Chapter

Using Computer-Assisted Argument Mapping to Teach Reasoning

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Argument mapping is a way of diagramming the logical structure of an argument to explicitly and concisely represent reasoning. The use of argument mapping in critical thinking instruction has increased dramatically in recent decades. A brief history of argument mapping is provided at the end of this paper.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Although scholars in the field of education have reached a consensus regarding the significance of CT as an essential skill in primary, secondary and tertiary education, and as a fundamental factor contributing to individual achievement (Van et al., 2022), there is not a consensus in the academic literature with respect to the best way for teaching CT (Davies, 2009). In recent years, there has been a significant surge in the utilization of argument mapping (AM), an approach that involves visually representing the logical framework of an argument to illustrate reasoning explicitly and succinctly, as a pedagogical tool for fostering CT (Davies et al., 2021). Meta-analytic studies have indicated that CT can be augmented by educational courses that either directly teach CT or integrate CT into the curriculum (Alvarez-Ortiz, 2007). ...
... All attempt to represent complex relationships' (Davies et al., 2021, p. 118). Studies employing pre-and post-test designs have revealed the educational advantages of AM (Davies et al., 2021). A study conducted by van Gelder (2005) found that AM instruction improved students' CT skills in a college-level philosophy course. ...
... Because the software allows the students to edit their maps freely, they can engage in self-directed exploratory learning as they try out different argument structures to see what works best' (Davies et al., 2021, p.118). As a matter of fact, this can be achieved without using a software (Harrell, 2008); however, the use of software makes it much easier (Davies et al., 2021) especially in terms of the ease of editing. ...
Article
Full-text available
Lay Description What is already known about this topic There is a growing body of research that supports the use of computer‐assisted argument mapping (CAAM) tools for enhancing CT skills (e.g., Donohue et al., 2002; Esfandiari et al., 2021; Twardy, 2004; van Gelder, 2015; Yılmaz‐Na & Sönmez, 2023a). In addition, according to scholarly investigations, CAAM has a positive impact on students' reading comprehension abilities (Chiang et al.,2016), argumentative writing performance (Robillos & Thongpai, 2022), capacity to retain subject matter information, and long‐term learning (Eftekhari & Sotoudehnama, 2018), self‐regulation (Robillos & Thongpai, 2022; Yılmaz‐Na & Sönmez, 2023b) and problem‐solving skills (Yılmaz‐Na & Sönmez, 2023b). What this paper adds There exists a dearth of clarity with respect to the essential methodological features of CAAM learning environments that are conducive to enhancing CT in tertiary education and prior research has not provided a comprehensive explanation of the structure of instructional interventions based on CAAM. In addition, prior research provides limited evidence to show how a course can be designed and implemented with CAAM practices. In the current study, a course entitled ‘Instructional Methods and Techniques’ was redesigned and implemented with the objective of integrating CAAM practices into the instruction of pre‐service teachers. The primary purpose was to assist pre‐service teachers in making more informed choices and decisions regarding the selection of suitable instructional methods and techniques for teaching a specific subject matter /content or achieving a particular objective. Empirical research and this study as well already proves that CAAM practices promote pre‐service teachers' CT skills; however, they fail to depict the experiences encountered during the intervention processes. This study aimed to explore the lived experiences of pre‐service teachers during CAAM practices based on their perspectives to guide more successful curriculum or instructional designs integrated with CAAM practices. Implications for practice and/or policy: Incorporating CAAM practices can foster CT skills and decision‐making abilities among pre‐service teachers. Educators can use the insights gained from this study to develop well‐structured courses that empower future teachers with the skills needed to make informed instructional choices. The study also highlights the potential of technology‐enhanced pedagogy in teacher education. By integrating CAAM tools, teacher educators can expose students to innovative approaches that combine technological proficiency with CT. This prepares future educators to effectively integrate technology into their own teaching practices. In addition, the challenges faced by pre‐service teachers during CAAM practice underscore the value of active learning and engagement. Educators can capitalize on these challenges as opportunities for learners to actively construct knowledge, collaborate with peers, and seek guidance from instructors. What is more, the study reinforces the importance of a supportive learning environment that includes peer interactions and constructive feedback. Teacher educators can consider incorporating collaborative activities, peer reviews, and guided discussions to create a community of learners where students can scaffold their learning through interactions with peers and instructors. Last but not the least, the study's suggestion to avoid overuse of CAAM tools has implications for instructional design. Educators need to strike a balance between incorporating technology and ensuring that it enhances rather than overwhelms the learning experience. Intermittent use of CAAM tools for specific learning objectives can prevent learner fatigue and maintain interest.
... It is essential to note that AM plays a crucial role in making arguments intelligible, especially when they are imperfectly expressed in prose (Davies et al., 2021). By employing AM, the inferential construction of an argument can be visually represented in a concise and transparent manner (Davies et al., 2021). ...
