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Assessing fishing effects inside and outside an MPA: The impact of the Galapagos Marine Reserve on the Industrial pelagic tuna fisheries during the first decade of operation
Abstract
The conservation benefits of the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR), created in March 1998, have been consistently proved for endemic species and populations with limited movements. Yet, to date, no study has explored its effects on highly-migratory pelagic species, such as tuna. To this end, the impact of the GMR on the behavior and productivity of tuna fisheries in this region is analyzed. After considering other potential factors, which occurred approximately over the same period (i.e. increase of fleet size, changes in fishing technology, and climatic events, among others), it was found that the creation of the GMR increased fishing productivity in both the Galapagos Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) surrounding the GMR, as well as inside the marine reserve. However, the effect was heterogenous among tuna species-the GMR had a positive impact on the fishing productivity of yellowfin tuna (YFT) and skipjack tuna (SKJ) fisheries, but did not have any significant effect on that of bigeye tuna (BET). Then, it is proposed that the GMR effect might be dissipated by the overuse of Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs), especially in the case of BET.
... This work presents an empirical evaluation of the fisheries impacts of large-scale MPAs on an ocean-wide but not fully global scale. Previous work focused on a single large-scale MPA has either found positive effects (8,22,32) or no effects (6,7,9,33). Using publicly available data and a before-after-control-impact methodology, we find evidence of economically meaningful spillover benefits. ...
... For example, if the creation of a large-scale MPA causes vessels with typically higher values of CPUE to fish farther away from the MPA than they used to, then this would increase CPUE in the far zone, leading to a smaller estimate of the spillover effect than what would be obtained using data reported at the individual vessel level. Reassuringly, the few case studies that do exist on vessel redistribution after large-scale MPA establishment have not found any evidence that this is happening on a scale that would bias our estimates (7,8,30,32). ...
... The primary motivation behind this work was to test for evidence of spillover effects using only publicly available data and open-source code. Much of the work on large-scale MPA impacts has relied on either confidential data (8,32) or proprietary code (23). We strongly encourage other researchers to replicate, refine, and critique our analysis. ...
Global tuna fisheries are valued at more than $40 billion, with the majority of this value derived from purse seine fisheries. Recently created large-scale marine protected areas are potentially big enough to protect highly migratory species such as tuna, possibly leading to increases in abundance (a conservation benefit) and consequent spillover near protected area boundaries (an economic benefit). Using publicly available data from nine large-scale marine protected areas across the Pacific and Indian oceans, we find that catch-per-unit-effort in tuna purse seine fisheries has increased by an average of 12 to 18% near protected area boundaries, and this increase declines with distance from the boundaries. The increase is larger for bigeye tuna ( Thunnus obesus ) than for skipjack tuna ( Katsuwonus pelamis ), in line with fisheries science simulation models.
... When the GMR was created in 1998, industrial fishing within its boundaries initially increased, due to a combination of limited enforcement capabilities and delays in the approval of the management plan (Bucaram et al. 2018). Given that the management plan for the Hermandad Reserve was not approved until March 2023 (Ministerio de Ambiente, Agua y Transición Ecológica 2023), and therefore no resources were allocated prior to this date to control and enforcement, we hypothesized that a similar situation may have occurred during this first phase of the new reserve. ...
... Our findings for the newly declared Hermandad Reserve share some similarities, but also stark differences, with past studies on the implementation of no-take areas. Previous work has noted that fishing effort can increase within a protected area when it has been announced, but not yet implemented, and this was indeed the case with the Galapagos Marine Reserve (Bucaram et al., 2018). In line with this past work, we found some evidence of a small increase in fishing effort within the Hermandad Reserve prior to the reserve declaration (Fig. 4). ...
... S8-S9). We suggest that these findings regarding the no-take Hermandad Reserve conflicting with past work (Bucaram et al., 2018) may be the result of several factors: the worldwide spotlight on the Galapagos Islands, the heavily managed nature of the region, the agreements and arrangements made between the government and the large scale Ecuadorian fishing fleet during the negotiation process prior the Hermandad MPA declaration, and the distribution of fishing efforts within the protected region and in other areas of the I-EEZ prior to implementation of the HMR (in 2021, only 8% of the fishing in the I-EEZ was within the HMR). Additionally, throughout the duration of the study period, the Ecuadorian purse seine and longline fleets were participating in a Fisheries Improvement Project, in an attempt to obtain a Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) Blue Fish Label (see https://www.msc.org/en-us) as a response to the European Commission's issuance of a yellow card for illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing in Ecuador (European Commission 2019). ...
Examining fishing pressure in under-resourced marine regions still presents a challenge to understanding patterns of fishing pressure. These issues are compounded in areas with complex marine zoning regulations or those that have changed over time. Satellite-based positioning tracking of fishing vessels has helped identify ocean-wide fishing effort distribution and potential encroachments into marine protected areas (MPAs). However, it is less well known what determines fishing at smaller scales, especially within MPAs where fishing may not be allowed. Here, we use satellite-based fishing vessel positioning to study industrial fishing effort around the Galapagos Marine Reserve, inside the Insular Exclusive Economic Zone of Ecuador (I-EEZ). The region has areas that are open to all fishing, closed to fishing (no-take), open to any fishing except with the use of longline, or (within the Galapagos Marine Reserve) only open to artisanal fishing vessels. From 2019-2023, we identified 145 large, industrial (non-artisanal) fishing vessels (910 gross tonnage on average) from 10 countries fishing within the I-EEZ around the Galapagos. However, 87% of the fishing effort was accounted for by Ecuadorian vessels using tuna purse seines and drifting longlines in equal proportions, while the effort of foreign vessels was accounted for by tuna purse seines. In this time window, we observed 64,626 hours of fishing within the I-EEZ with less than 1% of fishing occurring within the Galapagos Marine Reserve. In addition, we studied the effect of a newly declared MPA in 2022, known as the Hermandad Marine Reserve, which created an additional 60,000 square kilometers of protected area. Half of the new marine reserve is fully protected with no extractive activities allowed with the other half banning long line fishing. We documented an 88% decrease in fishing effort within the Hermandad Marine Reserve after its implementation. There appeared to be a small increase in effort leading up to the reserve’s implementation, but no shift in fishing effort distribution elsewhere after. Collectively, our results highlight the wide range of fishing activities within and around an important marine protected area, especially for migratory marine megafauna. Our findings have important implications for other zoned marine areas given the diversity of fishing activity in different regions within our study area.
... Areas outside of CAs that historically had similar fishing effort, or broader surrounding marine extents, can also serve as controls for understanding fishing trends that are an effect of the CA (Dureuil et al., 2018;McDermott et al., 2019;White et al., 2020). Fishing activity in areas directly surrounding CAs (i.e., CA buffers) can further identify the impact of the CA (Rowlands et al., 2019), fishing displacement from the CA to surrounding extents (Bucaram et al., 2018;Vaughan, 2017), and "fishing the line" behavior (Boerder et al., 2017;Tassetti et al., 2019). Displaced fishing effort is important to detect and monitor as this may lead to failure of conservation goals if the target species being protected experience the same or higher rate of fishing pressure transferred to outside of the CA (Gilman et al., 2019). ...
... CA sizes varied greatly (median = 15 km 2 , mean = 2441 km 2 ± 1555, ±1 SE), but many were small, nearshore, and spatially aggregated ( Figure 1). We selected buffers that extended 5 km beyond the CA (1 and 5 km buffers combined: median = 170 km 2 , mean = 619 km 2 ± 148) as an area that could reasonably be applied across all CAs for standardized comparisons (Bucaram et al., 2018). This extent is in line with other studies examining fishing displacement from CA enactments (0-10 km bin in Boerder et al., 2017;3.5 km in Kleiven et al., 2019;1 km in Tassetti et al., 2019). ...
... This shift in remainder fishing indicates it was likely primarily activity that was made illegal following enactment. Others who have assessed fishing displacement from CAs have found shifts from the CA extent to directly outside (e.g., within 1 km, Kleiven et al., 2019;Tassetti et al., 2019), with fishing declining beyond 10-40 km (Boerder et al., 2017;Bucaram et al., 2018). However, aside from such exceptions, we did not find strong differences in fishing activity spatially after enactments as fishing tended to be higher 1-5 km outside the CAs both before and after enactments. ...
Abstract Expansion of marine conservation areas (CA) necessitates resource‐efficient and achievable strategies for monitoring and evaluation of ongoing fishing activity at national levels. To demonstrate and explore such a strategy, we conducted the first extensive analysis of fishing activity within Canada's static, geographically defined marine CAs with fishing regulations (n = 264 areas). We used 8 years of Automatic Identification System data to estimate fishing effort across three oceans and conducted temporal and spatial comparisons specific to each CA's regulations and enactment date. We addressed questions on CA effectiveness, fishing displacement, fishing the line behavior, and relationships between fishing activity and spatial CA attributes. We estimated 22,000 h of fishing activity within CAs after enactments, 22% of which was identified as illegal. CA effectiveness appeared to be lowest for Atlantic CAs based on illegal fishing effort density within CAs. Fishing displacement and fishing the line was generally not apparent as buffer areas around CAs tended to already have higher fishing effort prior to enactments. CA effectiveness and responses to CAs varied considerably, as was visualized using timeseries plots and maps developed for each CA. Our evaluation of a nation's full suite of CAs provides managers with a foundation and approach for continued monitoring and reporting.
... During the last decade, T. albacares, K. pelamis and A. solandri have become resources of commercial importance for the artisanal fishing fleet that operates within the Galapagos Marine Reserve and its surroundings (Castrejon and Charles 2013;Bucaram et al. 2018). However, despite the ecological importance of these species within the trophic dynamics of the region, little is known about their foraging and spatial ecology. ...
... The Galapagos Islands (Fig. 1) are located within an upwelling system due to the confluence of ocean currents and have historically been important for the industrial purse seine tuna fishery, targeting both T. albacares and K. pelamis (Bucaram et al. 2018). The Galapagos Marine Reserve, created in 1998, excluded industrial fishing from an area of approximately 138,000 km 2 around the island group, but a small-scale fishery of 400 local fiberglass vessels based on the inhabited islands targets these species for local consumption and export (Hearn 2008;Bucaram et al. 2018). ...
... The Galapagos Islands (Fig. 1) are located within an upwelling system due to the confluence of ocean currents and have historically been important for the industrial purse seine tuna fishery, targeting both T. albacares and K. pelamis (Bucaram et al. 2018). The Galapagos Marine Reserve, created in 1998, excluded industrial fishing from an area of approximately 138,000 km 2 around the island group, but a small-scale fishery of 400 local fiberglass vessels based on the inhabited islands targets these species for local consumption and export (Hearn 2008;Bucaram et al. 2018). ...
