing research interest in the topic. The increasing role of the smartphone science approach and the potentially high impact in many areas are confirmed by the increasing reviews about smartphone-based spectrometers [6], biosensors [7], applications for geoscience [8], agriculture [9], food diagnostics [10], as well as about smartphone-based bioanalytical, health monitoring and diagnosis applications [11][12][13][14][15]. Table 1 reports and compares some references on smartphone-based sensing and applications. ...
... Wu et al [17] 2023 LASCA Daffara et al [18] 2023 artworks Lee et al [19] 2023 fundus camera Wang et al [11] 2023 health review Kim et al [20] 2022 digital holography Sáez-Hernández et al [21] 2022 artworks Costantino et al [22] 2022 LiDAR urban scenario Chan et al [23] 2022 LiDAR fluid testing Luetzemburg et al [24] 2021 LiDAR geoscience Wang et al [25] 2021 LIBS lithology Straczkiewicz et al [12] 2021 health review Hunt et al [13] 2021 medicine review Majunder and Deen [14] 2019 health review Daffara et al [26] 2019 artworks Mu et al [27] 2019 spectrometry Zeng et al [28] 2019 spectrometry Yu et al [29] 2019 stereo-DIC Settles [30] 2018 schlieren Vidvans and Vasu [31] 2018 reverse engineering Kanchi et al [15] 2018 health review McGonigle et al [6] 2018 spectrometry review Lewis and Franco [32] 2018 medicine Jarujamrus et al [33] 2018 environmental analysis Stanger et al [34] 2018 thermal imaging Kim et al [35] 2018 microfluidics Lee et al [8] 2018 geosciences review Liu et al [36] 2018 fringe projection Rateni et al [10] 2017 food diagnostics review Feeldbush et al [37] 2017 engineering Edwards et al [38] 2017 medicine Scire et al [39] 2017 digital holography Roda et al [7] 2016 biosensors review Zhao et al [40] 2016 structural health monitoring Wilkes et al [41] 2016 UV imaging Russo et al [42] 2015 medicine Hossain et al [43] 2015 laser beam profiler Razdan and Bateman [44] 2015 machine vision Pongnumkul et al [9] 2015 agriculture review Butel et al [45] 2015 deflectometry Schirripa Spagnolo et al [46] 2014 artworks authentication Daponte et al [47] 2013 metrology review 3.1. Smartphone as a sensor for coherent diagnostics: laser speckle imaging When coherent light interacts with a medium characterized by a random distribution of scattering centers on the scale of a wavelength, a multi-interference effect occurs, and the resulting random optical field (speckle field) produces a peculiar intensity pattern at the observation plane. ...
Nondestructive optical techniques are crucial in heritage science for monitoring the condition of artworks in full field. Various imaging methods based on infrared and interferometry techniques have been proposed, but they often require specialized training and expensive equipment. This paper explores the emerging field of smartphone science and its potential to revolutionize artwork diagnostics, especially for cultural institutions with limited budgets. The smartphone science approach is divided into using the device ‘as is’ or enhancing it with add-on sensors. After a concise overview of smartphone sensing in different fields, the paper demonstrates smartphone-based optical diagnostics on traditional wooden painting models, employing coherent techniques like laser speckle imaging and moiré fringe technique, and infrared techniques like reflectography and thermography. The comparison of obtained results with established instrumentation in the field clearly shows that smartphone-based diagnostics have the potential to greatly contribute to cultural heritage preservation and conservation, transforming the field’s accessibility and cost-effectiveness.
... Their applications extend to mere communication tools, with functional boundaries continually expanding owing to increased computing power, 5G connectivity, and the integration of multiple sensors [55]. For example, smartphone applications can be used to assist with tsunami evacuation, accelerate forest inventories, and determine sodium intake [56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68]. ...
... Electronic noses identify volatile compounds in food to assess their quality, and electronic tongues analyze their chemical properties. Integrating smartphone-based biosensors with bionic sensors can enhance the overall identification capabilities of the sensing system [66]. Wei et al. [67] devised a smartphonecontrolled electronic nose-sensing array comprising 12 sensors to collect taste and aftertaste information ( Figure 6). ...
Food safety is closely related to human health. However, the regulation and testing processes for food safety are intricate and resource-intensive. Therefore, it is necessary to address food safety risks using a combination of deep learning, the Internet of Things, smartphones, quick response codes, smart packaging, and other smart technologies. Intelligent designs that combine digital systems and advanced functionalities with biosensors hold great promise for revolutionizing current food safety practices. This review introduces the concept of Food Safety 4.0, and discusses the impact of intelligent biosensors, which offer attractive smarter solutions, including real-time monitoring, predictive analytics, enhanced traceability, and consumer empowerment, helping improve risk management and ensure the highest standards of food safety.
... Taking advantage of price, wide availability, and pocket size, smartphone−based POCT is emerging as a potential alternative to traditional laboratory−based diagnostic tests [45]. The use of a smartphone's built−in camera or connected external sensors to obtain information and of various applications to achieve the automatic and rapid analysis of information avoids the traditional use of expensive analysis equipment and the need for professionals [46][47][48]. Therefore, compared with other POCT methods, using smartphones for data or image integration processing can make the whole analysis process more convenient, accurate, visualizable, and adaptive [49]. ...
... Taking advantage of price, wide availability, and pocket size, smartphone-based POCT is emerging as a potential alternative to traditional laboratory-based diagnostic tests [45]. The use of a smartphone's built-in camera or connected external sensors to obtain information and of various applications to achieve the automatic and rapid analysis of information avoids the traditional use of expensive analysis equipment and the need for professionals [46][47][48]. Therefore, compared with other POCT methods, using smartphones for data or image integration processing can make the whole analysis process more convenient, accurate, visualizable, and adaptive [49]. ...