... It is essential to note that AM plays a crucial role in making arguments intelligible, especially when they are imperfectly expressed in prose (Davies et al., 2021). By employing AM, the inferential construction of an argument can be visually represented in a concise and transparent manner (Davies et al., 2021). Davies and colleagues argue that the process of creating AM offers distinct advantages, allowing students to develop and reconstruct their arguments with heightened clarity and thoroughness (p.115). ...
... Additionally, objections to specific claims are indicated using a red shaded colour. Writers denote reasons and objections by using terms such as "supports" and "opposes," respectively (Davies et al., 2021;Ostwald, 2007). ...
... Argument visualization tools (AVT) are cognitive tools designed to guide the development of argument schemas by scaffolding learners' analysis, evaluation, and construction of arguments . AVTs are intended to make the structure of an argument more explicit and salient than text representations of the same argument (Davies et al., 2021;Dwyer et al., 2012;van Gelder, 2015). According to Nussbaum and Schraw (2007), AVTs can assist students to "activate, strengthen, and refine their existing [argument] schemas or develop new ones" (p. ...
... 65). Davies et al. (2021) traced the history of argument visualization back to Richard Whately's work in the nineteenth century. In his Elements of Logic (Whately, 1834(Whately, /1826, the first form of an argument map presented in a tree-like structure was introduced, but it was not widely adopted due to the challenge of using it to represent complex arguments. ...
... To this end, variations among different types of AVTs and the contexts in which AVTs enhance learning should be broadly researched. A closer examination of the literature reveals that the AVTs used in existing empirical studies are often formatted as node-link diagrams in which nodes contain claims or evidence and links represent the supporting or opposing relationships between them (e.g., Binks et al., 2022;Davies et al., 2021;Dwyer et al., 2013;Khartabil et al., 2021;Ngajie et al., 2020). However, there is little research investigating the effects of bilateral AVTs such as the DMap (see Fig. 1) that comprises two columns for pro arguments and counterarguments, respectively. ...
Article
Full-text available
Argumentation is a complex intellectual skill essential for academic achievement in a range of scholarly disciplines. Argumentative writing demands effective coordination of language use, reasoning processes, and background knowledge about a given topic. It is a cognitively challenging activity, especially for students learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The Dialectical Map (DMap) is an open-source argument visualization tool that scaffolds argument analysis, evaluation, and construction. A quasi-experiment was conducted with 190 undergraduate EFL students to investigate the pedagogical value of DMapping as a pre-writing activity. The research also explored the effect of DMapping on student motivation in learning argumentation. We found the DMap functioned as an effective pre-writing tool for argumentative writing and promoted transfer of argumentation skills. DMapping facilitated more balanced arguments, and students reported positive experiences and attitudes toward learning argumentation with the DMap. This paper concludes with implications and future research directions for using the DMap as a cognitive tool to foster meaningful learning.
... Sweller (1994) recommended reducing this extraneous cognitive load during the learning process in order to acquire new information. One helpful way of aiding students to reduce "cognitive overload" is by using GOs such as maps and/ or diagrams (Davies et al., 2021;Harrel & Wetzel, 2013;Robillos, 2021). ...
... When students use GOS they can be aided to form their ideas and information pictorially and/or graphically. A number of studies have shown the promising positive results of using GOs in processing meaningful learning and enhancing various types of thinking skills such as: critical thinking (Davies, 2011;Robillos, 2022;Davies, et al., 2021); cognitive thinking (Slavin, 2011). Thus, various kinds of maps and/or diagrams should be provided to students to enable them to write down their ideas and views. ...
... For example, in the late 1980s, Inspiration software, Inc., has introduced a digital tool called "Inspiration" for visual brainstorming through bubble map and concept map. The development of a computer-aided mapping (Davies, et al., 2021;Davies, 2014) designed for argument mapping as well as fostering critical thinking. Various kinds of applications are available to generate, construct, and share GOs (Kimura et al., 2017;Kurokami & Kojima, 2018). ...
... These tasks overburden learners' cognitive loads during the learning process, creating a mental block against acquiring new information [15]. One way to support learners in managing their cognitive learning processes is to adopt certain problem-solving solutions, such as generating maps and diagrams [3], [7], [14]. ...
... Argument maps (AMs) are visual aids that facilitate the comprehension and evaluation of arguments [3]. They are organized in text-based, hierarchical representations in which propositions are displayed in color-coded boxes and linked with arrows to indicate the relationships among them [4], [17]. ...
... They are organized in text-based, hierarchical representations in which propositions are displayed in color-coded boxes and linked with arrows to indicate the relationships among them [4], [17]. AMs visualize reasoning in a clear and concise fashion by diagramming the inferential construction of an argument [3]. It is a pedagogical tool that increases the opportunity for www.ijacsa.thesai.org ...
... The use of software-supported argument-mapping in learning environments, similar to mind mapping, has recently become more widespread. The use of diagrams on ready-made software applications makes the learning process more efficient (Davies, 2012;Davies, Barnett, & van Gelder, 2019;van Gelder et al. 2004; van Gelder, 2007;van Gelder, 2015), functional (van Gelder, 2002) and saves on time by providing ready to use templates at hand (see Figure 3). These software applications enable students to quickly represent the reasoning by using box and line diagrams. ...