There is a great need to understand how resource interactions alter the functioning of ecosystems, where the selective elimination of pelagic fishes can lead to changes in food web structure. This work analyzes the trophic niches of three species of commercial importance in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares (TA), skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis (KP), and wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri (AS), via multiple analyses. According to the prey-specific index of relative importance, the most important prey for TA was Dosidicus gigas, while for AS it was unidentified pelagic fish. Interspecific differences were found between the isotopic signatures of AS and those of TA and KP. The isotope mixing model provides evidence for some predominance of D. gigas in the diets of TA and KP, while the fishes Selar crumenophthalmus and Paranthias colonus contribute to the diet of AS. The stable isotope Bayesian ellipses show a high overlap between TA and KP, suggesting a similar use of resources and feeding areas, while the ellipse of AS does not overlap with that of the other species. Both AS and TA were present around the islands more commonly during the day, with a peak in detections in the morning for AS and a greater presence of TA throughout the afternoon; there were only a few detections of KP in the days immediately after tagging. In summary, the results of this study suggest a pelagic foraging strategy with differential consumption of prey between AS and the other species.
... Where MPAs have been documented to result in spillover of fished species that increase in local abundance as a result of site-based protection from fishing mortality, the spillover effect was detectable over very small distances (100s of meters) from the MPA boundary ). However, it is possible that the spatial extent of a spillover effect could extend over tens to hundreds of km (e.g., see Boerder et al. 2017, Bucaram et al. 2018. ...
... Similar to Boerder et al. (2017), Bucaram et al. (2018) assessed the effects of the Galapagos Marine Reserve on Ecuadorian tuna purse seine catch rates, relative local abundance of tuna species, and the spatial distribution of fishing effort. Following enforcement of the reserve, fishing-theline was observed southwest of the reserve. ...
... These studies did not assess absolute abundance responses to the MPA. Thus, the findings of Boerder et al. (2017) and Bucaram et al (2018) support possible tuna local abundance responses to the Galapagos Marine Reserve, where a counterfactual assessment approach would provide a more certain understanding (section Counterfactual Reasoning). ...
There has been a recent proliferation of large-scale marine protected areas (MPAs) containing pelagic habitats. These contribute substantially towards meeting the area-based goal of Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 and to managing pelagic ecosystem pressures, including fishing. We assessed theoretical and empirical evidence for the achievement of ecological objectives by static and dynamic spatial management of pelagic fisheries. Exceptionally few studies have assessed ecological responses to MPAs that constrain pelagic fisheries, leaving substantial uncertainty over their efficacy. Assessments have provided a limited basis for causal inferences, and have not evaluated whether other management tools would be more effective. Pelagic MPAs have relatively high promise to mitigate fisheries bycatch of species of conservation concern with ‘slow’ life history traits and that form temporally and spatially predictable hotspots, and for some species, to protect habitats important for critical life history stages. It would be challenging to design MPAs to maintain absolute biomass levels of target stocks near targets and above limits: MPAs would need to be extensive to account for broad and variable distributions, and account for catch risk outside of the MPA, including from displaced fishing effort and fishing-the-line. For non-overexploited stocks, which is the status of most target pelagic species and their prey, there would likely be little response in absolute stock biomass to an MPA. While pelagic MPAs have a higher promise of increasing target stocks’ local abundance, evidence with a robust basis for inferring causality is needed. Reducing fishing mortality of prey species might not affect the biomass of their pelagic predators because prey species experience light fishing pressure and because there may be a weak correlation between the absolute abundance of forage fish and their predators. There is an especially limited basis for predicting the effects of MPAs on fisheries-induced evolution (FIE) in pelagic species. We describe how pelagic MPAs could be designed to achieve five ecological objectives without causing cross-taxa conflicts and exacerbating FIE. To fill substantial gaps in knowledge, we prescribe counterfactual-based modeling of time series data of standardized catch records to infer causation in assessments of ecological responses to pelagic MPAs.
... Closed seasons are enforced as a way of decreasing overharvesting of fish when they are most productive by giving the fish a space to lay eggs to replace the lost population due to overfishing and other natural causes (Bucaram et al., 2018;Lazar et al., 2016;Rola et al., 2018). Assuming that adequate number of fish remain to breed, the "closed season" can, by "protecting the pregnant fish, " increase the stock available for fishing in just a few years (Apetorgbor, 2018;Lazar et al., 2016). ...
... Political power may enable the state to enact regulations that control the use of environmental resources (Nolan, 2019). This can be seen in several projects, such as the establishment of no-fishing zones offshore, the creation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), Area closures, temporal fishing bans, and eco-tourism parks (Adjei et al., 2023;Bucaram et al., 2018;Rola et al., 2018). Power is directly associated with the use of narratives and knowledge production (Bennett, 2019). ...
... Introduction includes different governmental levels [29]. The spatio-temporal dynamics of the purse seine and longline tuna fishery active in the IEEZ has been previously studied using catch and effort data from on-board observer programs [21,30] providing information on current status, effort distribution and catch composition from the Regional Fisheries Management Organization in charge (Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, IATTC) [31]. However, the fishing effort allocation of other gear types and from other nations without on-board observer programs is unknown and, when available, is often aggregated at coarse spatial resolution (e.g., 1˚or 5g rid cells) not suitable for the analysis of fishing patterns [32]. ...
... Fishing effort around Galapagos marine currents whose interactions boost the overall biological productivity around the islands, particularly in the west of the reserve where the upwelling of nutrient-rich cold waters occurs [53]. These conditions create an area of relatively stable species-habitat relationship that favors the overall diversity of the area [54], which is taken advantage by foreign and Ecuadorean purse-seine fleets targeting tuna, billfish and swordfish [21,22]. Notwithstanding, the Galápagos upwelling is known to expand towards the west during cold conditions but to concentrate near the west coast of Isabela and Fernandina Islands during the warm season or El Niño events [53, 55]. ...
The waters around the Galápagos Marine Reserve (GMR) are important fishing grounds for authorized artisanal vessels fishing within the reserve as well as for national and foreign industrial fleets operating in the wider Ecuadorian Insular Exclusive Economic Zone (IEEZ). Although it was not originally designed for fisheries management, Automatic Identification System (AIS) data provides useful, open access, near real-time and high-resolution information that allows for increased monitoring, particularly around Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. This study uses AIS data provided by Global Fishing Watch to assess the spatial distribution and seasonal dynamics of fishing effort by vessel flag within the GMR and the IEEZ from 2012 to 2021. Based on kernel density estimation analysis, we determinate the core-use areas (50%) and spatial extent (95%) of fishing activities by fleets (Ecuadorian and foreign), gear types and seasons (warm, from December to May; and cold, from June to November). Our results show that the Ecuadorian fleet recorded the most observed fishing hours in the study area, with 32,829 hours in the IEEZ and 20,816 hours within the GMR. The foreign flags with the most observed fishing hours in the IEEZ were Panama (3,245 hours) and Nicaragua (2,468.5 hours), while in the GMR were the ‘Unknown flag’ (4,991.4 hours) and Panama (133.7 hours). Vessels fished employing different fishing gears, but the waters of the GMR and IEEZ were mostly targeted by tuna purse-seiners and drifting longlines. The spatial distribution of the fishing effort exhibits marked seasonal variability, likely influenced by seasonal migrations of target species such as tunas (e.g., Thunnus albacares, T. obesus and Katsuwonus pelamis), marlins (e.g., Makaira nigricans) and sharks (e.g., Alopias pelagicus). The collection and use of this type of spatial and seasonal information is an essential step to understand the dynamics of fishing activities in national waters and improve fisheries management, particularly in less studied areas and fisheries.
... Upwelling and iron enrichment from the islands themselves drive the presence of a plume of elevated productivity, reaching >120 km westward of the islands, as evidenced by high levels of chlorophyll-a (Palacios, 2002). It is in this area, off the southwestern border of the GMR, that both the industrial purse seine and semi-industrial longline tuna fleets concentrate their activities (Bucaram et al., 2018;Martínez-Ortiz et al., 2015). ...
... As such, stocks may be vulnerable to regional overexploitation and environmental change. The two fish that left the GMR, where industrial commercial fishing is banned, swam into a fisheries hotspot hugging the reserve boundary west of the archipelago (Boerder et al., 2017;Bucaram et al., 2018). These tracks suggest that the ranges of at least some individuals extend beyond the protected area to fishing grounds. ...
Tropical pelagic predators are exploited by fisheries and their movements are influenced by factors including prey availability, temperature, and dissolved oxygen levels. As the biophysical parameters vary greatly within the range of circumtropical species, local studies are needed to define those species' habitat preference and model possible behavioral responses under different climate change scenarios. Here, we tagged yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares in the Galápagos Marine Reserve and tracked the horizontal and vertical movements of eight individuals for 4–97 days. The tuna traveled a mean of 13.6 km day⁻¹ horizontally and dispersed throughout the archipelago and in offshore waters inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve and in the surrounding Ecuadorian exclusive economic zone. Vertically, they traveled a mean of 2 km day⁻¹, although high‐resolution data from a recovered tag suggested that transmitted data underestimated their vertical movement by a factor of 5.5. The tracked yellowfin tuna spent most of their time near the surface, with an overall mean swimming depth of 24.3 ± 46.6 m, and stayed shallower at night (11.1 ± 16.3 m) than during the day ( 37.7 ± 60.9 m), but on occasion dived to cold, oxygen‐poor waters below 200 m. Deep dives were commonly made during the day with a mean recovery period of 51 min between exposures to modeled oxygen‐limiting conditions <1.5 mL L⁻¹, presumably to re‐oxygenate. The depth and frequency of dives were likely limited by dissolved oxygen levels, as oxygen‐depleted conditions reach shallow depths in this region. The main habitat of tracked yellowfin tunas was in the shallow mixed layer, which may leave them vulnerable to fishing. Vertical expansion of low‐oxygen waters under future climate change scenarios may further compress their habitat, increasing their vulnerability to surface fishing gear.
... Artificial reefs are important elements in the coastal management plans of several countries (Guan et al. 2016, Bucaram et al. 2018. Most research on artificial reefs, to date, has focused on marine environments in subtropical regions (Firth et al. 2016, Bull and Love 2019, Cresson et al. 2019. ...
... Studies that map the occurrence and suppression of species, monitor fishing resources, and analyze the efficiency of reef complexes with and without protection should be encouraged (Seaman Jr. 2000, Andriesse 2018. A conservation program in these areas is just one of the initiatives that provides an option for increasing fishing resources (Bucaram et al. 2018). Conservation programs combined with largescale monitoring and a reduction in fishing fleets also have the potential to halt the current decline of fisheries and provide a sustainable increase in fishing production . ...
... Artificial reefs are important elements in the coastal management plans of several countries (Guan et al. 2016, Bucaram et al. 2018. Most research on artificial reefs, to date, has focused on marine environments in subtropical regions (Firth et al. 2016, Bull and Love 2019, Cresson et al. 2019. ...
... Studies that map the occurrence and suppression of species, monitor fishing resources, and analyze the efficiency of reef complexes with and without protection should be encouraged (Seaman Jr. 2000, Andriesse 2018. A conservation program in these areas is just one of the initiatives that provides an option for increasing fishing resources (Bucaram et al. 2018). Conservation programs combined with largescale monitoring and a reduction in fishing fleets also have the potential to halt the current decline of fisheries and provide a sustainable increase in fishing production . ...