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small noncoding RNAs that are approximately 22 nt in length and regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. miRNAs play a vital role in both physiological and pathological processes and are regarded as promising biomarkers for cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and so on. Accurate detection of miRNA expression level in clinical samples is important for miRNA-guided diagnostics. However, the common miRNA detection approaches like RNA sequencing, qRT-PCR, and miRNA microarray are performed in a professional laboratory with complex intermediate steps and are time-consuming and costly, challenging the miRNA-guided diagnostics. Hence, sensitive, highly specific, rapid, and easy-to-use detection of miRNAs is crucial for clinical diagnosis based on miRNAs. With the advantages of being specific, sensitive, efficient, cost-saving, and easy to operate, point-of-care testing (POCT) has been widely used in the detection of miRNAs. For the first time, we mainly focus on summarizing the research progress in POCT of miRNAs based on portable instruments and visual readout methods. As widely available pocket-size portable instruments and visual detection play important roles in POCT, we provide an all-sided discussion of the principles of these methods and their main limitations and challenges, in order to provide a guide for the development of more accurate, specific, and sensitive POCT methods for miRNA detection.
... In previous research on rapid analysis systems, there are some reports about image analysis methods using a camera [27,28], but there are few reports on the methods for the color-developing reaction of TMB (3,3 ′ ,5,5 ′ -tetramethylbenzidine) substrates using ELISAs. For example, Seddaoui and Amine reported a method for analyzing the yellow color of a product that was reacted with TMB and stopping reagents using a smartphone [29]. ...
In this study, with the aim of adapting an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) system for point-of-care testing (POCT), we propose an image analysis method for ELISAs using a centrifugal microfluidic device that automatically executes the assay. The developed image analysis method can be used to quantify the color development reaction on a TMB (3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine) substrate. In a conventional ELISA, reaction stopping reagents are required at the end of the TMB reaction. In contrast, the developed image analysis method can analyze color in the color-developing reaction without a reaction stopping reagent. This contributes to a reduction in total assay time. The microfluidic devices used in this study could execute reagent control for ELISAs by steady rotation. In the demonstration of the assay and image analysis, a calibration curve for mouse IgG detection was successfully prepared, and it was confirmed that the image analysis method had the same performance as the conventional analysis method. Moreover, the changes in the amount of color over time confirmed that a calibration curve equal to the endpoint analysis was obtained within 2 min from the start of the TMB reaction. As the assay time before the TMB reaction was approximately 7.5 min, the developed ELISA system could detect TMB in just 10 min. In conventional methods using a plate reader, the assay required a time of 90 min for manual handling using microwell plates, and in the case of using automatic microfluidic devices, 30 min were required. The time of 10 min realized by this proposed method is equal to the time required for detection in an immunochromatographic assay with a lateral flow assay; therefore, it is expected that ELISAs can be performed sufficiently to adapt to POCT.
... In addition, with the development of smartphone-based applications, the color change results caused by the colorimetric method can be captured by taking a photo. The photo can be analyzed in real-time to evaluate the disease index of the sample [29][30][31]. The principle of image analysis is to convert the photo into R, G, and B values through image processing software and analyze the degree of color change caused by the increase in glucose concentration to achieve glucose index detection [32,33]. ...
The colorimetric detection of glucose typically involves a peroxidase reaction producing a color, which is then recorded and analyzed. However, enzyme detection has difficulties with purification and storage. In addition, replacing enzyme detection with chemical methods involves time-consuming steps such as centrifugation and purification and the optical instruments used for colorimetric detection are often bulky and not portable. In this study, ammonium metavanadate and sulfuric acid were used to prepare the detection solution instead of peroxidase to produce color. We also analyzed the effect of different concentrations of detection solution on absorbance sensitivity. Finally, a flip chip blue Mini-LEDs miniaturized optical instrument (FC blue Mini-LEDs MOI) was designed for glucose detection using optics fiber, collimating lenses, a miniaturized spectrometer, and an FC Blue Mini-LEDs with a center wavelength of 459 nm. While detecting glucose solutions in the concentration range of 0.1–10 mM by the developed MOI, the regression equation of y = 0.0941x + 0.1341, R ² of 0.9744, the limit of detection was 2.15 mM, and the limit of quantification was 7.163 mM. Furthermore, the preparation of the detection solution only takes 10 min, and the absorbance sensitivity of the optimized detection solution could be increased by 2.3 times. The detection solution remained stable with only a 0.6% decrease in absorbance compared to the original after storing it in a refrigerated environment at 3 °C for 14 days. The method proposed in this study for detecting glucose using FC blue light Mini-LEDs MOI reduces the use of peroxidase. In addition, it has a wide detection range that includes blood as well as non-invasive saliva and tear fluids, providing patients with a miniaturized, highly sensitive, and quantifiable glucose detection system.
... Smartphones are utilized as detectors because of their highquality cameras and high sensitivity to detect analytes. [64] The swift proliferation of analytical methods has resulted in the creation of prevalent, reliable, and affordable analytical systems and detectors. The most favorable suggestion would be to design them as straightforward, easily transportable, versatile analytical systems connected to widely accessible and highly sensitive mobile detectors. ...
Developing a reliable portable biosensor is crucial for ensuring food safety and human health. This involves accurately detecting contaminants in food and water at their source. Smartphone cameras have recently become useful for capturing color or fluorescence changes that occur when a probe interacts with specific molecules on paper or in a chemical solution. Ratiometric designs, which self‐calibrate and minimize the impact of environmental changes, are gaining popularity. These designs rely on color changes or fluorescence shifts, which are easily assessable with smartphones. This overview highlights advances in ratiometric optical sensing using Metal‐organic frameworks (MOFs) with lanthanide components coupled with smartphones. These advancements allow contaminants in food and water to be visually identified. The article explains the principles, properties, and applications of color changes for visual detection in food safety. Using lanthanide metal‐organic frameworks with smartphones offers a potent method to detect contaminants, enhancing food safety and safeguarding human health.