... These maps make the learning process fun, and allow students to unravel how different arguments function, provide them with opportunity to compare with different logical structures, and enable them to acquire a deeper and practical understanding of the structure of the arguments. Software-aided argument maps do not analyse or check the validity of arguments, but they help students to practically analyse and evaluate the arguments in a better way, as they encourage them to construct arguments openly and meticulously (Davies, 2010;Davies et al, 2019). ...
... These studies have focused on the teaching process of different disciplines at different grade levels (including higher education level; Fu, Lin, Hwang, & Zhang, 2019;Israel, Zipp, D'Abundo & Deluca, 2020;Kunsch, Schnarr, & van Tyle, 2014;Lin, Shadiev, Hwang, & Shen, 2020;Luo, 2019, Wu & Wu, 2020. A number of studies also focused on developing higher-order thinking skills (reflective thinking, questioning, reasoning, critical thinking, problem solving etc.) as well as academic achievement (Aljaser, 2017;Butchart et al. 2009;Bütüner & Gür, 2008;Carrington, Chen, Davies, Kaur, & Neville, 2011;Davies, Barnett, & van Gelder, 2019;Eftekhari, Sotoudehnama & Marandi, 2016;Evrekli & Balım, 2010;Jeong, 2020;Mento et al, 1999;Rider & Thomason, 2014; van Gelder & Rizzo 2001;van Gelder et al. 2004; van Gelder, 2007). ...
Article
Full-text available
By carrying out software-aided mind/argument mapping applications in the “Theories of Learning and Teaching” course offered to post-graduate students completing a master's degree in education, the present research aimed to examine the effects of the applications on academic achievement, as well as explore students' opinions on these applications. The research followed a mixed-method design integrating quantitative and qualitative research methods. Participants consisted of post-graduate students (six students) who were taking the course titled “Theories of Learning and Teaching”. The experimental process lasted for 12 weeks. The experimental part of the research has been realized in two stages: In the first stage, the students were given the opportunity to learn about and practice preparing software-aided mind and argument mapping applications on computers and tablets for two weeks. In the second stage, participants were instructed about the theoretical dimension of teaching and learning processes and of the software-aided mind and argument mapping. Theories of Learning and Teaching Course Achievement Test, Reflective Diaries, Student Self-Assessment Forms and Semi-Structured Interview Schedules were utilized as data collection tools. The results suggested that the use of software-aided maps in learning and teaching processes has a considerably positive effect on students’ academic achievement. Besides, it has been observed that the students acquired various skills with regards to the use of such tools.
... In the past few decades another approach rooted in computer-aided argument mapping (CAAM) has emerged, which appears to enhance skill development in critical thinking in measurable ways. A recent book chapter in a major new publication, Studies in Critical Thinking, outlines a strategy for teaching this approach and the advantages it has for teachers in the classroom (Davies, Barnett, & van Gelder, 2019). I describe this strategy below. ...
... A variety of argument mapping software programs are now available, from the subscription-only Rationale™ (used here) to the open source MindMup™ (MindMup, 2019; RationaleOnline, 2019a). One paper estimates the number of argument mapping software programs to be in the vicinity of a dozen or more-all with different applications (Davies et al., 2019). ...
... Example of an Argument Map of the procedural method described below seeDavies et al., 2019.) ...
Article
A rehearsal of new ways of teaching CT by means of computer-aided argument mapping, and a procedural process by which to teach it.
... Argumentation Mapping focuses on identifying and illustrating the logical connections between different claims within an argument. The purpose is to identify unstated assumptions and to evaluate the support an argument offers for a conclusion [51]. An argument map consists of the following elements: ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Today, cloud computing is an essential part of every company’s information technology strategy, enabling businesses to keep up with innovations, customer expectations, and business trends. 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused an unexpected rise of remote work, which brought a significant boost to cloud transformation initiatives in the private and public sector. Due to major advantages such as scalability, flexibility, reduced administration effort, location independence and increased performance, the number of IT applications in the cloud in companies will increase significantly in the next five years, as the Bitkom Cloud Report 2023 states. Such a significant transformation in a short time frame poses various challenges. In the public sector, popular frameworks to address these challenges can’t be directly adopted because they don’t address the requirements that arise from the specific and strict rules and regulations as well as different preconditions the public sector is confronted with. To meet these special requirements, institutes and federal authorities have published several guides that focus on information security, data protection and digital sovereignty. However, the situation today is more uncertain than ever. Several new laws, judicial rulings as well as news about potential law violations by major cloud companies lead to a rise of uncertainty. Because organizations in the public sector are under the authority of the local data protection commission, new judicial rulings can have a severe impact regarding the cloud strategy and infrastructure of the public sector. The common use of solutions from a global supplier under potentially problematic contract terms without appropriate transition strate- gies prove to be problematic. Today’s legal, organizational, technical and security benefits and risks that exist for cloud migration in the public sector need to be investigated to be able to adequately meet future challenges in the field of public sector cloud deployment and profit from the advantages of cloud systems.