This study provides a review of the main published studies on artificial reefs to evaluate scientific trends, impacts and challenges for the development of artificial reef research. The review includes more than 620 studies published worldwide from 1962 to 2018. In general, publications on artificial reefs have focused on investigating the ability for artificial reefs to attract fishing resources and on constructing artificial reef structures with new materials. Artificial reef science has made significant advances in recent decades with the increased use of more elaborate construction methods and data analyses. Nevertheless, the field has encountered difficulties in minimizing the negative effects of some materials, filling gaps in socio-economic data, developing integrated management assessments and overcoming regional inequalities. There are promising opportunities to overcome these obstacles that depend on the development of inert materials, an increase in the number of long-term and large-scale studies, the regulation of an evaluation protocol, the development of conservation policies and investments in scientific dissemination. We hope that this systematic review can not only advance artificial reef science but also provide important information for overcoming obstacles to the future development of this topic.
... The geography of fishing displacement by LSMPAs and spatial ecology of tuna will shape the consequences of the policy interactions for tuna conservation. Tuna are highly mobile and capable of long-distance travel (Bucaram et al., 2018). The interactions may be synergistic if the LSMPAs are protecting sites that are ecologically important for tuna. ...
... Kiribati's claim that PIPA provides some protection for spawning has been confirmed (Hernández et al., 2019). However, tuna are known to spawn across their ranges and more research is needed to understand the importance of spatially fixed LSMPAs for tuna (Bucaram et al., 2018;Koido & Suzuki, 1989). ...
Large‐scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs) have proliferated in recent years, now accounting for most of the world's MPA coverage. However, little is known about LSMPA outcomes and the factors that affect them. Here we argue that policy interactions—the cumulative effect of co‐existing policies for an issue and/or geographical area—can play a critical, but under‐recognized, role in influencing LSMPA design and outcomes. We analyze interactions between national LSMPAs within Palau and Kiribati, and regional fisheries management established by the Nauru Agreement to show how policy actors can account for policy interactions in LSMPA design, and to demonstrate the profound influence that policy interactions can have on the economic and conservation outcomes of LSMPAS. We draw on our analysis to distill lessons for our case studies and LSMPAs globally. We emphasize that policy interactions are dynamic and malleable: they should be proactively managed to stimulate synergy and address conflict. Understanding and managing policy interactions is complex and context‐specific, requiring dedicated resources, cross‐sectoral coordination, and sophisticated scientific and practical policy expertise. To avoid undesirable consequences and capitalize on opportunities to secure multiple benefits, we recommend that policy actors systematically evaluate, monitor, and adapt to policy interactions throughout LSMPA design and implementation.
... On-board observer and Automatic Identification System (AIS) vessel tracking data indicated that four times more purse seine sets for tuna were deployed within 20 km from the reserve boundaries compared to the rest of the study area (400 km) between 2011 and 2015 [94]. In addition, since 1990 catch, effort and catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) distributions in the wider area have shifted closer to the reserve boundaries where overall declining catch trends of the three major tuna species appeared to be buffered by spillover of adult fish from the reserve [94,95]. Impacts of the reserve were most pronounced for yellowfin and skipjack tuna, which showed increased productivity both inside and around the GMR [95]. ...
... In addition, since 1990 catch, effort and catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) distributions in the wider area have shifted closer to the reserve boundaries where overall declining catch trends of the three major tuna species appeared to be buffered by spillover of adult fish from the reserve [94,95]. Impacts of the reserve were most pronounced for yellowfin and skipjack tuna, which showed increased productivity both inside and around the GMR [95]. ...
Spatial protection measures have become ubiquitous in fisheries management and marine conservation. Implemented for diverse objectives from stock rebuilding to biodiversity protection and ecosystem management, spatial measures range from temporary fisheries closures to marine protected areas with varying levels of protection. Ecological and economic benefits from spatial protection have been demonstrated for many reef and demersal species, but remain debated and un-derstudied for highly migratory fishes, such as tunas, billfishes, and pelagic sharks. Here we summarize the spatial extent of fisheries closures implemented by the tuna RFMOs as well as marine protected areas worldwide, which together cover ∼15% of global ocean area. We furthermore synthesize results from modeling and tagging studies as well as fisheries-dependent research to provide an overview of the efficacy and benefits of present spatial protection measures for large pelagic fishes and their associated fisheries. We conclude that (1) many species with known migration routes, aggregating behavior, and philopatry can benefit from spatial protection; but (2) spatial protection alone is insufficient and should be integrated with effective fisheries management to protect and rebuild stocks of highly migratory species. We suggest tailoring spatial protection to the biology of large pelagic fishes, including improved protection for aggregation sites and migration corridors. These features currently appear to be an important-yet overlooked-opportunity to safeguard depleted and recovering stocks and protect pelagic biodiversity. New remote-sensing tools that track pelagic fishes and fishing vessels may provide timely support for improved spatial management in waters that were previously difficult to observe.
... Cabe destacar que el Código Integral Penal del Ecuador prohíbe expresamente este delito en áreas de reserva, y esa fue la razón para su aprehensión. Más tarde se demostró que este buque era parte de un convoy de pesca de altamar y que opera en aguas alrededor de las islas Galápagos (Cutlip, 2017) (Alava & Paladines, 2017). Además, que está embarcación ingresó al mar territorial y aguas interiores de la región insular sin autorización de las autoridades competentes, lo que motivo su inspección y posterior aprehensión por parte de la Armada delk Ecuador. ...
... En 1998 el Ecuador realizó un enorme esfuerzo al establecer la Reserva Marina de Galápagos, RMG, los estudios demuestran que los beneficios de esta acción han producido un incremento en la captura de atún por la flota ecuatoriana especialmente en el área de la Zona Económica Exclusiva, más allá de la RMG, con una alta concentración de lances al suroeste de las islas (Bucaram et al., 2018). La pesca del atún es importante para la industria pesquera ecuatoriana, por lo tanto el aseguramiento de la sostenibilidad de los recursos y de su capacidad de recuperación no es solamente un asunto de soberanía alimentaria, sino indirectamente un tema que atenta a la estabilidad socioeconómico del país, por la proporción de la población vinculada con esta actividad. ...
Recibido 15 de diciembre 2018, aceptado después de revisión al 09 de enero 2019 RESUMEN El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar y analizar los datos del esfuerzo pesquero tomados de la base de datos de la organización Global Fishing Watch, con el fin de identificar y zonificar en el territorio marítimo ecuatoriano, las áreas de mayor probabilidad de actividad de pesca ilegal, no declarada y no reglamentada, INDNR. Se utiliza el método kernel para la estimación no paramétrica de funciones de densidad, con el objetivo de obtener las áreas más densas de esfuerzo pesquero, es decir, áreas en el mar donde existe cierta preferencia para realizar esta actividad por parte de los pescadores. Se complementa el análisis espacial, con el análisis temporal de ese esfuerzo de pesca, asimismo se identifica las banderas de los barcos que realizan faenas de pesca al interior de la zona económica exclusiva, tanto de la región insular como de la costa continental. Palabras Clave: Global Fishing Watch, territorio marítimo ecuatoriano, pesca ilegal, análisis espacial, análisis temporal ABSTRACT The main aim of this study has been to evaluate and analyze the fishing effort data obtained from the database of the organization Global Fishing Watch, with the purpose of identifying and zoning in the Ecuadorian maritime territory. These are the areas with the highest probability of illegal fishing activity , which not declared and not regulated, IUU. The kernel method has been applied for the non-parametric estimation of density functions, with the purpose of obtaining the densest areas of fishing effort, that is, areas in the sea where there is a certain preference to carry out this activity on the part of the fishermen. The spatial analysis is complemented with the temporal analysis of this fishing effort, as well as the flags of the boats that conduct fishing operations within the exclusive economic zone, both in the insular region and on the continental coast.
... However, Galapagos marine ecosystems also provide important services to humans at regional and global levels. Scientific evidence suggest that the creation of the GMR has contributed to increase the productivity of yellowfin tuna and skipjack tuna around Galapagos through a spillover effect (Bucaram et al. 2018). As tuna are highy migratory species, the GMR contributes to the economy and food security of Ecuador and the rest of countries from the ETP, including Panama, Costa Rica and Colombia by enhancing the productivity and sustainability of tuna fisheries. ...
Small-scale fisheries (SSF) are a strategic sector for the economy, food security, and sustainable development of the Galapagos human population. They are increasingly threatened by climatic and anthropogenic drivers of change. One of the most relevant is climate change, a global-scale perturbation that is disrupting the availability and accessibility of marine fish and invertebrates by shifting the oceanographic and climatological conditions that influence their distribution and abundance. The Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) are strongly affected by El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), making this multiple-use marine protected area vulnerable to climate variability and change. It is uncertain whether ENSO will intensify or weaken under climate change. However, recent studies predict that this global climatic driver is likely to affect organisms and populations inhabiting the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region, including Galapagos, due to increasing trends in warming and acidification of surface waters, stratification and reduced productivity and upwelling/mixing of hypoxic waters into the surface layer. As climate change might result in similar, but prolonged and more intense conditions of those caused by ENSO events by the end of the 21st century, policies aimed at building resilience in small-scale fisheries (SSF) are needed to increase the adaptive capacity of fishery resources, fishing communities, and institutions to cope with and adapt to climate change.
Therefore, this program proposes three Ecosystem-based Adaptation measures (EBA) to increase the resilience and adaptive capacity of Galapagos SSF fisheries in the context of climate change. If successfully implemented, the three EBA proposed will help local fishing communities to adapt to climate change, and this in turn will yield direct and ancillary benefits in the short and long-term, resulting in positive returns on investment and ‘‘win-win’’ situations for coastal communities and marine ecosystems. However, their implementation will demand effective and enforceable regulations and economic incentives, all of which will require the political will of the Galapagos National Park Directorate and Galapagos Governing Council, as well as adequate financial and human capital.
... Most of these models derive from terrestrial Box 3 | Emerging science for blue water MPAs and pelagic fisheries Some emerging scientific insights from blue water MPAs and pelagic fisheries are already finding their way into practice. The Galapagos Marine Reserve, for example, protects an important oceanic habitat where juvenile tuna aggregate, which may serve to build long-term resilience in tuna stocks 74 . Similarly, the Pacific island of Niue has applied an integrated approach across its sovereign waters that includes a no-take MPA (Niue Moana Mahu) covering 40% of its maritime domain, and five managed marine resource use zones that sustain production from its vital fisheries. ...
With the acceleration of the global biodiversity and climate crises, the need to protect and sustainably manage ocean resources has never been greater. However, the science needed to integrate ocean protection (through marine protected areas and OECMs) and sustainable production in the blue economy (particularly pelagic fisheries) remains underdeveloped and contested. The scientific divide and the knowledge gaps still remaining have created serious real-world challenges for practitioners seeking to reconcile protection and production approaches, and is hindering progress in achieving global conservation targets. Here, we identify the vital science necessary to bring together the “twin pillars” of protection and production, integrating mutually reinforcing meaningful protections at scale, while also driving management of production systems to internationally accepted sustainability standards. The research community must rapidly develop this new horizon of ocean science – particularly in pelagic ecosystems - to aid countries and practitioners in achieving global conservation and sustainable development targets.
... According to Apetorgbor (2018), the closed season refers to the stopping of fishing during the spawning period of the fish. It is a way of reducing fishing pressure on stocks when they are most productive in terms of allowing the fish to lay their eggs to replace the lost population due to fishing and other natural causes (Apetorgbor, 2018;Arendse et al., 2007;Bucaram et al., 2018;Rola et al., 2018). A closed season will be most successful when other types of fishing pressure are controlled such as the use of illegal small mesh size nets, light fishing, the use of poisons and toxic chemicals, and dynamite or other explosives (Owusu & Andriesse, 2020). ...