... According to their research, when customers see adequate quality information, services, systems, and goods, they are more likely to use and be satisfied with their mobile app experience. Kanchi et al. (2018) used survey data and focus groups to highlight the considerable influence of consumer conversion factors related to mobile technologies. The quality of e-services encourages a positive attitude toward organic food by way of positive user experiences and online purchasing intention. ...
... El progreso acelerado y las innovaciones llevadas a cabo en las aplicaciones bioanalíticas basadas en tecnología de telefonía móvil dan comienzo a una nueva era de asistencia sanitaria. Existen más de 5 mil millones de usuarios de teléfonos móviles en el mundo, por lo que el laboratorio de interfaz en un chip de aplicaciones bioanalíticas que utilizan teléfonos móviles es un concepto realmente revolucionario y proporciona una detección personalizada en el punto de atención del analito objetivo (69)(70)(71)(72). ...
This annotation addresses the concepts of nanometrology and nanoanalytics, highlighting the importance of measurements and their metrological traceability at the nanoscale. The interdisciplinary nature of both analytical chemistry and nanotechnology is emphasized. This requires joining the efforts of different fields, e.g. chemistry, medicine, pharmacy, biology, materials science engineering, to face with guarantee the challenges that arise on different fronts. Some notes about nanomaterials and nanoparticles of interest in the bioanalytical and pharmaceutical context are commented. When it comes to therapeutic agents, nanomedicines help overcome the solubility, permeability, bioavailability, and toxicity limitations of conventional approaches, opening the door to precision therapies and personalized medicine. Being one of the objectives of analytical chemistry to carry out analysis at the nanometric scale, it also plays a role as an actor do your bit in the collective concert whose mission is to safeguard human health. Keywords: nanometrology; nanoanalytics; nanomedicine
... Many of daily tasks became easier with the introduction of smartphone devices. People can do online shopping, order food, monitor health, perform bank transactions, receive exercise instructions, listen to music, and work [2][3][4][5][6][7]. If on the one hand, smartphones brought advantages in people's lives, then on the other, they came with potential risks. ...
Background:
Using smartphones during a task that requires upright posture is suggested to be detrimental for the overall motor performance. The aim of this study was to determine the role of age and specific aspects of cognitive function on walking and standing tasks in the presence of smartphone use.
Methods:
51 older (36 women) and 50 young (35 women), mean age: 66.5 ± 6.3 and 22.3 ± 1.7 years, respectively, were enrolled in this study. The impact of using a smartphone was assessed during a dynamic (timed up and go, TUG) and a static balance test (performed on a force platform). Multivariate analyses of variance were applied to verify main effects of age, task, estimates of cognitive function and interactions.
Results:
Compared to young, older individuals exhibited a poorer performance on the dynamic and on the static test (age effect: p = 0.001 for both variables). Dual-tasking with a smartphone had a negative impact on both groups (task effect: p = 0.001 for both variables). The negative impact, however, was greater in the older group (age × task effect: p = 0.001 for both variables). Executive function and verbal fluency partially explained results of the dynamic and static tests, respectively.
Conclusions:
The negative impact of using a smartphone while performing tasks similar to daily activities is higher in older compared to young people. Subclinical deficits in distinct aspects of cognitive function partially explain the decreased performance when dual-tasking.
Point-of-care testing devices for early detection, screening, and diagnosis have been proven to significantly improve patient survival rates and quality of life, as well as significantly reduce the cost and complexity of disease treatment. This has proven to be particularly applicable to appropriate environments within low-income and developing nations. In this context, paper-based diagnostic tools have gained
significant popularity due to their cost effectiveness, ability to integrate with various
platforms, capacity for multiplexing, and their utility in various domains under
pointof-care testing setups. From a biomedical standpoint, paper-based biosensor
assays are used for the qualitative and quantitative detection of a wide variety of
antigens, antibodies, DNA, RNA, miRNA.
Providing a timely update on the current understanding of paper-based biosensors,
this book aims to deal with the current state-of-the-art of paper-based biosensors technology and addresses its future prospects for the detection of infectious diseases, with particular relevance and applications for low-income and developing countries. Owing to the advantages offered by paper-based biosensors, such as lowcost platforms for fast and easy detection of a biomarker in the field of clinical diagnostics, this book focuses on the design and fabrication strategies of paper-based devices for the detection of various biomolecules in biomedicine. This is
further illustrated with the inclusion of specific case studies as applications within
each appropriate chapter.
This comprehensive research and reference text would be suitable for researchers,
scholars, and manufacturers in medical device design, biomaterials, bioengineering,
materials science, nanobiotechnology, and biochemistry.
DETERMINATION OF SALICYLIC ACID IN MILK USING PAPER-BASED SPOT TESTS AND DIGITAL IMAGE TREATMENT. Milk is a worldwide consumed product, and therefore, quality control is essential. The addition of salicylic acid (SA) represents a common type of adulteration, used to reduce the growth of microorganisms and extend shelf life. However, excessive ingestion of SA can cause gastrointestinal issues and even lead to death. This study describes the development of a simple analytical method for the determination of salicylic acid in milk based on the colorimetric reaction between the analyte and FeIII ions. The quantification was performed by digital image treatment. Different linear ranges were obtained for each type of milk analyzed: 100 to 1500 mg L-1 for raw milk, 300 to 2000 mg L-1 for skimmed milk, 500 to 2000 mg L-1 for powdered milk, 100 to 2000 mg L-1 for whole milk, and 100 to 1500 mg L-1 for lactose-free milk. The accuracy of the method was obtained by comparison with a reference method, and the recovery percentage provided values between 71 and 120%. An RSD (relative standard deviation) of 0.7% was obtained. The parameters evaluation resulted in a simple and miniaturized analytical method without a sample preparation step for the determination of SA in milk, serving as a tool for identifying adulteration practices.