... A variety of computer-aided diagramming tools are available or in development for creating argument, causal, and concept maps that are being used in education to visualize relationships and evaluate complex ideas (Giabbanelli, Tawfik, & Wang, 2023). These diagramming tools are used to create argument maps to visualize and identify hierarchical relationships between premises and claims to evaluate the structural soundness of complex arguments (Braak et al., 2006;Davies, Barnett, & van Gelder, 2019;Davies, 2011), causal maps to examine relationships between networks of variables/events and outcomes to reveal causal explanations (Desthieux, Joerin, & Lebreton, 2010;McCrudden, Schraw, & Lehman, 2009), and concept maps to examine relationships between concepts or ideas with labeled links that indicate the nature of the relationships (Cañas, Novak, & Reiska, 2015). These tools have been found to improve learning and critical thinking skills with moderate to large effect sizes (Schroeder, Nesbit, Anguiano, & Adesope, 2017;Eftekhari, Sotoudehnama, & Marandi, 2016;Harrell, 2011;van Gelder, 2015;Yue, Zhang, Zhang, & Jin, 2017), and reduce cognitive load by making relationships more concrete and facilitating analysis (Novak & Cañas, 2007). ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The Jeong (2020) study found that greater use of backward and depth-first processing was associated with higher scores on students' argument maps and that analysis of only the first five nodes students placed in their maps predicted map scores. This study utilized the jMAP tool and algorithms developed in the Jeong (2020) study to determine if the same processes produce higher-quality causal maps. This study analyzed the first five nodes that students (n = 37) placed in their causal maps to reveal that: 1) use of backward, forward, breadth-first, and depth-first processing produced maps of similar quality; and 2) backward processing had three times more impact on maps scores than depth-first processing to suggest that linking events into chains using backward chaining is one approach to constructing higher quality causal maps. These findings are compared with prior research findings and discussed in terms of noted differences in the task demands of constructing argument versus causal maps to gain insights into why, how, and when specific processes/strategies can be applied to create higher-quality causal maps and argument maps. These insights provide guidance on ways to develop diagramming and analytic tools that automate, analyze, and provide real-time support to improve the quality of students' maps, learning, understanding, and problem-solving skills.
... To address these deficiencies, argument analysis is being used to teach critical thinking across disciplines because argumentation is essential in the scientific and problem-solving process (Cottrell, 2017;Davies, Barnett, & van Gelder, 2019). Argument analysis is a process of evaluating evidence, drawing appropriate conclusions, distinguishing arguments from non-arguments, and finding assumptions, identifying the functional roles and hierarchical relationships between propositions, and evaluating the truth-value of claims in relation to its minor claims (Toulmin, 1958). ...
Article
Research shows that using computer-aided mapping tools improves critical thinking skills, but prior research provides limited evidence to show how the use of specific critical thinking skills increases map quality. This qualitative study observed 4 experts and 5 novices use a computer-aided mapping tool to construct argument maps. The analysis of video recordings with think-aloud protocols and retrospective interviews revealed the use of a five-step argument mapping process (read claims, position conclusion, position claims, link claims, revise links) with the experts using a more sequential application of the five-step process and producing more accurate maps than novices. The novices showed the tendency to position and link claims as a joint action, making map revision more cumbersome. The experts exhibited the tendency to work backward from conclusion to claim while the novices exhibited the reverse tendency. This study’s findings identify processes that differentiate experts from novices and validate specific thinking skills that can be used to improve map quality, and how these processes can be operationalized in terms of discrete mapping behaviors performed on screen that can be mined and analyzed in mapping tools to assess and diagnose students’ mapping skills.
... Other discussion strategies mentioned during the interviews included students first individually working through concept maps (Davies et al., 2019;O'Day & Karpicke, 2020), after which they gathered in small groups to explain and discuss their thinking. The students, as a group, then produced one persuasive paragraph indicating which CT skills they employed and why they did so. ...
Chapter
Students regularly ask, “How can I do well in your course?” They are surprised when I provide a simple answer: Take advantage of the quizzes. Quizzes are not a silver bullet, but they improve students’ recollection of course information and, importantly to students, increase performance on exams. Pre-lecture reading quizzes encourage students to arrive prepared (pre-training), ongoing quizzes promote regular studying (spacing), and review quizzes help students revisit material from previous topics (interleaving). Central to the present discussion, all of these types of quizzes require students to retrieve information to answer items, which improves performance on later exams (testing effect, retrieval practice). Still, questions remain about how to use quizzes most effectively. In particular, should we use harder application quizzes or easier factual quizzes to help students do well in the course? That is to say, should we throw students in the deep end early in the learning process or not?
... It remains future work to expand this study to include a larger number of participants. Doing so would allow for a more detailed study of the effects of using CAAM on different sub-groups of students, as has been recommended by previous investigations (Davies et al., 2021;Robillos, 2021). ...