This study contributes to the literature on marine conservation, fisheries management, and coastal development. The study investigated the distribution mechanism of government -led compensation payment schemes for small-scale coastal fisherfolk in Ghana during the closed season. We also sought to explore the perception of fisherfolk concerning equity and fairness in the distribution of the compensation scheme. The empirical data consisted of 220 household surveys and 20 in-depth interviews with relevant stakeholders from the Central Region of Ghana. The findings from our study indicate that significant controversies exist about the selection of beneficiaries for compensation payment. There is a lack of transparency in the compensation schemes targeting criteria. The distribution process was widely perceived to be unfair. The results from the study show that there are high levels of politics and nepotism in compensation distribution. Access to compensation packages is largely influenced by political party affiliation. A more transparent and precisely targeted scheme may go a long way to improving perceptions of fairness and compliance. The paper calls for the introduction of alternative livelihoods for fishing households during the closed season.
... These are being evaluated as sustainable alternatives for the fishing sector. Evidence shows that the GMR had a positive effect on industrial fisheries targeting yellowfin and skipjack tuna during the first decade of operation , whereas the sustainability of industrial fisheries operating outside the GMR is threatened by the overuse of FADs (Bucaram et al. 2017). ...
This book focuses on tropical coasts, which are highly vulnerable due to a multitude of stressors. Population growth is substantial, habitats are lost and biodiversity is reduced at an alarming rate, severely affecting many ecosystem services. This situation calls for sound coastal management and the effective engagement of all relevant stakeholders.
About two decades ago the M.Sc. program ISATEC (International Studies in Aquatic Tropical Ecology) was created at Bremen University (Germany) to train young scientists for a professional engagement in the complex field of tropical coastal and resource management. This book provides a platform for those Alumni to report on their work experiences and findings in their home countries and covers all regions of the tropical belt. Part I of the book provides a short review of the state of the tropical ocean and its resources and of international attempts towards sustainable ocean management starting with the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development in 1992. Part II deals with country case studies, and part III focuses on an evaluation & synopsis of those contributions. Emerging key issues for management and conservation of the tropical coastal environments are presented and critical challenges on the path towards reaching the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are discussed, as are the needs for enhancing research and capacity development.
... Seasonal closures are an effective conservation tool in fisheries management to allow fish to reproduce during the spawning season before harvesting (Bucaram et al., 2018;Lazar et al., 2016;Bennett and Dearden, 2014;Rola et al., 2018). It aims to reduce the fishing intensity and protect target stock from mortality at a specific life stage (Samy-Kamal, 2015). ...
This paper contributes to the literature on marine conservation and its implication for coastal governance and sustainability. The study investigates factors influencing fisherfolk compliance with the temporal fishing bans in Ghana. The purpose is to understand the factors influencing compliance behaviour to help design an improved conservation strategy to achieve management objectives. A mixed-method approach was employed, consisting of 200 household surveys and 17 in-depth interviews with stakeholders at the local, district, regional, and national levels. The results reveal that a combination of instrumental and normative factors influences fisherfolk’s compliance behaviour concerning the closed fishing season. Participation of fisherfolk and coastal communities in the fisheries management decision- making processes positively influenced compliance. The key drivers of non-compliance with the closed season emanate from a perceived lack of ecological effectiveness, lack of enfor- cement of sanctions, and lack of compensation for loss of income during the ban. The study suggests co-management that includes fisheries agencies and traditional authorities as a viable option for fisheries management and marine conservation initiatives. In addition, the paper recommends the introduction of conservation payment schemes alongside strict monitoring of the temporal ban on fishing.
... These are being evaluated as sustainable alternatives for the fishing sector. Evidence shows that the GMR had a positive effect on industrial fisheries targeting yellowfin and skipjack tuna during the first decade of operation , whereas the sustainability of industrial fisheries operating outside the GMR is threatened by the overuse of FADs (Bucaram et al. 2017). ...
Marine fisheries are an important source of food security, livelihood, and employment for coastal communities around the world. However, their sustainability is undermined in contexts of weak institutions at multiple levels of governance, illegal fishing, and poor seafood traceability. Ecuador and Peru share historical, ecological, social, and economic features in terms of marine affairs, conservation, and fisheries development, and therefore face similar challenges to sustainability. The goal of this synthesis is to provide an overview of the aspects in common and to highlight the relevance of bi-national cooperation in scientific research in times of transformation of seafood systems into more sustainable ones. We show that there are important fishery resources in common, and potentially many more that are poorly known and monitored. At the national-government level, Ecuador and Peru cooperate through international organizations to manage some shared stocks like tropical tunas, dolphinfish and Chilean jack mackerel. At the community level, members of artisanal fishing associations have participated in bi-national workshops around dolphinfish management. We propose that bi-national academic and scientific research networks can also contribute to this process and suggest some lines of research in which the cooperation could develop.KeywordsMarine fisheriesRegional managementSustainabilityEcuadorPeruTransboundary stocks
... These are being evaluated as sustainable alternatives for the fishing sector. Evidence shows that the GMR had a positive effect on industrial fisheries targeting yellowfin and skipjack tuna during the first decade of operation , whereas the sustainability of industrial fisheries operating outside the GMR is threatened by the overuse of FADs (Bucaram et al. 2017). ...
Many Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) are characterised by unique marine ecosystems which attract millions of international visitors every year, creating a profitable business for tourist operators. On the downside, the rising tourist numbers are associated with changes in these ecosystems. We performed a literature search and reviewed 43 studies with a geographic scope covering the central Pacific, of which 16 focused on direct impacts of tourism on the marine environment. All but one study found negative or neutral effects of tourism on the marine environment. Only five studies present results from 2014 until present, which is insufficient, given the rapid increase in tourism numbers. Moreover, the majority of the studies focused on popular tourism destinations, indicating a spatial bias of the current knowledge about tourism impacts in the Pacific. In addition to the review, we highlight direct and indirect effects of tourism on marine ecosystems in the area by discussing two case studies. One case study relates to the feeding of reef fish in the Cook Islands by tourists, and the other to the introduction of invasive species in Galapagos. In both cases, species compositions at tourist sites differed from non-visited sites. Based on our review and discussion, we conclude that tourism can be responsible, and tourists may be willing to engage in conservation. We formulate four recommendations that suggest increased: (1) monitoring of the marine environment, (2) citizen science projects to include stakeholder observations for monitoring environmental change, (3) reciprocal knowledge exchanges among tourists, scientists and residents and (4) spatially balanced research on the effect of tourism on marine ecosystems with methods applicable to many PICTs.KeywordsIsland statesOcean environmentInvasive speciesFish feedingDisturbanceStakeholder knowledge exchange
... Although longlines are not permitted inside the reserve, they are used extensively, and pressure is constantly being applied to change their legal status [63]. At least five experimental fisheries have been authorized over the years, and unacceptable levels of by-catch were found in all cases [64]. Furthermore, the mainland-based longline fleet targeting large pelagic species also operates around the borders of the reserve. ...
The rights of nature have been widely discussed at a philosophical level for a long time, but examples of its practical application are quite rare. Ecuador is the first country to incorporate this concept into its constitutional foundation and put the theory into practice. However, implementing entirely justifiable rights of nature is hindered by factors, such as economic considerations, legal interpretations, cultural norms, political will, and disproportionate perspectives of “the greater good”. After getting opportunities for more than a decade to convert theoretical concepts into tangible results for nature, many doubts remain concerning the applied practicality of this ideology.
... It is important to note that despite the protection granted by the Galapagos Marine Reserve, this endemic species is not free from regional-scale perturbations of highly productive waters. The direct threat of competition and pollution generated by the eastern Pacific industrial tuna fleet, which concentrates its fishing activity in this region (Bucaram et al., 2018;Ventura et al., 2019), and the projected severe climate extremes menacing the stability of this system (Wang et al., 2017;Cai et al., 2018;Forryan et al., 2021) are stark threats to the long-term persistence of this endangered species, given its high reliance on local upwelling. Here, we propose that the elevated marine productivity in the west of the archipelago represents areas of high-quality habitat selected by individuals across several generations, reinforcing the observed patterns of genetic differentiation in GFS. ...
Pinnipeds found across islands provide an ideal opportunity to examine the evolutionary process of population subdivision affected by several mechanisms. Here, we report the genetic consequences of the geographic distribution of rookeries in Galapagos fur seals (GFS: Arctocephalus galapagoensis) in creating population structure. We show that rookeries across four islands (nine rookeries) are genetically structured into the following major groups: 1) a western cluster of individuals from Fernandina; 2) a central group from north and east Isabela, Santiago, and Pinta; and possibly, 3) a third cluster in the northeast from Pinta. Furthermore, asymmetric levels of gene flow obtained from eight microsatellites found migration from west Isabela to Fernandina islands (number of migrants Nm = 1), with imperceptible Nm in any other direction. Our findings suggest that the marked structuring of populations recovered in GFS is likely related to an interplay between long-term site fidelity and long-distance migration in both male and female individuals, probably influenced by varying degrees of marine productivity.
... The more recent expansion of large Marine National Monuments in the Pacific Ocean has resulted in only minor species-specific catch changes (Gilman et al., 2020) and no changes to U.S. commercial longline fisheries catch rates (Lynham et al., 2020), although effects may be better detected when more time has elapsed since MPA implementation. The creation of large-scale oceanic MPAs by other nations has resulted in increases (Boerder et al., 2017;Bucaram et al., 2018) or no changes (Curnick et al., 2020) to commercial catches and fisheries profits for highly mobile pelagic species. Not all U.S. MPAs yield clear fisheries benefits and instead can have negative impacts or no appreciable impact (Guenther et al., 2015; but see Lenihan et al., 2021). ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a key tool for achieving goals for biodiversity conservation and human well-being, including improving climate resilience and equitable access to nature. At a national level, they are central components in the U.S. commitment to conserve at least 30% of U.S. waters by 2030. By definition, the primary goal of an MPA is the long-term conservation of nature; however, not all MPAs provide the same ecological and social benefits. A U.S. system of MPAs that is equitable, well-managed, representative and connected, and includes areas at a level of protection that can deliver desired outcomes is best positioned to support national goals. We used a new MPA framework, The MPA Guide, to assess the level of protection and stage of establishment of the 50 largest U.S. MPAs, which make up 99.7% of the total U.S. MPA area (3.19 million km²). Over 96% of this area, including 99% of that which is fully or highly protected against extractive or destructive human activities, is in the central Pacific ocean. Total MPA area in other regions is sparse – only 1.9% of the U.S. ocean excluding the central Pacific is protected in any kind of MPA (120,976 km²). Over three quarters of the non-central Pacific MPA area is lightly or minimally protected against extractive or destructive human activities. These results highlight an urgent need to improve the quality, quantity, and representativeness of MPA protection in U.S. waters to bring benefits to human and marine communities. We identify and review the state of the science, including focal areas for achieving desired MPA outcomes and lessons learned from places where sound ecological and social design principles come together in MPAs that are set up to achieve national goals for equity, climate resilience, and biodiversity conservation. We recommend key opportunities for action specific to the U.S. context, including increasing funding, research, equity, and protection level for new and existing U.S. MPAs.