(1) Background: In drug discovery and pharmaceutical quality control, a challenge is to assess protein extracts used for allergy therapy and in vivo diagnosis, such as prick tests. Indeed, there are significant differences between the features of marketed products due to variations in raw materials, purification processes, and formulation techniques. (2) Methods: A protein array technology has been developed to provide comprehensive information on protein–biomarker interactions on a large scale to support the pharmaceutical industry and clinical research. The biosensing method is based on immobilizing low volumes of protein extracts (40 nL) on thermoplastic chips in array format. The biological activity was estimated by incubating with serum from representative food allergy patients. (3) Results: The reproducible optical signals were registered (deviation lower than 10%) using low-cost technologies such as a smartphone and a reader of digital versatile discs. The method was applied to pharmaceutical products to diagnose ten common food allergies, including barley, kiwi, milk, prawn, egg, peanut, wheat, peach, walnut, and squid. Quality indicators were established from spot intensities, enabling an effective comparison of manufacturers. (4) Conclusions: A biosensing-based strategy for screening pharmaceutical products emerges as a reliable and advantageous alternative to traditional approaches such as electrophoresis, fluorescence chips, and ELISA assays. This high-throughput method can contribute to understanding complex biological processes and evaluate the performance of pharmaceutical products.
A portable and cost-effective smartphone spectrometer was designed and tested for colorimetric analysis. The ambient light sensor of smartphone was applied as a detector, and an external light-emitting diode (LED) was used as a light source. An optical fiber is used to connect the cuvette and the mobile phone. Additionally, an Android smartphone application was designed for automatically quantifying the spectral parameters, such as absorbance and transmittance based on transmitted light intensity detected by the smartphone ambient light sensor. Determination data can be quickly verified on the spot and be displayed immediately on the phone screen. The device was evaluated by determining malachite green samples and compared with a commercial spectrophotometer. Results showed that this device can perform well with a simple structure and low-cost. The absorbance data read by this device were as high as that of commercial device. A linear regression (R2=0.999) was achieved with a linear range(0~75mg/L) in the experiment of quantifying malachite green, with RSDs ranged from 0.12% to 0.48 %. Results demonstrated that our device showed good accuracy and stability in fast speed. With the advantages of cost-effective, user friendly and portability, this smartphone spectrometer holds great application potential in many application fields.
Heavy metal contamination especially in aqueous media has become an important risk to human health and environment. Therefore, due to the broad distribution of barium (Ba2+) and strontium (Sr2+) ions in the environment and wide variety of their harmful health effects for human, development of efficacious systems for their accurate and selective determination is of great importance. Aiming to develop a point-of-care and easy-to-use sensing device, a paper-based colorimetric sensing device was designed for simultaneous measurement of Ba2+ and Sr2+ ions standing on the basis of the color change of sodium rhodizonate (SR) in the presence of various concentrations of the target analytes. These color changes were photographed using a smartphone, and after analyzing with Photoshop 2022 software, the average variations in the intensities of colors (RGB (red, green, blue) model) were used to draw the calibration curves. The quantitative identification of Ba2+ and Sr2+ ions in a single solution was carried out by masking one of them at a moment. The average color intensities (G) displayed a linear relationship with the concentration of the analytes in the ranges of 5––300 ppm and 5–350 ppm with the limit of detection (LOD) values of 3.64 and 4.75 ppm for Ba2+ and Sr2+ ions, respectively. Moreover, the selectivity of the proposed analytical device was assessed; SR was selective for the target analytes versus the other ions causing a considerable color change. Furthermore, the practical application of this colorimetric device was investigated by the excellent performance in real samples indicating its potential for field applications.
A simple preparation of a paper strip test with a smartphone-based instrument for detecting dissolved mercury is still in development. This study aims to develop a smartphone-based colorimetric paper strip test using chitosan-stabilized silver nanoparticles for detecting dissolved mercury. The method demonstrated high sensitivity and selectivity for Hg²⁺ ions, with detection limits comparable to UV-vis spectrophotometry. Silver ions embedded in the chitosan matrix were reduced by either sodium NaBH4 or N2H4. Both chi-AgNP colloidal and chi-AgNP paper strips were tested for sensitivity of mercury(ii) solution detection with and without ion interference. The accuracy of colour change responding to the mercury concentration was recorded with several smartphones in a handmade cubical and a T-shape micro-studio. Only NaBH4 gives colloidal chi-AgNPs relatively dispersed, and the colloidal chi-AgNPs become aggregated when AgNP interacts with mercury(ii) ions. The colour change of chi-AgNP paper strips responding to the concentration of mercury(ii) and quantified using a smartphone is consistent when confirmed with UV-vis spectrophotometric determination with a comparable limit of detection (0.76 μM). The inferring ions do not significantly affect mercury(ii) analyses. Therefore, the paper strip integrated with the smartphone is effectively used for mercury(ii) detection in water as long as the mercury concentration is >1 μM. This finding might inspire advanced technology with a larger number of data references, and machine learning involvement to develop more compatible and simple mercury detection.
The portable ratiometric electrochemical sensing platform combines a microfluidic chip, a wireless integrated circuit system and a mobile phone control terminal for highly sensitive and selective detection of 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl.