Article
The aim of this research is two-fold: to investigate (a) the potential of computer-assisted argument mapping practices for promoting pre-service teachers' self-regulation of learning and problem-solving skills; and (b) the link between these two higher-order thinking skills. To address this aim, a pre-test post-test quasi-experimental design with a control group was adopted. Sixty pre-service teachers enrolled in an early childhood education department at a middle-sized university in Turkey were allocated to one of two groups: A computer-assisted argument mapping group or a control group. A problem-solving inventory and an online self-regulation of learning scale were used as data collection instruments, before and after a 14-week intervention period. Statistical significance was analyzed by using a multivariate analysis of variance. The results depicted statistically significant progress in pre-service teachers’ self-regulation of learning and problem-solving skills of the students in the experimental group where computer-assisted argument mapping practices were used as homework assignments after the topics of the course were introduced by the instructor as compared to pre-service teachers in the control group who did not engage in any computer-assisted argument-based assignments. Experimental evidence further supported that self-regulation of learning skills are significantly positively correlated with problem-solving skills. This study advances our knowledge of engaging in computer-assisted argument mapping practices by using a free software tool (ARTOO) to be an appropriate course of action to encourage pre-service teachers to regulate their learning experiences and problem-solving processes.
... Argument analysis is the study of logical relationships between propositions presented in an argument to support a conclusion (Toulmin, 1958). A growing number of computer-aided diagramming applications have been developed (Davies, Barnett, & van Gelder, 2019) to provide a visual method of identifying inferential and hierarchical relationships to evaluate the structural soundness of complex arguments (Braak, 2006;Davies, 2011b). Making diagrams reduces cognitive load, makes relationships more concrete, and facilitates the analysis and interpretation of complex ideas (Novak & Cañas, 2007). ...
... Several academics agree that argument diagrams are a valuable means to communicate scientific argumentation (Davies, Barnett, and van Gelder 2021;van Amelsvoort and Schilperoord 2018;van Egmond and Hekkert 2012). Constructing an argument map, however, is a challenging task as it requires the coherent visual representation of inferential relationships between valid arguments, counterarguments, and rebuttals (Uçar and Demiraslan Çevik 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
The rise in university bilingual science courses is explained by a certain phenomenon, the internationalization of higher education. Bilingual Argument Mapping (BAM)–the ability to construct argument maps using two languages–is a key aspect of bilingual scientific literacy. An argument map is a visual representation of argument structure. The problem is that little is known about how to foster BAM in this type of course. The goal of this study was to explore the possibility of using formal and informal formative assessment (FIFA)–a type of assessment for learning in which feedback is both preplanned and instantaneous –, to support undergraduates’ BAM. The data consist of the bilingual argument maps constructed by forty-four students (27 females and 17 males, 18–23 years old) in Colombia during a university Spanish-English bilingual science course. Results indicate that FIFA helped the participants’ creation of valid and coherent argument maps in Spanish, in English and in a hybrid version using code-switching as response to argumentative questions related to the scientific topics covered in the course. The potential contributions of FIFA and its implications are discussed in light of research and theory of bilingual science education. © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
... Students whom lack certain skills are often overwhelmed, lose motivation, and can fail to experience the benefits from creating maps (Beitz, 1998;Kinchin, 2001;Eppler, 2006). To address this problem, computer-based mapping tools have been developed (Davies, Barnett, & van Gelder, 2019) to enable users to easily re-position a node or entire groups of nodes and auto-link nodes that are placed in close proximity -thus making the process of constructing and revising maps substantially easier and more efficient. Some examples of these tools include Rationale (van Gelder, 2007), Argument Mapper (Wright, Sheffield, & Santosa, 2017), and GAIL (Green, 2017). ...
Article
Despite the 30 years of research on the effects of using computer-based mapping tools to construct concept maps, the research has provided little insight into the cognitive processes and strategies students use to create more accurate maps and the types of behaviors that can be mined in computer-based mapping tools to reveal and support processes that improve student performance. This study used video analysis to identify, operationally define, and code processes of reasoning students used while using a computer-based tool to construct causal maps. The process data was then used to conduct a path analysis to determine which and how specific processes impact the quality of students’ causal maps and to determine how students’ prior knowledge on the given problems influence which processes students use. The findings reveal that students exhibiting the tendency to use more backward than forward processing and use more breadth than depth-first processing produced higher quality causal maps, and that the influence of prior content knowledge on what processes students use are not conclusive. The findings and the methods developed in this study present new ideas on ways to integrate learning analytics into computer-based mapping tools to model and manage the cognitive processes students use to construct better cognitive maps.