... The establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) is important as a policy instrument for both promoting the sustainable use of marine resources, the conservation of marine species and ecosystem, and mitigating human impacts (Al-Abdulrazzak & Trombulak, 2012;Roberts et al., 2018;Zupan et al., 2018), both managed by the government, customary and local communities, or the private sector (Estradivari et al., 2022). MPAs aimed to preserve and improve the productivity of the fishery sector, thus providing prosperity for local communities inhabiting the areas (Ban & Frid, 2018;Bucaram et al., 2018). Currently, tourism development is also growing in the MPA and small islands. ...
Tourism is one of the most important issues facing marine protected areas (MPAs) and small islands worldwide. Tourism development is considered a contribution to pollution levels in the environment. This paper aims to evaluate the hypothetical effects of tourism development on water quality spatially and temporally using the coastal water quality index (CWQI) and Geographic Information System (GIS) in search of improved management for marine conservation areas. This study showed significant tourism influences on the CWQI in the Marine Tourism Park of the Gili Matra Islands, Lombok, Indonesia. Water quality variability indicates a significant spatiotemporal difference (p < 0.05) in the two tourism seasons. During the peak season of tourism, the CWQI decreased to poor conditions, i.e., ranging from 9.95 to 21.49 for marine biota and from 7.98 to 30.42 for marine tourism activities in 2013, and ranging from 39.52 to 44.42 for marine biota and from 44.13 to 47.28 for marine tourism activities, which were below the standard for both marine biota and marine tourism activities. On the contrary, it showed a better level (from poor to moderate) during the low season of tourism (ranging from 41.92 to 61.84 for marine biota and from 48.06 to 65.27 for marine tourism activities in 2014), providing a more acceptable condition for both aspects. The study proved that massive tourism development in the MPA and small islands could reduce water quality and increase vulnerability. Accordingly, integrated tourism management and the environment, waters, and land will be needed to develop sustainable tourism. The CWQI and GIS were applicable to assess water quality, both spatially and temporally, and become a quick reference in monitoring and initial evaluation of impact management.
... To evaluate current LSMPAs and inform current and future marine spatial planning, we might consider how to better protect the many highly-mobile species that may spend part or most of their lives outside MPAs, yet are an important part of MPA-aided biodiversity conservation (Grüss et al., 2011). MPAs designed to protect reef species can partly protect pelagic species that use both nearshore and pelagic habitats differently for foraging, breeding, nurseries, commuting, and resting (Bucaram et al., 2018;Hays et al., 2020a). Some far-ranging species use nearshore or onshore habitats for breeding or juvenile life stages but then use pelagic habitats for feeding or adult life history stages (McCauley et al., 2012b;Tobeña et al., 2014). ...
Marine protected area (MPA) designs, including large-scale MPAs (LSMPAs; >150,000 km2), mobile MPAs (fluid spatiotemporal boundaries), and MPA networks, may offer different benefits to species and could enhance protection by encompassing spatiotemporal scales of animal movement. We sought to understand how well LSMPAs could benefit nine highly-mobile marine species in the tropics now and into the future by: 1) evaluating current range overlap within a LSMPA; 2) evaluating range overlap under climate change projections; and 3) evaluating how well theoretical MPA designs benefit these nine species. We focused on Palmyra Atoll and Kingman Reef, a 2000 km2 area within the 1.2 million km2 U.S. Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM) that contains marine megafauna (reef and pelagic fishes; sea turtles; seabirds; cetaceans) reflecting different behaviors and habitat use. Our approach is useful for evaluating the effectiveness of the Palmyra-Kingman MPA and PRIMNM in protecting these species, and tropical LSMPAs in general, and for informing future MPA design. Stationary MPAs provided protection at varying scales. Reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi), grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos), green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas), and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) had overall small ranges (
... Other authors have studied its forests and their diversity [154], freshwater ecosystems [155], as well as the discovery of new species [156][157][158][159][160][161][162][163]. Due to the importance of the Galapagos Islands, water security and water quality have been studied [164][165][166], the impact on fishery resources [167,168], damage caused by plastic waste [169], the effects on the soils of complex agrosystems [170] and air quality [171]. ...
Ecuador has shown a growth in its scientific production since 2011, representing 85% of the total historical production. These investigations are reflected in scientific publications, which address world interest topics and serve as a link for the university, business, and society. This work aims to analyze the scientific production generated by Ecuador in the period of 1920-2020 using bibliometric methods to evaluate its intellectual structure and performance. The methodology applied in this study includes: i) terms definition and search criteria; ii) database selection, initial search, and document compilation; iii) data extraction and software selection; and finally, iv) analysis of results. The results show that scientific production has been consolidated in 30,205 documents , developed in 27 subject areas, in 13 languages under the contribution of 84 countries. This intellectual structure is in harmony with the global context when presenting research topics related to "Biology and regional climate change", "Higher education and its various approaches", "Tech-nology and Computer Science", "Medicine", "Energy, food and water", and "Development and applications on the Web". Topics framed in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), sustainability , climate change, and others. This study contributes to the academic community, considering current research issues and global concerns, the collaboration between universities and countries that allow establishing future collaboration links.
... Consistent with these predictions, the impacts of MPAs on biodiversity were detected mostly over small distances from MPA boundaries, i.e., 10 km. However, it has been documented that the spatial extent of a spillover effect could extend beyond tens to hundreds of km, particularly for large, highly migratory pelagic predators of high trophic levels (Boerder et al., 2017;Bucaram et al., 2018). ...
With the rapid global increase in the number and extent of marine protected areas (MPAs), there is a need for methods that enable an assessment of their actual contribution to biodiversity conservation. In Brazil, where MPAs have been designated to replenish biodiversity, there is a lack of regional-scale analysis of MPA impacts and the factors related to positive ecological change. This study aims to quantify the magnitude of the ecological effects of Brazilian MPAs and test whether some study and MPA characteristics (e.g., taxonomic group studied, exploitation level of species, MPA area, protection time, management effectiveness, level of connectedness, etc.) were underlying factors associated with their performance. We conducted a structured search in a database of scientific articles, selecting comparative studies of direct biodiversity metrics inside and outside MPAs offering different protection levels (i.e., fully-or partially-protected MPAs) or within MPAs with distinct zones. We then carried out a meta-analysis based on 424 observations found in 18 articles. Averaged across all studies, we found that MPAs had a 17% increase in the abundance of species, length of individuals, and community diversity. When compared to open-access areas, fully-protected MPAs increased biodiversity by 45%. However, MPAs offering partial protection had variable effects, ranging from significant positive to significant negative effects. MPA effects depended on the taxonomic group and exploitation level of species, with the strongest positive effects seen on exploited fish species and benthic invertebrates. Partially-protected MPAs that reported strong positive effects required long time of protection (>15years) and high level of connectivity. Conversely, fully-protected MPAs (i. e., no-take ones) could be effective even when small, under intense fishing pressure in their surroundings, and regardless of their level of connectivity. We used the Brazilian MPAs as a case study, but these results can contribute to a more comprehensive assessment of the association between ecological impacts of MPAs and drivers of conservation success, and offer key information to consolidate MPA networks that sustain biodiversity.
... The Ecuadorian fishery (3) in the EEZ of Galapagos is described in [42,74,[81][82][83][84]. The major species targeted are tunas (Thunnus albacares, T. obesus and Katsuwonus pelamis), groupers (Mycteroperca olfax, Paralabrax albomaculatus and Epinephelus labriformis), other bony fishes (Caulolatilus princeps and Pontinus clemensi) and invertebrates such as sea cucumber (Isostichopus fuscus) and lobsters (Panulirus penicillatus and P. gracilis). ...
In the last decades, several targets for marine conservation were set to counter the effects of increasing fishing pressure, e.g., protecting 10% of the sea by 2020, and establishing large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs). Using the ‘reconstructed’ catch data for 1950 to 2018 made available by the Sea Around Us initiative, we show that the declaration of an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in 1983 by the U.S.A. and its protection by the U.S. Coast Guard had a much bigger impact on catches around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands than the subsequent creation of a LSMPA. This is similar to Pitcairn Islands, a UK territory. Trends differed sharply in the Galapagos and New Caledonia, where neither their EEZ declaration nor the LSMPA (by Ecuador in 1988 and by France in 2014) stopped local fisheries from continuous expansion. Our results also demonstrate that in the studied multizone LSMPAs continued local fishing induces a ‘fishing down’ effect wherein the mean trophic level (TL) declined, especially in the Galapagos, by 0.1 TL per decade. Stakeholders’ responses to a short questionnaire and satellite imagery lent support to these results in that they documented substantial fishing operations and ‘fishing the line’ within and around multizone LSMPAs. In the case of EEZs around less populated or unpopulated islands, banning foreign fishing may reduce catch much more than a subsequent LSMPA declaration. This confirms that EEZs are a tool for coastal countries to protect their marine biodiversity and that allowing fishing in an MPA, while politically convenient, may result in ‘paper parks’ within which fishing can cause the same deleterious effects as in wholly unprotected areas.
... Ecuador is among the top 25 nations in marine capture production [8]. The industrial fishing fleet includes approximately 700 vessels using purse seine nets and longlines [9,10]. This fleet currently targets tropical tunas (e.g., Katsuwonus pelamis, Thunnus albacares, Thunnus obesus), common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus), and Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphiyi). ...
The decline in wild-caught fisheries paired with increasing global seafood demand is pushing the need for seafood sustainability to the forefront of national and regional priorities. Validation of species identity is a crucial early step, yet conventional monitoring and surveillance tools are limited in their effectiveness because they are extremely time-consuming and require expertise in fish identification. DNA barcoding methods are a versatile tool for the genetic monitoring of wildlife products; however, they are also limited by requiring individual tissue samples from target specimens which may not always be possible given the speed and scale of seafood operations. To circumvent the need to individually sample organisms, we pilot an approach that uses forensic environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding to profile fish species composition from the meltwater in fish holds on industrial and artisanal fishing vessels in Ecuador. Fish identified genetically as present were compared to target species reported by each vessel’s crew. Additionally, we contrasted the geographic range of identified species against the satellite-based fishing route data of industrial vessels to determine if identified species could be reasonably expected in the catch.
... The Galapagos Marine Reserve is a sanctuary for heavily exploited fish like tuna and sharks, which migrate consistently to and from the reserve (Hearn et al. 2016;Acuña-Marrero et al. 2017;Boerder et al. 2017). The maintenance of the GMR is beneficial for both industrial and artisanal fisheries, as it increases fish productivity both outside and inside the reserve (Boerder et al. 2017;Bucaram et al. 2018). However, the overexploitation, incidental catch, and illegal fishing, produced by Ecuadorian and foreign industrial and artisanal fisheries established along GMR's boundaries (Boerder et al. 2017), reduce the effectiveness of the GMR to ensure the recovery of these commercial and protected species Castrejón 2020b). ...