This study elaborates on the design, fabrication, and data analysis details of SPEED, a recently proposed smartphone-based digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR) device. The dPCR chips incorporate partition diameters ranging from 50 μm to 5 μm, and these partitions are organized into six distinct blocks to facilitate image processing. Due to the superior thermal conductivity of Si and its potential for mass production, the dPCR chips were fabricated on a Si substrate. A temperature control system based on a high-power density Peltier element and a preheating/cooling PCR protocol user interface shortening the thermal cycle time. The optical design employs four 470 nm light-emitting diodes as light sources, with filters and mirrors effectively managing the light emitted during PCR. An algorithm is utilized for image processing and illumination nonuniformity correction including conversion to a monochromatic format, partition identification, skew correction, and the generation of an image correction mask. We validated the device using a range of deoxyribonucleic acid targets, demonstrating its potential applicability across multiple fields. Therefore, we provide guidance and verification of the design and testing of the recently proposed SPEED device.
The paper presents the development of a wristwatch as a configurable testing platform for personalized point-of-care testing. The developed watch can perform voltammetry and amperometry in a wide operating range, thus making the system capable of detecting various bio-analytes. This overcomes a major limitation of the existing meters available in the market, where each sensor requires a dedicated meter. The user selects the desired biomolecule for quantification on the smartphone using the developed Android mobile application. The test parameters are transferred via Bluetooth, and the smartwatch is tuned to the chosen sensor. As a proof-of-concept, we have developed electrochemical biosensors for testing clinically significant biomolecules like glucose, uric acid and ascorbic acid, which was then interfaced with the smartwatch for the on-demand quantification. Using an ADC with 12-bit resolution, the device demonstrated a high resolution of 0.732 mV. The smartwatch could overcome the limitation associated with the quantification of uric acid in the presence of ascorbic acid by doing baseline subtraction, and the results show a low relative standard deviation of 4%. The glucose analysis was highly reproducible with a relative standard deviation of 4.95%, with a high resolution of 0.0217 mg dL
-1
, and the results could be obtained within 5 s. The results obtained using the smartwatch were in excellent conformity with those obtained from a laboratory electrochemical workstation. The key advantage of the device is that it can be easily configured to test any new biomarkers without any hardware change by over-the-air mobile application updates.
Analysis of microplastics in drinking water is often challenging due to smaller particle size and low particle count. In this study, we used a low cost and an easy to assemble smartphone microscopic system for imaging and quantitating microplastic particles as small as 20 μm. The system consisted of a spherical sapphire ball lens of 4 mm diameter attached to a smartphone camera as a major imaging component. It also involved pre‐concentration of the sample using ZnCl 2 solution. The spike recovery and limit of detection of the method in filtered distilled and deionized water samples ( n = 9) were 55.6% ± 9.7% and 34 particles/L, respectively. Imaging performance of the microscopic system was similar to a commercial bright field microscopic system. The method was further implemented to examine microplastic particles in commercial bottled and jar water samples ( n = 20). The particles count in bottled and jar water samples ranged from 0–91 particles/L to 0–130 particles/L, respectively. In both sample types, particles of diverse shape and size were observed. The particles collected from water samples were further confirmed by FTIR spectra ( n = 36), which found 97% of the particles tested were made of plastic material. These findings suggested that the smartphone microscopic system can be implemented as a low‐cost alternative for preliminary screening of microplastic in drinking water samples.
Research Highlights
Ball lens based smartphone microscopic method was used for microplastic analysis.
Particles of diverse shape and size were found in bottle and jar water samples.
This research introduces a monitoring system for Electrocardiogram (ECG) using a smartphone. The system utilizes an ESP32 microcontroller and an AD8232 sensor to acquire ECG signals and transmit them via Bluetooth to a smartphone app. The accuracy and reliability of the system were compared with a traditional ECG machine. The findings suggest that this system has the potential to offer real-time monitoring for cardiac arrhythmias. A review of existing literature was conducted to examine the state of smartphone-based ECG monitoring system, including the challenges and limitations associated with this technology. The results indicate that this proposed system is a solution for easy accessible and convenient ECG monitoring, which could potentially bring significant improvements in health-care provision by enabling early detection of cardiac arrhythmias and providing a convenient mean for continuous monitoring of heart activity. This study aims to provide an overview of the design, implementation and evaluation of a smartphone-based ECG monitoring system while demonstrating its feasibility for real-time heart activity monitoring.
The recent international scenario highlights the importance to protect human health and environmental quality from toxic compounds. In this context, organophosphorous (OP) Nerve Agents (NAs) have received particular attention, due to their use in terrorist attacks. Classical instrumental detection techniques are sensitive and selective, but they cannot be used in real field due to the high cost, specialized personnel requested and huge size. For these reasons, the development of practical, easy and fast detection methods (smart methods) is the future of this field. Indeed, starting from initial sensing research, based on optical and/or electrical sensors, today the development and use of smart strategies to detect NAs is the current state of the art. This review summarizes the smart strategies to detect NAs, highlighting some important parameters, such as linearity, limit of detection and selectivity. Furthermore, some critical comments of the future on this field, and in particular, the problems to be solved before a real application of these methods, are provided.
Fungal infections are a significant global health problem, particularly affecting individuals with weakened immune systems. Moreover, as uncontrolled antibiotic and immunosuppressant use increases continuously, fungal infections have seen a dramatic increase, with some strains developing antibiotic resistance. Traditional approaches to identifying fungal strains often rely on morphological characteristics, thus owning limitations, such as struggles in identifying several strains or distinguishing between fungal strains with similar morphologies. This review explores the multifaceted impact of fungi infections on individuals, healthcare providers, and society, highlighting the often-underestimated economic burden and healthcare implications of these infections. In light of the serious constraints of traditional fungal identification methods, this review discusses the potential of plasmonic nanoparticle-based biosensors for fungal infection identification. These biosensors can enable rapid and precise fungal pathogen detection by exploiting several readout approaches, including various spectroscopic techniques, colorimetric and electrochemical assays, as well as lateral-flow immunoassay methods. Moreover, we report the remarkable impact of plasmonic Lab on a Chip technology and microfluidic devices, as they recently emerged as a class of advanced biosensors. Finally, we provide an overview of smartphone-based Point-of-Care devices and the associated technologies developed for detecting and identifying fungal pathogens.