Chapter
Despite four decades of research demonstrating the positive impact of computer-aided diagramming tools on student learning, there remains a lack of research that identifies the cognitive strategies used by students (and enabled by the tools) to create higher-quality maps and achieve deeper understanding. This chapter reports two studies examining students’ cognitive processes to construct argument and causal maps using the computer-aided diagramming tool jMAP. Students’ mapping actions were mined and used to develop algorithms to detect and measure students’ use of backward, forward, breadth-first, and depth-first reasoning. The first study revealed that observing the placement of the first five nodes in relation to previously moved nodes in students’ argument maps was sufficient to predict map scores and that the ratio between the use of backward versus forward and the use of breadth versus depth-first processes (not individual frequency counts) predicted map scores. The study found that students’ backward and depth-first processing correlated with higher map scores. In contrast, analysis of causal maps (using the same algorithms) showed that all reasoning processes produced maps of similar quality, with backward processing contributing significantly more to map scores than depth-first processing. These differences in findings reflect the differences in task demands between constructing argument and causal maps and provide insights into why and when specific processes produce higher-quality maps. They also offer guidance on developing future diagramming tools and algorithms for automating map analysis and presentation of dynamic support for enhancing student learning, understanding, and problem-solving skills.
Chapter
Critical thinking and creative thinking are two related and yet distinct constructs. The core connection is they both start by challenging assumptions. After all, assumptions are simply the implicit starting point of our reasoning process, and starting points can and often do lead us astray and prevent us from solving important and difficult problems (just think of the 9-dot problem). People who can reflect on their assumptions (meta-cognition) and can see the invisible starting points, are more likely to come up with new assumptions, which lead to novel and original and meaningful (creative) solutions to a problem. In addition, the flip-side to critical thinking is conspiratorial, gullible, anti-evidence-based thinking that is ubiquitous in politics and online conversations. In this chapter, I raise and try to answer two basic questions: First, are creative thinkers critical thinkers and are critical thinkers creative thinkers? Second, how can fostering critical and creative thinking mitigate the trend toward non-rational, polarized, public conversation?
Article
Full-text available
The aim of the study was to examine the impact of the use of argument maps by final year students of the science-teaching program on critical thinking. In the research, out of experimental research models, quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test control group design was used. Sample of the study consisted of 84 final year pre-service science teacher studying in three different classes in the fall semester of 2017-2018 academic year. While one of these classes was identified as control group, the other two classes were determined to be experimental groups at the beginning of the study. In the control and experimental groups, lectures on the subject of “Optics” were held with the Argument Based Inquiry (ABI) approach for 8 weeks in total. Different from control groups, experimental groups created eight individual argument maps in total within the framework of weekly subjects. In addition to the individual argument maps, one of the experimental groups created collaboratively argument maps for 4 weeks. collaboratively argument map practices were performed with 17 small groups consisting of two persons. Researchers were involved in the collaboratively map creation process as guides. Critical Thinking Test was used as measurement tool at the beginning and end of the practices. Data were analysed through one-way ANOVA via the SPSS program. At the end of the analysis, it was concluded that individual and collaboratively argument mapping practices were effective in the development of critical thinking skills of the pre-service teachers.
Article
This study aims to investigate whether deliberate computer-assisted argument mapping practices are effective for promoting pre-service teachers' critical thinking and helping them make better arguments over time within a fourteen-week online undergraduate course. A design-based study nested within a factorial repeated measures design with a single group of pre-service teachers is conducted to fulfill this aim. Thirty-eight junior pre-service teachers, enrolled in an early childhood education department at a middle-sized university in Turkey, were recruited for the study. The primary data collection tool in this study was argument maps generated by pre-service teachers on various pedagogical and authentic cases by using an online free tool. Assessing critical thinking and the quality of argument maps, two different types of rubrics (holistic vs analytic) that appear to have the face and construct validity were located. Experimental evidence supports statistically significant progress in pre-service teachers’ critical thinking scores after engaging in deliberate computer-assisted argument mapping practices regularly as homework assignments. There is also sufficient evidence to suggest a moderate relationship between critical thinking and argument quality. The study advances our knowledge of engaging in deliberate computer assisted practices to be an appropriate course of action for promoting critical thinking by helping pre-service teachers diagram qualified arguments. It is apparent in this study the success of the use of a computer assisted argument mapping tool for promoting CT depends on to what extend students are engaged in constructing better argument maps with each round of practice and scaffold.
Article
Recent studies show that the exploration of ways to involve students in effective bi/multilingual science education is gaining attention at all educational levels. Introducing students to the construction of bilingual scientific argument maps – visual representations of scientific argument structure using two languages – contributes to the quality of bilingual science education as they are a key aspect of bilingual scientific literacy; however, very little is known about how to promote the construction of these maps in bilingual science courses. Here we provide evidence for the claim that peer feedback and instructor feedback can be integrated to support the construction of bilingual scientific argument maps. A pedagogical strategy that integrates both peer feedback and instructor feedback was implemented in a university bilingual science course with 29 students (23 females and 6 males, 18–24 years-old) in Colombia. Results show that the strategy effectively supported the construction of scientific argument maps in Spanish and English. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Article
Intelligence products should be clear and rigorous. Intelligence organisations often attempt to improve clarity and rigour with training in thinking and writing. It is assumed that (1) training enhances clarity and rigour in products, and (2) greater clarity and rigour leads to better decisions. We describe three studies exploring these assumptions. These studies concern an initiative in a biosecurity context, based on a form of argument mapping. Results indicate that reports improved, but were inconclusive about the quality of decisions. We discuss implications of this research for intelligence.