The unique marine and terrestrial ecosystems of the Galapagos Islands are highly vulnerable to human-based drivers of change, including the introduction of invasive species, unsustainable tourism, illegal fishing, overexploitation of ecosystem services, and climate change. These drivers can interact with climate-based drivers such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) at multiple temporal and spatial scales, exacerbating their negative impacts on already fragile ecosystems and the socioeconomic system of the Archipelago. In this review, we performed a literature review based on published literature from 1945 to 2020 and local and global climate databases to analyze drivers of change in the Galapagos. We developed and applied a spatial impact assessment model to identify high-ecological value areas with high sensitivity and exposure scores to environmental change drivers. We identified 13 priority HEVA that encompass ca. 23% (14,715 km 2) of the Galapagos Archipelago, distributed in nearly 3% of the Galapagos Marine Reserve and 20% Galapagos National Park. Current and future impacts are likely to concentrate on the inhabited islands' highlands, whereas marine impacts concentrate along most of the Galapagos Islands' shorelines. These results are important for guiding the design and implementation of adaptation measures aimed at increasing ecosystem resilience and human adaptive capacity in the face of global environmental change. Overall, these results will be valuable in their application for preserving Galapagos biota, securing the provision of vital ecosystem services for resident human populations, and sustaining the nature-based tourism industry.
... The wind forcing of the fronts, which are generated by the islands' blocking of the SEC, results in the development of submesoscale instabilities that promote upwelling via entrainment of interior waters into, and deepening of, the mixed layer (Fig. 6). It is this upwelling that forms the basis of the highly productive region along the western border of the Galápagos Marine Reserve, where the eastern Pacific industrial tuna fleet concentrates its fishing activity 23,24 . Further, the reproductive success of many of the endemic species inhabiting the islands, such as the Galápagos fur seal, Galápagos penguin and flightless cormorant, is highly dependent upon this upwelling 7,25 . ...
The Galápagos archipelago, rising from the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean some 900 km off the South American mainland, hosts an iconic and globally significant biological hotspot. The islands are renowned for their unique wealth of endemic species, which inspired Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution and today underpins one of the largest UNESCO World Heritage Sites and Marine Reserves on Earth. The regional ecosystem is sustained by strongly seasonal oceanic upwelling events—upward surges of cool, nutrient-rich deep waters that fuel the growth of the phytoplankton upon which the entire ecosystem thrives. Yet despite its critical life-supporting role, the upwelling’s controlling factors remain undetermined. Here, we use a realistic model of the regional ocean circulation to show that the intensity of upwelling is governed by local northward winds, which generate vigorous submesoscale circulations at upper-ocean fronts to the west of the islands. These submesoscale flows drive upwelling of interior waters into the surface mixed layer. Our findings thus demonstrate that Galápagos upwelling is controlled by highly localized atmosphere–ocean interactions, and call for a focus on these processes in assessing and mitigating the regional ecosystem’s vulnerability to 21st-century climate change.
... However, even though MPA designations may displace fishing effort, as Stevenson et al. (2013) observed following the implementation of a MPA network in Hawaii, fishers socioeconomic well-being may not be compromised due to fisher adaptation or market changes. Numerous studies have addressed fishing effort impacts from MPA implementation with mixed findings (e.g., Bucaram et al., 2018;Guenther et al., 2015;Stevenson et al., 2013). Factors affecting support or opposition may vary based on the location, extent, and level of protections for a given MPA. ...
Over the past several decades marine conservation policy has supported the implementation of protected areas in ocean and coastal environments to restrict some elements of human use for ecological benefits. The appropriate extent of protection and the allowable uses are often the subject of public debate about marine protected area policy. Local community dynamics around marine protected area designation and management have been the subject of much ocean and coastal management social science research. However, broader public opinions and attitudes about marine protected areas are not well understood and are critical for managers seeking to maintain their public trust obligations in environmental management. This paper provides a model for understanding the attitudes and beliefs that foster public support for or opposition to marine protections. We explored the relationships between awareness, attitudes and beliefs towards coastal and marine resource issues and uses, and demographics among a sample of Oregon, USA residents (n = 459), and tested their influence on support for expanding Oregon's recently established marine reserves. We found that Oregonians have relatively low familiarity with Oregon's marine reserve system, but that familiarity did not influence public support for Oregon's marine reserves. Instead public support was lower among coastal residents and those with positive attitudes towards commercial fisheries, and higher for those concerned with the ecological integrity of Oregon's ocean and supportive of some limits to human uses of the ocean. Our findings highlight the need for managers to engage both coastal communities and the general public to make a case for the value of marine protected areas in safeguarding the public trust.
... For example, in the territorial waters around French Islands in the Southern Ocean, radar detecting tags carried by albatrosses are being used to detect large ships operating illegally (Weimerskirch et al. 2019). Further, interactions between large static MPAs and mobile fishing gears, such as fish aggregation devices (FADS) (Bucaram et al. 2018) and industrial fishing fleets around their perimeters (Kroodsma et al. 2018;Curnick et al. 2020) need to be better understood. Given the huge fishing pressures in unregulated high seas fisheries outside protected areas, the importance of large MPAs for pelagic species protection has been stressed (Queiroz et al. 2019). ...
Given the recent trend towards establishing very large marine protected areas (MPAs) and the high potential of these to contribute to global conservation targets, we review outcomes of the last decade of marine conservation research in the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), one of the largest MPAs in the world. The BIOT MPA consists of the atolls of the Chagos Archipelago, interspersed with and surrounded by deep oceanic waters. Islands around the atoll rims serve as nesting grounds for sea birds. Extensive and diverse shallow and mesophotic reef habitats provide essential habitat and feeding grounds for all marine life, and the absence of local human impacts may improve recovery after coral bleaching events. Census data have shown recent increases in the abundance of sea turtles, high numbers of nesting seabirds and high fish abundance, at least some of which is linked to the lack of recent harvesting. For example, across the archipelago the annual number of green turtle clutches (Chelonia mydas) is ~ 20,500 and increasing and the number of seabirds is ~ 1 million. Animal tracking studies have shown that some taxa breed and/or forage consistently within the MPA (e.g. some reef fishes, elasmobranchs and seabirds), suggesting the MPA has the potential to provide long-term protection. In contrast, post-nesting green turtles travel up to 4000 km to distant foraging sites, so the protected beaches in the Chagos Archipelago provide a nesting sanctuary for individuals that forage across an ocean basin and several geopolitical borders. Surveys using divers and underwater video systems show high habitat diversity and abundant marine life on all trophic levels. For example, coral cover can be as high as 40-50%. Ecological studies are shedding light on how remote ecosystems function, connect to each other and respond to climate-driven stressors compared to other locations that are more locally impacted. However, important threats to this MPA have been identified, particularly global heating events, and Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing activity, which considerably impact both reef and pelagic fishes.
... As part of wider fisheries governance initiatives, conservation has been deployed as an important management strategy in the rebuilding of depleted marine fish stock [4], and this includes the management of fisheries allowing fish to reproduce during the spawning season before they are harvested [5,6]. A major challenge with marine conservation initiatives concerns the lack of participation and broader consultation of relevant local resource users, as well as restricted access to vital community resources [6,7]. ...
As part of fisheries governance initiatives, conservation has been deployed as an important management strategy in the rebuilding of depleted marine fish stock. However, a major challenge associated with conservation initiatives concerns the lack of participation and broader consultation of relevant local resource users, as well as restricted access to vital community resources. This study investigates the perception of the impacts of a newly introduced seasonal closure on the livelihoods and assets of small-scale coastal fisherfolk in Ghana, as well as the broader issue of local perception of conservation. Based on the conceptual integration of the sustainable livelihoods approach and political ecology insights, a mixed-methods approach was employed consisting of 400 fisherfolk households survey and 42 interviews with key stakeholders. The results reveal that the seasonal closure has led to four main challenges: restricted access to coastal waters, decreased financial capital, decreased fish trading activities and declining small-scale fisheries opportunities. The opinions on the closed season were mostly negative. This can be attributed to the fisherfolk's level of participation and perceived lack of influence in decision-making, the absence of alternative livelihoods and the questionable ecological effectiveness of the closed season. The implications of the findings relate to improving coastal governance and as well as the need to reduce illegal fishing practises. If fisherfolk in sub-Saharan Africa are not sufficiently heard and empowered, drastic measures such as closed seasons are not likely to be effective. The poverty–environment nexus and associated vicious circles cannot be effectively addressed without active local involvement.
... Where MPAs have been documented to result in spillover of fished species that increase in local abundance as a result of site-based protection from fishing mortality, the spillover effect was detectable over very small distances (100s of meters) from the MPA boundary [91]. However, it is possible that the spatial extent of a spillover effect could extend over tens to hundreds of km (e.g., see [92][93]). ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) can contribute to protecting biodiversity and managing ocean activities, including fishing. There is, however, limited evidence of ecological responses to blue water MPAs. We conducted the first comprehensive evaluation of impacts on fisheries production and ecological responses to pelagic MPAs of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. A Bayesian time series-based counterfactual modelling approach using fishery-dependent data was used to compare the temporal response in the MPAs to three reference regions for standardized catch rates, lengths, tro-phic level of the catch and species diversity. Catch rates of bigeye tuna, the main target species (Kingman/Palmyra MPA, causal effect probability >99% of an 84% reduction; 95% credible interval:-143%,-25%), and blue shark (Johnston MPAs, causal effect probability >95%) were significantly lower and longnose lancetfish significantly higher (Johnston MPAs, causal effect probability >95%) than predicted had the MPAs not been established, possibly from closing areas near shallow features, which aggregate pelagic predators, and from 'fishing-the-line'. There were no apparent causal impacts of the MPAs on species diversity, lengths and trophic level of the catch, perhaps because the MPAs were young, were too small, did not contain critical habitat for specific life-history stages, had been lightly exploited or experienced fishing-the-line. We also assessed model-standardized catch rates for species of conservation concern and mean trophic level of the catch within and outside of MPAs. Displaced effort produced multi-species conflicts: MPAs protect bycatch hot-spots and hotspots of bycatch-to-target catch ratios for some at-risk species, but coldspots for others. Mean trophic level of the catch was significantly higher around MPAs, likely due to the aggregating effect of the shallow features and there having been light fishing pressure within MPAs. These findings demonstrate how exploring a wide range of ecological responses supports evidence-based evaluations of blue water MPAs. PLOS ONE PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.
... Where MPAs have been documented to result in spillover of fished species that increase in local abundance as a result of site-based protection from fishing mortality, the spillover effect was detectable over very small distances (100s of meters) from the MPA boundary [91]. However, it is possible that the spatial extent of a spillover effect could extend over tens to hundreds of km (e.g., see [92][93]). ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) can contribute to protecting biodiversity and managing ocean activities, including fishing. There is, however, limited evidence of ecological responses to blue water MPAs. We conducted the first comprehensive evaluation of impacts on fisheries production and ecological responses to pelagic MPAs of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. A Bayesian time series-based counterfactual modelling approach using fishery-dependent data was used to compare the temporal response in the MPAs to three reference regions for standardized catch rates, lengths, trophic level of the catch and species diversity. Catch rates of bigeye tuna, the main target species (Kingman/Palmyra MPA, causal effect probability >99% of an 84% reduction; 95% credible interval: -143%, -25%), and blue shark (Johnston MPAs, causal effect probability >95%) were significantly lower and longnose lancetfish significantly higher (Johnston MPAs, causal effect probability >95%) than predicted had the MPAs not been established, possibly from closing areas near shallow features, which aggregate pelagic predators, and from ‘fishing-the-line’. There were no apparent causal impacts of the MPAs on species diversity, lengths and trophic level of the catch, perhaps because the MPAs were young, were too small, did not contain critical habitat for specific life-history stages, had been lightly exploited or experienced fishing-the-line. We also assessed model-standardized catch rates for species of conservation concern and mean trophic level of the catch within and outside of MPAs. Displaced effort produced multi-species conflicts: MPAs protect bycatch hotspots and hotspots of bycatch-to-target catch ratios for some at-risk species, but coldspots for others. Mean trophic level of the catch was significantly higher around MPAs, likely due to the aggregating effect of the shallow features and there having been light fishing pressure within MPAs. These findings demonstrate how exploring a wide range of ecological responses supports evidence-based evaluations of blue water MPAs.