Time-resolved techniques have been widely used in time-gated and luminescence lifetime imaging. However, traditional time-resolved systems require expensive lab equipment such as high-speed excitation sources and detectors or complicated mechanical choppers to achieve high repetition rates. Here, we present a cost-effective and miniaturized smartphone lifetime imaging system integrated with a pulsed UV LED for 2D luminescence lifetime imaging using a videoscopy-based virtual chopper (V-chopper) mechanism combined with machine learning. The V-chopper method generates a series of time-delayed images between excitation pulses and smartphone gating so that the luminescence lifetime can be measured at each pixel using a relatively low acquisition frame rate (e.g., 30 fps) without the need for excitation synchronization. Europium (Eu) complex dyes with different luminescent lifetimes ranging from microseconds to seconds were used to demonstrate and evaluate the principle of V-chopper on a 3D-printed smartphone microscopy platform. A convolutional neural network (CNN) model was developed to automatically distinguish the gated images in different decay cycles with an accuracy of >99.5%. The current smartphone V-chopper system can detect lifetime down to ∼75 µs utilizing the default phase shift between the smartphone video rate and excitation pulses and in principle can detect much shorter lifetimes by accurately programming the time delay. This V-chopper methodology has eliminated the need for the expensive and complicated instruments used in traditional time-resolved detection and can greatly expand the applications of time-resolved lifetime technologies.
With the rapid development of next-generation manufacturing, communication, and display technologies, smartphone has been widely integrated with multifunctional modules, such as sensor chips and handheld detectors for biochemical detections. Owing to the merits of high computing speed, high-resolution image analysis, and user-friendly human-computer interface, smartphone-based point-of-care testing (POCT) devices for personalized healthcare provide an affordable and accessible way for on-site diagnosis without using sophisticated and expensive instruments. The conventional biochemical analytical instruments are always bulky, not portable, and especially expensive; therefore, further applications are rather limited. The smartphone-based sensors and electronics have been developing rapidly, playing an increasingly important part upon the challenges confronting medical service, food industry, and public safety. This chapter presents smartphone interface and wearable biosensors for on-site analysis and takes our team’s work as examples to elaborate. The sensing mechanism, design principle of smartphone-based portable and wearable sensing system, and implementation of biosensing strategies were discussed. For better insights into the important and valuable smartphone-based portable and wearable sensing devices, several examples were carefully discussed of device designing, application scenarios, analytical targets, and future applications. In the smartphone-based portable system, optical sensing, electrochemical sensing, and photoelectrochemical sensing were introduced with specific exciting and sampling circuit implementation and on-site diagnosis applications. In the smartphone-based wearable system, we summarized the representative applications of the perspiration analysis system, implantable system, ingestible system, and wound monitoring system. Due to the wide-range permeability rate of smartphone in our lives, it can be expected that smartphone interface and wearable biosensors will gradually complement and dominate the existing health management approaches.
The traditional method of urine color analysis is achieved by visual examination. However, this method has a high level of incompetence and inaccuracy. Complete urinalysis testing has various limitations due to the great number of samples processed, impaired color discrimination by the naked eye, the required time for testing, and the work involved in the prepared sample and processing. Recently, digital color image processing has attracted considerable attention due
to it is great sensitivity, rapidity, and facility in which color is measured and translated into numerical values that may be regarded as signals for analysis using the RGB color system and color information is readout. In this review, we present different ways in recent developments in automated urinalysis. This paper reviews the colorimetric sensing, camera, smartphone, and scanner methods and describes their advantages and limitations.
Rapid, high-frequency, and accurate identification of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is crucial for ensuring food safety and reducing population mortality. Herein, we constructed Smartphone powered Mobile mIcrofluidic Lab-on-fiber dEvice (SMILE) comprising a compact optical system, fiber nano-bioprobe-embedded microfluidic-chip system, mini-photodetector, and software application to facilitate the rapid and sensitive point-of-need quantitative testing for AFB1. The elegant optical design of SMILE significantly improves light transmission efficiency, detection sensitivity, and portability by integrating a compacted all-fiber optical structure with a fiber nano-bioprobe-embedded microfluidic chip. Furthermore, the nanopore layer of the fiber nano-bioprobe improves detection sensitivity by increasing the biorecognition molecule number and enhancing the interaction between the evanescent field and dye. Through an indirect competitive immunoassay mechanism, SMILE achieves sensitive quantitative detection of AFB1 with a detection limit of 0.08 µg/L. Herein, SMILE was validated using several feedstuff samples tested with a simple aqueous extraction protocol, demonstrating good correlation with high-performance liquid chromatography for AFB1-contaminated feedstuffs. The immunoassay process is completed within 12 min, boasting high sensitivity, specificity, reusability, and reproducibility. Owing to its sensitivity, portability, flexibility, plug-and-play, and smartphone integration, SMILE is highly scalable for rapid and high-frequency point-of-need testing for AFB1 and other trace contaminants.