Article
Full-text available
The present study aims to determine which analysis technique-Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) or Logistic Regression (LR) Analysis-is better at predicting the science literacy success of the 15-year Turkish students who participated in PISA research carried out in 2015 by using learning time spent on science, test anxiety, environmental awareness, environmental optimism, epistemological beliefs, inquiry-based science teaching and learning practices, instrumental motivation, and disciplinary climate in science classes as the predictor variables. For this purpose, the data from 5895 students who participated in the PISA 2015 test were analyzed. Models were developed using LR and ANNs, and the results were compared. As a result, although the classification performance of artificial neural network is significantly better compared to LR, it is understood that practical significance is low due to the intersection of AUC confidence intervals.
Article
Full-text available
Despite the last 40 years of research showing that computer-aided diagramming tools improve student learning, very little research reveals the cognitive processes that explain why and how diagramming tools and specific features of the tools affect learning. This study developed a tool that graduate students used to diagram and analyze arguments as the tool mined each students’ actions. The mined data was used to develop algorithms to operationalize and measure the use of backward, forward, breadth, depth-first reasoning. Regression models were then compared to identify which algorithm produced measures that best predicted diagram scores, and to determine the combined and relative impact of each reasoning process on diagram scores. The findings show that observing the placement and location of the first five nodes moved and positioned on screen in relation to the location of the previously moved node provides sufficient data to generate backward/forward and breadth/depth-first ratio scores that predict diagram scores, while individual frequency counts of each of the four processes do not predict scores. The best-fit regression model using the ratio scores show that students using more backward and depth-first processing construct diagrams with higher scores – scores based on criteria that gauge the depth of analysis and not just the number of correct diagram links. This study presents new tools, methods, and new lines of inquiry to advance research on ways to integrate learning analytics into computer-aided diagramming tools.
Article
Computer-supported argument visualization (CSAV) is an educational technology that has been identified in many studies to be effective in stimulating university students' critical thinking (CT) skills. However, the instructional design principles and strategies that are effective in enhancing students' CT with CSAV have not been sufficiently explored. This study investigated the effectiveness of a systematic and model-based design of CSAV-based CT instruction on the enhancement of university students' CT skills. Two groups of students (experimental and comparison) were recruited at a Chinese university to participate in a preparatory course, Modern Education Technology (MET). The experimental group, which comprised 39 students, was fully engaged with CSAV cooperative activities designed systematically based on the First Principles of Instruction model. The comparison group, which comprised 31 students received a regular instruction designed by the subject teacher. Participants in both groups were pre- and post-tested with the Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment (HCTA) test. Findings disclosed that participants in the experimental group significantly outperformed the comparison group in overall CT performance, and especially in hypothesis testing, problem-solving, and argument analysis sub-skills of the HCTA test. This result suggests that a systematic and model-based approach of designing CSAV-based CT instruction is effective in developing university students' CT skills. Implications of the findings for designing CT-supportive subject-matter instruction in line with the CSAV strategy are discussed.
Thesis
Full-text available
This thesis was built around the question: "What is the possible added value of Argument Mapping (AM) for organizations? In order to find an answer to this question, a two-pronged study was carried out: of the subject AM on the one hand and the decision making process on the other hand. Having discussed these topics separately, the two were brought together in an in-depth analysis. Finally, the added value of AM was also compared with that of other tools and methods to support decision making.
Article
Full-text available
In the literature, there are multiple definitions of integrated STEM education, resulting in ambiguity and uncertainty of application. A firm conception of integrated STEM education is needed to determine its content, procedures and epistemological knowledge, the latter being the focus of this article. While epistemological accounts exist for its several disciplines, an integrated STEM epistemology has not yet emerged. This article provides a comparative analysis of modeling and argumentation in mathematics, science, and engineering and notes the observed similarities, intersections, and differences of their practice in these fields. Emphasis is given to the differences, which have not been elaborated in current literature although their importance has been noted. In this context, we examine definitions and functions of models and arguments in science and mathematics. The difference in argumentation concerns mainly the validation of knowledge; in models, the differences pertain to their constitution and intended aim. We also describe mathematical modeling, which optimally illustrates the interplay and collaboration of mathematics and science and permits comparison of their respective practices. The article contributes to the issue of the interrelated diversity of STEM practices and the intellectual and pragmatic educational benefits this issue confers.
Article
Full-text available
Complex reasoning and argumentation are central to legal practice. Software-supported argument mapping may be able to help lawyers reason and argue more effectively. This article describes Rationale", a generic argument mapping software package, and reviews some evidence that using it can help improve reasoning, i.e. make people smarter. It then explores three different explanations for this potential benefit: usability, complementation and semi-formality. First, argument mapping software can be more usable for reasoning activities than traditional methods because it can inherit the wisdom gained through decades of research and experience into usability, can exploit a wider range of representational resources, and is designed specifically to support reasoning activities. Second, such software works by complementing the strengths and weaknesses of our natural or inbuilt cognitive capacities. Third, it helps shift reasoning and argumentation into a semi-formal mode, a kind of sweet spot between the laxness of everyday reasoning and the straightjacket of formal logic.