... Esto es lo que Ferraro et al. (2018) refieren como "sin interferencia". Sin embargo, Bucaram et al. (2018) intentan evaluar experimentalmente el impacto de un AMP, con el análisis de la Reserva Marina de Galápagos (RMG). Los autores realizan una evaluación de tres tipos de especies de atún pelágico y la influencia del AMP en términos de productividad para la flota atunera industrial en la RMG, la zona económica exclusiva (ZEE) y un área de control. ...
... Esto es lo que Ferraro et al. (2018) refieren como "sin interferencia". Sin embargo, Bucaram et al. (2018) intentan evaluar experimentalmente el impacto de un AMP, con el análisis de la Reserva Marina de Galápagos (RMG). Los autores realizan una evaluación de tres tipos de especies de atún pelágico y la influencia del AMP en términos de productividad para la flota atunera industrial en la RMG, la zona económica exclusiva (ZEE) y un área de control. ...
Coastal population is among the most vulnerable to disasters triggered by natural hazards. Recent recognition of the role of coastal and marine ecosystems for reducing
vulnerability in coastal communities has led to incorporate direct investments in these
ecosystems. However, there is a lack of knowledge and understanding of their economic
benefits, and that has hindered the investments on these ecosystems, including natural
infrastructure. In this paper, we analyze the main economic analysis tools for assessing
protection and restauration coastal projects, and identify the innovations and challenges
associated. Based on this review, we develop an analytical framework for ex ante and ex post economic analyses of these investments, what will allow the identification of benefits of nature-based solutions for coastal resilience.
This document is a version in Spanish of the IDB publication: Maldonado, J.H., Moreno-Sánchez, R., Vargas-Morales, M., Henao, J.P., González, Y., Guerrero, R., Schling, M. (2020). Innovation in economic analysis and evaluation approaches for coastal protection and restoration investments in the Caribbean. Technical Note No. IDB-TN-01861, Inter-American Development Bank. 83p. available at: https://publications.iadb.org/en/innovation-economic-analysis-and-evaluation-approaches-coastalprotection-and-restoration.
... This is what Ferraro et al. (2018) refer to as no interference. However, Bucaram et al. (2018) attempt to experimentally assess the impact of a marine protected area (MPA), with the analysis of the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR). The authors conduct an evaluation of three types of pelagic tuna species and the influence of the MPA in terms of productivity for the industrial tuna fleet in the GMR, the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and a control area. ...
Coastal zones are among the most economically productive areas of the world. However, they are also among the most vulnerable regions to disasters triggered by natural hazards. Recent recognition of the role of healthy coastal and marine ecosystems for reducing vulnerability in coastal communities has led to the design of coastal management strategies that incorporate direct investments in these ecosystems. However, there is a lack of knowledge and understanding of the economic benefits of coastal and marine ecosystems for society, which has led to the degradation of these ecosystems and hindered the prospects of sustainable investments in coastal resilience projects, including green infrastructure.
In this paper, we analyze the economic importance and ongoing threats of the main marine and coastal ecosystems of the Wider Caribbean region, and identify the underlying economic causes of their deterioration. The need to improve coastal resilience in the Wider Caribbean has led to innovative approaches for the protection of coastal zones and their population from erosion and flood risk, prioritizing the role of marine and coastal ecosystems for coastal protection and vulnerability reduction in coastal communities.
Based on this review, we develop an analytical framework for economic analyses and impact evaluations of coastal restoration and protection programs, with the objective of allowing practitioners to properly identify the cost-effectiveness of nature-based solutions for coastal resilience.
... We therefore suggest that yellowfin tuna and swordfish could still be harvested at the identified hotspots but using fishing methods that can reduce the risk of bycatch of protected species. Importantly, the Galapagos platform is a nursery habitat for yellowfin tuna (Bucaram et al., 2018), thus the extraction of this species should be strictly managed through the use of regulated and monitored fishing alternatives such as pole-fishing and fish aggregation devices (Moina et al., 2018). These fishing alternatives in such hotspots could cover the harvesting of pelagic fish in the GMR while avoiding longlining. ...
Marine megafauna (elasmobranchs, marine mammals, turtles, and seabirds) are important ecologically and economically because many species often occupy upper trophic levels as adults and are essential for marine-based tourism in many areas of the world. This group of species is also heavily impacted by fishing because most have late sexual maturity, longevity, and low reproductive output, which affects their ability to recover from depletion. In Galapagos, marine megafauna species are protected from fishing throughout the marine reserve and are the main attraction for marine-based tourism, helping generate millions of dollars in revenue annually. Despite their importance in the archipelago, these species are being caught as bycatch in the multiple artisanal longlining projects that have been carried out since the implementation of the reserve in 1998. Longlining was originally proposed as a way of redirecting fishing effort from the severely depleted coastal-demersal species to pelagic fish such as yellowfin tuna and swordfish. Although all these projects have resulted in high bycatch of megafauna, longline fishing projects have continued without independent scientific studies to evaluate their impact, largely due to poor objective definition, data collection, and enforcement. To fill in this knowledge gap, we analyzed data of the fifth experimental longline fishing project undertaken in 2012–2013 to describe the fishery, identify variables affecting the composition and quantity of bycatch, and suggest mitigation strategies. This experimental project had twelve vessels, which deployed 42,007 hooks catching 4893 individuals of 33 species, mostly yellowfin tuna and swordfish. Of those, 16 species were protected megafauna, particularly blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus limbatus) and oceanic manta (Mobula birostris). These species were regularly captured during the two seasons and in the three bioregions that occur in the archipelago, suggesting little potential to mitigate their catch. As an alternative, we identified 14 hotspots where yellowfin tuna and swordfish could be harvested in large numbers sustainably through more selective fishing techniques such as pole fishing, a method that is also more economical for artisanal fishers. In an archipelago where the main economic activity is marine wildlife tourism, the implementation of an extractive and unselective activity such as pelagic longing fishing should be avoided to ensure the sustainability of the Galapagos marine ecosystem and its booming tourism industry.
... • MPAs provide protection for marine life that in turn improves regional fisheries in a variety of contexts [51]. • Some MPAs also cause disenchantment with neighboring fishing communities due to conflicts over access rights [31]. ...
The world’s oceans face unprecedented anthropogenic threats in the globalized era that originate from all over the world, including climate change, global trade and transportation, and pollution. Marine protected areas (MPAs) serve important roles in conservation of marine biodiversity and ecosystem resilience, but their success is increasingly challenged in the face of such large-scale threats. Here, we illustrate the utility of adopting the interdisciplinary telecoupling framework to better understand effects that originate from distant places and cross MPA boundaries (e.g., polluted water circulation, anthropogenic noise transport, human and animal migration). We review evidence of distal processes affecting MPAs and the cutting-edge approaches currently used to investigate these processes. We then introduce the umbrella framework of telecoupling and explain how it can help address knowledge gaps that exist due to limitations of past approaches that are centered within individual disciplines. We then synthesize five examples from the recent telecoupling literature to explore how the telecoupling framework can be used for MPA research. These examples include the spatial subsidies approach, adapted social network analysis, telecoupled qualitative analysis, telecoupled supply chain analysis, and decision support tools for telecoupling. Our work highlights the potential for the telecoupling framework to better understand and address the mounting and interconnected socioeconomic and environmental sustainability challenges faced by the growing number of MPAs around the world.
El objetivo general de este trabajo es construir un escenario óptimo de gobernanza
para que el Estado ecuatoriano esté en la capacidad de garantizar la viabilidad en el largo plazo de las especies amenazadas por la pesca ilegal dentro de la Reserva Marina de Galápagos (RMG), sobre la base de una agenda geopolítica regional para promover la conservación y el manejo adecuado de los recursos marítimos hacia 2050; en este sentido se identifica como indispensable la gobernanza en los espacios marítimos del Ecuador, sus áreas marinas protegidas, sus zonas económicas exclusivas, su espacio marítimo correspondiente a la plataforma continental y las zonas de incidencia de estos en aguas abiertas, a partir de la implementación de políticas públicas que fomenten la conservación, sostenibilidad y resiliencia de los ecosistemas marinos hacia 2050.
Se utilizó la metodología prospectiva MULTIPOL para identificar y priorizar las
políticas correspondientes a los escenarios establecidos por el IIED para los océanos hacia el 2050. Una de las principales limitaciones de la presente investigación es el tiempo y los recursos, puesto que esta ha sido realizada a partir de fondos propios y con base en el apoyo altruista de los expertos entrevistados; así como la revisión de literatura arbitrada provista por el acceso a partir de las bases de datos arbitradas disponibles en la biblioteca del IAEN.
Así, se plantea como resultado el escenario deseado siendo este una combinación
entre las políticas planteadas y el escenario denominado “Trazando el rumbo azul”; y
para alcanzarlo se espera la implementación de las siguientes políticas, descritas en el apartado correspondiente, como fundamento para la estructuración de acciones que coadyuven a lograr este escenario deseado, en el siguiente orden de priorización según los resultados del MULTIPOL:
1. Aseguramiento de la protección de las especies marinas de interés.
2. Incremento de la presencia de la conservación de espacios marino-costeros
y fauna marina en Contribuciones Nacionales Determinadas
3. Gobernanza regional de los espacios marítimos.
4. Integración con otros instrumentos de planificación marítima territorial
para la conservación transfronteriza.
El consenso de expertos identificó que las políticas planteadas dentro de la
presente investigación son adecuadas y necesarias para lograr la armonización de los intereses nacionales y la conservación de las especies marinas. El caso de los tiburones de Galápagos requiere la intervención y los acuerdos entre varias naciones dentro de región del Pacífico Sur-Este para lograr la implementación efectiva de acciones de protección de la naturaleza.
Static and dynamic area-based management tools hold substantial potential to balance socioeconomic benefits derived from fisheries and costs from bycatch mortality of at-risk species. Palau longline fisheries have high bycatch of at-risk species including the olive ridley marine turtle and silky and blue sharks. This study analyzed a two decades-long time series of observer and electronic monitoring datasets from the Palau distant-water and locally-based pelagic longline fisheries. An interpretable or explainable machine learning based modelling approach was used to derive spatially-resolved species-specific catch rate predictions. These models were conditioned on a suite of potentially informative environmental, bathymetric, ocean climate metric, vessel, monitoring system and set-specific operational predictors. Overall, there would be limited ecological tradeoffs from focusing fishing effort within primary catch rate hotspots for target bigeye and yellowfin tunas. Mean field prediction surfaces also defined catch rate hotspots for at-risk species of silky and blue sharks, olive ridley turtle and pelagic stingray, which did not overlap the hotspots for target species. The predicted target species hotspots, however, overlap olive ridley and pelagic stingray warmspots. Results also identify opportunities for temporally dynamic spatial management to control catch rates of target and bycatch species. Management of fishery operational predictors of fishing depth and soak duration present additional opportunities to balance catch rates of at-risk bycatch and target species. A transition to employing fleetwide or vessel-based output controls that effectively constrain the fishery would alter the spatial management strategy to focus on zones with the lowest ratio of at-risk bycatch to commercial catch. Our findings support evidence-informed evaluation of spatial management strategies and complementary measures to meet objectives for balancing socioeconomic benefits derived from target species catch with costs to threatened species.