A new generation of mobile sensing approaches offers significant advantages over traditional platforms in terms of test speed, control, low cost, ease-of-operation, and data management, and requires minimal equipment and user involvement. The marriage of novel sensing technologies with cellphones enables the development of powerful lab-on-smartphone platforms for many important applications including medical diagnosis, environmental monitoring, and food safety analysis. This paper reviews the recent advancements and developments in the field of smartphone-based food diagnostic technologies, with an emphasis on custom modules to enhance smartphone sensing capabilities. These devices typically comprise multiple components such as detectors, sample processors, disposable chips, batteries and software, which are integrated with a commercial smartphone. One of the most important aspects of developing these systems is the integration of these components onto a compact and lightweight platform that requires minimal power. To date, researchers have demonstrated several promising approaches employing various sensing techniques and device configurations. We aim to provide a systematic classification according to the detection strategy, providing a critical discussion of strengths and weaknesses. We have also extended the analysis to the food scanning devices that are increasingly populating the Internet of Things (IoT) market, demonstrating how this field is indeed promising, as the research outputs are quickly capitalized on new start-up companies.
Through their computational power and connectivity, smartphones are poised to rapidly expand telemedicine and transform healthcare by enabling better personal health monitoring and rapid diagnostics. Recently, a variety of platforms have been developed to enable smartphone-based point-of-care testing using imaging-based readout with the smartphone camera as the detector. Fluorescent reporters have been shown to improve the sensitivity of assays over colorimetric labels, but fluorescence readout necessitates incorporating optical hardware into the detection system, adding to the cost and complexity of the device. Here we present a simple, low-cost smartphone-based detection platform for highly sensitive luminescence imaging readout of point-of-care tests run with persistent luminescent phosphors as reporters. The extremely bright and long-lived emission of persistent phosphors allows sensitive analyte detection with a smartphone by a facile time-gated imaging strategy. Phosphors are first briefly excited with the phone's camera flash, followed by switching off the flash, and subsequent imaging of phosphor luminescence with the camera. Using this approach, we demonstrate detection of human chorionic gonadotropin using a lateral flow assay and the smartphone platform with strontium aluminate nanoparticles as reporters, giving a detection limit of ≈45 pg mL(-1) (1.2 pM) in buffer. Time-gated imaging on a smartphone can be readily adapted for sensitive and potentially quantitative testing using other point-of-care formats, and is workable with a variety of persistent luminescent materials.
Developments in the emerging fields of smartphone chemical and biosensing have dovetailed with increased interest in environmental and health monitoring for resource-limited environments, culminating in research toward field-ready smartphone sensors. Optical sensors have been a particular focus, in which smartphone imaging and on-board analysis have been integrated into both existing and novel colorimetric, fluorescent, chemiluminescent, spectroscopy-based, and scattering-based assays. Research in recent years has shown promising progress, but substantial limitations still exist due to environmental lighting interference, reliance upon proprietary smartphone attachments, and the undefined sensitivity variations between different smartphones. In this review, recent research in smartphone chemical and biosensing is assessed, and discussion is made regarding the opportunities that new research methods have to improve the scope of resource-limited sensing.
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. Mobile technology might enable increased access to effective prevention of CVDs. Given the high penetration of smartphones into groups with low socioeconomic status, health-related mobile applications might provide an opportunity to overcome traditional barriers to cardiac rehabilitation access. The huge increase in low-cost health-related apps that are not regulated by health-care policy makers raises three important areas of interest. Are apps developed according to evidenced-based guidelines or on any evidence at all? Is there any evidence that apps are of benefit to people with CVD? What are the components of apps that are likely to facilitate changes in behaviour and enable individuals to adhere to medical advice? In this Review, we assess the current literature and content of existing apps that target patients with CVD risk factors and that can facilitate behaviour change. We present an overview of the current literature on mobile technology as it relates to prevention and management of CVD. We also evaluate how apps can be used throughout all age groups with different CVD prevention needs.
The rapid expansion of mobile technology is transforming the biomedical landscape. By 2016 there will be 260 M active smartphones in the US and millions of health accessories and software "apps" running off them. In parallel with this have come major technical achievements in lab-on-a-chip technology leading to incredible new biochemical sensors and molecular diagnostic devices. Despite these advancements, the uptake of lab-on-a-chip technologies at the consumer level has been somewhat limited. We believe that the widespread availability of smartphone technology and the capabilities they offer in terms of computation, communication, social networking, and imaging will be transformative to the deployment of lab-on-a-chip type technology both in the developed and developing world. In this paper we outline why we believe this is the case, the new business models that may emerge, and detail some specific application areas in which this synergy will have long term impact, namely: nutrition monitoring and disease diagnostics in limited resource settings.
We demonstrate a cellphone-based rapid-diagnostic-test (RDT) reader platform that can work with various lateral flow immuno-chromatographic assays and similar tests to sense the presence of a target analyte in a sample. This compact and cost-effective digital RDT reader, weighing only ~65 g, mechanically attaches to the existing camera unit of a cellphone, where various types of RDTs can be inserted to be imaged in reflection or transmission modes under light-emitting diode (LED)-based illumination. Captured raw images of these tests are then digitally processed (within less than 0.2 s per image) through a smart application running on the cellphone for validation of the RDT, as well as for automated reading of its diagnostic result. The same smart application then transmits the resulting data, together with the RDT images and other related information (e.g., demographic data), to a central server, which presents the diagnostic results on a world map through geo-tagging. This dynamic spatio-temporal map of various RDT results can then be viewed and shared using internet browsers or through the same cellphone application. We tested this platform using malaria, tuberculosis (TB) and HIV RDTs by installing it on both Android-based smartphones and an iPhone. Providing real-time spatio-temporal statistics for the prevalence of various infectious diseases, this smart RDT reader platform running on cellphones might assist healthcare professionals and policymakers to track emerging epidemics worldwide and help epidemic preparedness.