Article
Full-text available
Argument-mapping software abounds, and one of the reasons is that using the software has been shown to teach/promote/improve critical-thinking skills. These positive results are very encouraging, but they also raise the question of whether the computer tutorial environment is producing these results, or whether learning argument mapping, even with just paper and pencil, is sufficient. Based on the results of two empirical studies, I argue that the basic skill of being able to represent an argument diagrammatically plays an important role in the improvement of critical-thinking skills. While these studies do not offer a direct comparison between the two methods, it is important for anyone wishing to employ argument mapping in the class-room to know that significant results can be obtained even with the most rudimentary of tools.
Chapter
Experimental evidence shows that in dedicated Critical Thinking courses “Lots of Argument Mapping Practice” (LAMP) using a software tool like Rationale considerably improves students’ critical thinking skills. We believe that teaching with LAMP has additional cognitive and pedagogical benefits, even outside dedicated Critical Thinking subjects. Students learn to better understand and critique arguments, improve in their reading and writing, become clearer in their thinking and, perhaps, even gain meta-cognitive skills that ultimately make them better learners. We discuss some of the evidence for these claims, explain how, as we believe, LAMP confers these benefits, and call for proper experimental and educational research.
Book
http://debategraph.org/Stream.aspx?nid=75&iv=05
Article
A central theme throughout the impressive series of philosophical books and articles Stephen Toulmin has published since 1948 is the way in which assertions and opinions concerning all sorts of topics, brought up in everyday life or in academic research, can be rationally justified. Is there one universal system of norms, by which all sorts of arguments in all sorts of fields must be judged, or must each sort of argument be judged according to its own norms? In The Uses of Argument (1958) Toulmin sets out his views on these questions for the first time. In spite of initial criticisms from logicians and fellow philosophers, The Uses of Argument has been an enduring source of inspiration and discussion to students of argumentation from all kinds of disciplinary background for more than forty years.
Article
There are differences between those argumentation mapping. schemes that focus on supporting real-time disputes and those which support carefully crafted, heavily edited representations of the intellectual history of some of humanity’s most significant and enduring debates.
Article
In recent years, academics and educators have begun to use software mapping tools for a number of education-related purposes. Typically, the tools are used to help impart critical and analytical skills to students, to enable students to see relationships between concepts, and also as a method of assessment. The common feature of all these tools is the use of diagrammatic relationships of various kinds in preference to written or verbal descriptions. Pictures and structured diagrams are thought to be more comprehensible than just words, and a clearer way to illustrate understanding of complex topics. Variants of these tools are available under different names: “concept mapping”, “mind mapping” and “argument mapping”. Sometimes these terms are used synonymously. However, as this paper will demonstrate, there are clear differences in each of these mapping tools. This paper offers an outline of the various types of tool available and their advantages and disadvantages. It argues that the choice of mapping tool largely depends on the purpose or aim for which the tool is used and that the tools may well be converging to offer educators as yet unrealised and potentially complementary functions. KeywordsConcept mapping–Mind mapping–Computer-aided argument mapping–Critical thinking–Argument–Inference-making–Knowledge mapping
Article
Computer-Assisted Argument Mapping (CAAM) is a new way of understanding arguments. While still embryonic in its development and application, CAAM is being used increasingly as a training and development tool in the professions and government. Inroads are also being made in its application within education. CAAM claims to be helpful in an educational context, as a tool for students in responding to assessment tasks. However, to date there is little evidence from students that this is the case. This paper outlines the use of CAAM as an educational tool within an Economics and Commerce Faculty in a major Australian research university. Evaluation results are provided from students from a CAAM pilot within an upper-level Economics subject. Results indicate promising support for the use of CAAM and its potential for transferability within the disciplines. If shown to be valuable with further studies, CAAM could be included in capstone subjects, allowing computer technology to be utilised in the service of generic skill development.
Practical reasoning in natural language Upper Saddle River
  • S N Thomas
Thomas, S. N. (1997/1973). Practical reasoning in natural language (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Elements of logic: comprising the substance of the article in the Encyclopaedia metropolitana: with additions, &c
  • R Whately
Whately, R. (1834/1826). Elements of logic: comprising the substance of the article in the Encyclopaedia metropolitana: with additions, &c. (5 th ed.). London: B. Fellowes.
The Science of Judicial Proof as Given by Logic, Psychology and General Experience and Illustrated in Judicial Trials
  • J Wigmore
Wigmore, J. (1931). The Science of Judicial Proof as Given by Logic, Psychology and General Experience and Illustrated in Judicial Trials (2 nd ed. Vol. Little, Brown and Co. ): Boston.
The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education
  • T J Gelder
  • Van
Gelder, T.J. van (2015). Using argument mapping to improve critical thinking skills. In M. Davies and R. Barnett (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education (pp. 183-192). New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
The rationale for Rationale™. Law, Probability and Risk
  • T Gelder
  • Van
Gelder, T. van (2007). The rationale for Rationale™. Law, Probability and Risk, 6, 23-42.