We are currently moving from the Internet society to a mobile society where more and more access to information is done by previously dumb phones. For example, the number of mobile phones using a full blown OS has risen to nearly 200% from Q3/2009 to Q3/2010. As a result, mobile security is no longer immanent, but imperative. This survey paper provides a concise overview of mobile network security, attack vectors using the back end system and the web browser, but also the hardware layer and the user as attack enabler. We show differences and similarities between "normal" security and mobile security, and draw conclusions for further research opportunities in this area.
The development of modern information telecommunication (ITC) technology and its use in telemedicine plays an increasingly important role in facilitating access to some diagnostic services even to people living in the most remote areas. However, physical and economical constraints in the access to broad band data-transmission network, still represent a considerable obstacle to the transmission of images for the purpose of tele-pathology.
Indifferently using m-phones of different brands, and a variety of microscopic preparations, images were taken without the use of any adaptor simply approaching the lens of the mobile cell phone camera to the ocular of common optical microscopes, and subsequently sent via Multimedia Messaging Services (MMS) to distant reference centres for tele-diagnosis. Access to MMS service was reviewed with specific reference to the African information communication technology (ICT) market.
Images of any pathologic preparation could be captured and sent over the mobile phone with an MMS, without being limited by appropriate access to the internet for transmission (i.e. access to broad-band services). The quality of the image was not influenced by the brand or model of the mobile-phone used, but only by its digital resolution, with any resolution above 0.8 megapixel resulting in images sufficient for diagnosis.Access to MMS services is increasingly reaching remote disadvantaged areas. Current penetration of the service in Africa was mapped appearing already available in almost every country, with penetration index varying from 1.5% to 92.2%.
The use of otherwise already widely available technologies, without any need for adaptors or otherwise additional technology, could significantly increase opportunities and quality diagnostics while lowering costs and considerably increasing connectivity between most isolated laboratories and distant reference center.
A rapid dual lateral flow diagnostic assay fabricated with quick response (QR) barcodes was developed to improve quality control of malaria diagnostic tests, as well as to enhance systems for transferring data from survey studies among community healthcare workers at a point-of-care facility and centralized laboratories. The lateral flow kit has been modified with QR technology encoded with Google analytics information for the detection and real-time tracking of Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH). The QR barcode was fabricated by attaching two QR barcodes which were encoded with websites that were linked to Google analytics. The optical and structural properties of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were studied using UV-Visible spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy and Biodot X,Y,Z. The anti-mouse IgG antibody was used as a secondary antibody to act as a control and anti-(pLDH). The antibody binding with pLDH antigen shows a test line indicating a positive test in the presence of phosphate buffer as a mobile phase. The diagnostic kit for rapid detection of pLDH was developed and validated for the detection of Malaria antigen at the lowest detectable recombinant concentration of 10 ng ml-1. The diagnostic kit was incorporated with quick QR barcodes for positive, negative and invalid test readable with a smartphone. These QR barcodes successfully allows us to track massive results and precise location of the test through Google analytics.
Increasingly, smartphones are used as portable personal computers, revolutionizing communication styles and entire lifestyles. Using 3D-printing technology we have made a disposable minicartridge thatcan be easily prototyped to turn any kind of smartphone or tablet into a portable luminometer to detect chemiluminescence derived from enzyme-coupled reactions. As proof-of-principle, lactate oxidase was coupled with horseradish peroxidase for lactate determination in oral fluid and sweat. Lactate can be quantified in less than five minutes with detection limits of 0.5 mmol/L (corresponding to 4.5 mg/dL) and 0.1 mmol/L (corresponding to 0.9 mg/dL) in oral fluid and sweat, respectively. The smartphone-based device shows adequate analytical performance to offer a cost-effective alternative for non-invasive lactate measurement. It could be used to evaluate lactate variation in relation to anaerobic threshold in endurance sport and for monitoring lactic acidosis in critical-care patients.
Home self-diagnostic tools for blood cholesterol monitoring have been around for over a decade but their widespread adoption has been limited by the relatively high cost of acquiring a quantitative test-strip reader, complicated procedure for operating the device, and inability to easily store and process results. To address this we have developed a smartphone accessory and software application that allows for the quantification of cholesterol levels in blood. Through a series of human trials we demonstrate that the system can accurately quantify total cholesterol levels in blood within 60 s by imaging standard test strips. In addition, we demonstrate how our accessory is optimized to improve measurement sensitivity and reproducibility across different individual smartphones. With the widespread adoption of smartphones and increasingly sophisticated image processing technology, accessories such as the one presented here will allow cholesterol monitoring to become more accurate and widespread, greatly improving preventive care for cardiovascular disease.
During the last decade, there has been a rapidly growing trend toward the use of cellphone-based devices (CBDs) in bioanalytical sciences. For example, they have been used for digital microscopy, cytometry, read-out of immunoassays and lateral flow tests, electrochemical and surface plasmon resonance based bio-sensing, colorimetric detection and healthcare monitoring, among others. Cellphone can be considered as one of the most prospective devices for the development of next-generation point-of-care (POC) diagnostics platforms, enabling mobile healthcare delivery and personalized medicine. With more than 6.5 billion cellphone subscribers worldwide and approximately 1.6 billion new devices being sold each year, cellphone technology is also creating new business and research opportunities. Many cellphone-based devices, such as those targeted for diabetic management, weight management, monitoring of blood pressure and pulse rate, have already become commercially-available in recent years. In addition to such monitoring platforms, several other CBDs are also being introduced, targeting e.g., microscopic imaging and sensing applications for medical diagnostics using novel computational algorithms and components already embedded on cellphones. This report aims to review these recent developments in CBDs for bioanalytical sciences along with some of the challenges involved and the future opportunities.
Figure
The universal Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) reader developed at UCLA. It can read various lateral flow assays for point-of-care and telemedicine applications
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