Marine Protected Areas (MPA) safeguard threatened marine ecosystems by protecting fish populations, limiting anthropogenic stressors, and providing additional livelihood for local populations. However, many MPAs do not function effectively due to lack of funding and manpower, engendering the need to find long-lasting, sustainable solutions to monitor and maintain MPA performance. In this study, we utilized citizen science involvement to survey select fish families (Lutjanidae, Serranidae, Carangidae, Scombridae, Sphyraenidae, Lethrinidae, and Scaridae), key fish species (large and vulnerable piscivores), and megafauna in Nusa Penida MPA, Indonesia using the roving survey method. We found that despite a short training period and fast turnover rate, our participants were able to identify all target taxa, as well as detect spatial and temporal trends in fish and megafauna assemblages. An increase in fish density during austral winter was correlated with seasonal upwelling phenomena induced by the southeast monsoon, while site variations were influenced by local topography and type of current. We conclude that citizen science participation contributed immensely to the monitoring of Nusa Penida MPA, and subsequent self-sustained, long-term monitoring will be invaluable for future policy and decision making in MPA management and enforcement.
The coastal marine protected ecosystem at Punta Coles (as a part of the Reserva Nacional de Islas, Islotes y Puntas Guaneras ) is located in a highly exploited area in southern Peru and contains several commercial, bioengineering and other benthic species.
Pre‐image population analysis was used to estimate the transient values of intrinsic growth rate ( r ) based on biomass and density time series as a proxy of productivity to assess the effectiveness of protection.
The outcomes obtained showed that the gastropods Concholepas concholepas , Fissurella latimartiginata and the tunicate Purya chilensis showed a reduction of productivity during recent years, whilst the sea urchin Loxechinus albus , the barnacle Balanus laevis and the bivalve Semimytilus algosus showed an opposite pattern. Several species exhibited a chaotic dynamic, coinciding with the highest productivity values. In 2016 and 2017, several species exhibited a reduction of their abundance which could be delayed responses explained by changes in oceanographic conditions (reduction of coastal upwelling), La Niña event and illegal harvest.
The above notwithstanding, the results suggest that effective protection of benthic species in the protected ecosystem of Punta Coles have been partially accomplished. Therefore, this work could be considered a baseline study, permitting the subsequent monitoring of productivity of the main species inhabiting the coastal area of Punta Coles.
Pre‐image population analysis could be used as a complimentary analytical tool since it enables the evaluation of transient population parameters (e.g. productivity) thus aiding population management, conservation and monitoring decisions.
Drifting fish aggregating devices (dFADs) are extensively used in modern tuna purse seine fisheries. The use of dFADs has greatly improved fishing efficiency and generated substantial economic returns in purse seine fisheries, but adverse impacts on tuna juveniles, associated species and marine ecosystems are still of concern. Based on an analysis of current challenges in dFAD management measures in tuna regional fishery management organisations (t‐RFMOs), we explored opportunities to strengthen dFAD management in tuna fisheries. An integrated dFAD management scheme with multiple tools that account for different usage stages of a dFAD needs to be organised to regulate, track, monitor and recover in tuna purse seine fisheries. We recommend that (1) dFAD‐associated definitions should be standardised to provide operational guidance for dFAD activities; (2) all deployed dFADs should be counted towards dFAD limits on active dFADs, except those reported as lost and abandoned; (3) a regional dFAD tracking and monitoring program should track dFAD paths based on daily position reported to RFMOs directly, in addition to mandatory dFAD marking requirements; and (4) a framework of compensation mechanisms should provide financial support for joint dFAD recovery and eco‐compensation.
The aim of this chapter is to report the perception of artisanal fishers regarding long-term implementation impacts of artificial reefs in the northern coast of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Data was collected through 60 interviews with local and regional artisanal fishers. The fishers stated an increase in fish abundance and species richness around the reef complex and consider it very important for local fisheries due to its ability to attract commercial species. These findings were clearly supported by their positive perception regarding the installation of reef balls and how these structures have benefited the local and regional fishing community over time (>25 years). In addition, the data confirms that the presence of different species in the reef complex is due to an increase of consolidated and stable substrate, which provides several types of prey and habitat for recruitment and shelter.
Significance
We find that a ubiquitous assumption in fisheries models for predicting population replenishment introduces systematic overestimates of replenishment in fished populations. For 32 of the world’s major fisheries, these biases result in harvest thresholds being set too high: in most cases, reference points based on spawning potential ratios are more than 2.5 times higher than those necessary to achieve the desired level of replenishment. When we use the more biologically appropriate assumption of reproductive hyperallometry, we find that management tools such as spatiotemporal closures and harvest slots can outperform traditional approaches in terms of yield. Failing to consider reproductive hyperallometry overestimates the efficacy of traditional fisheries management and underestimates the benefits of approaches that create reservoirs of larger individuals.
The study and implementation of no-take marine reserves have increased rapidly over the past decade, providing ample data on the biological effects of reserve protection for a wide range of geographic locations and organisms. The plethora of new studies affords the opportunity to re- evaluate previous findings and address formerly unanswered questions with extensive data synthe- ses. Our results show, on average, positive effects of reserve protection on the biomass, numerical density, species richness, and size of organisms within their boundaries which are remarkably simi- lar to those of past syntheses despite a near doubling of data. New analyses indicate that (1) these results do not appear to be an artifact of reserves being sited in better locations; (2) results do not appear to be driven by displaced fishing effort outside of reserves; (3) contrary to often-made asser- tions, reserves have similar if not greater positive effects in temperate settings, at least for reef ecosystems; (4) even small reserves can produce significant biological responses irrespective of lati- tude, although more data are needed to test whether reserve effects scale with reserve size; and (5) effects of reserves vary for different taxonomic groups and for taxa with various characteristics, and not all species increase in response to reserve protection. There is considerable variation in the responses documented across all the reserves in our data set — variability which cannot be entirely explained by which species were studied. We suggest that reserve characteristics and context, par- ticularly the intensity of fishing outside the reserve and inside the reserve before implementation, play key roles in determining the direction and magnitude of the reserve response. However, despite considerable variability, positive responses are far more common than no differences or negative responses, validating the potential for well designed and enforced reserves to serve as globally important conservation and management tools.
Sixty-eight yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares, (60-135cm fork length) were caught and released with implanted archival tags offshore off Baja California, Mexico, during
October 2002 and October 2003. Thirty-six fish (53%) were recaptured and the data were downloaded from all 36 recovered tags.
Time at liberty ranged from 9 to 1,161 days, and the data were analyzed for the 20 fish that were at liberty for 154 or more
days. The accuracy in the position estimates, derived from light-level longitude data and sea-surface temperatures (SSTs)
based latitude, is about 0.41° in longitude and 0.82° in latitude, in this region. The movement paths, derived from position
estimates, for the 20 yellowfin indicated that 19 (95%) remained within 1,445km of their release locations. The estimated
mean velocity along movement paths was 77km/day. The southern and northern seasonal movement paths observed for yellowfin
off Baja California are influenced by the seasonal movements of the 18°C SST isotherm. Cyclical movements to and from suitable
spawning habitat (≥24°C SST) was observed only for mature fish. For the 12 fish that demonstrated site fidelity, the mean
95 and 50% utilization distributions were 258,730km2 and 41,260 km2, respectively. Evaluations of the timed depth records resulted in discrimination of four distinct behaviors. When exhibiting
type-1 diving behavior (78.1% of all days at liberty) the fish remained at depths less than 50m at night and did not dive
to depths greater than about 100m during the day. Type-2 diving behavior (21.2% of all days at liberty) was characterized
by ten or more dives in excess of 150 m during the day. Type-2 diving behavior is apparently a foraging strategy for fish
targeting prey organisms of the deep-scattering layer during the day, following nighttime foraging within the mixed layer
on the same prey. Yellowfin tuna exhibited occasional deep-diving behavior, and some dives exceeded 1,000m, where ambient
temperatures were less than 5°C. Surface-oriented behavior, defined as the time fish remained at depths less than 10m for
more than 10min, were evaluated. The mean number and duration of surface-oriented events per day for all fish was 14.3 and
28.5min, respectively. Habitat utilization of yellowfin, presented as monthly composite horizontal and vertical distributions,
indicates confined geographical distributions, apparently resulting from an affinity to an area of high prey availability.
The vertical distributions indicate greater daytime depths in relation to a seasonally deeper mixed layer and a greater proportion
of daytime at shallower depths in relation to a seasonally shallower mixed layer.
The horizontal and vertical movements of large bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus Lowe, 1839; 25 to 50 kg) captured in the south Pacific Ocean (French Polynesia) were determined using pressure-sensitive
ultrasonic transmitters. Bigeye tuna swam within the first 100 m below the surface during the night-time and at depths between
400 and 500 m during the daytime. The fish exhibited clear relationships with the sound scattering layer (SSL). They followed
its vertical movements at dawn and dusk, and were probably foraging on the organisms of the SSL. Bigeye tuna did, however,
make regular rapid upward vertical excursions into the warm surface layer, most probably in order to regulate body temperature
and, perhaps, to compensate for an accumulated oxygen debt (i.e. to metabolize lactate). The characteristics of these dives
differ from those reported from previous studies on smaller bigeye tuna (∼12 kg) near the main Hawaiian Islands. During the
daytime, the large fish in French Polynesia made upward excursions approximately only every 2.5 h, whereas smaller fish in
Hawaiian waters made upward excursions approximately every hour. Our data are the first observations on the role of body size
in the vertical behavior of bigeye tuna.
Marine reserves have been advocated worldwide as conservation and fishery management tools. It is argued that they can protect ecosystems and also benefit fisheries via density-dependent spillover of adults and enhanced larval dispersal into fishing areas. However, while evidence has shown that marine reserves can meet conservation targets, their effects on fisheries are less understood. In particular, the basic question of if and over what temporal and spatial scales reserves can benefit fished populations via larval dispersal remains unanswered. We tested predictions of a larval transport model for a marine reserve network in the Gulf of California, Mexico, via field oceanography and repeated density counts of recently settled juvenile commercial mollusks before and after reserve establishment. We show that local retention of larvae within a reserve network can take place with enhanced, but spatially-explicit, recruitment to local fisheries. Enhancement occurred rapidly (2 yrs), with up to a three-fold increase in density of juveniles found in fished areas at the downstream edge of the reserve network, but other fishing areas within the network were unaffected. These findings were consistent with our model predictions. Our findings underscore the potential benefits of protecting larval sources and show that enhancement in recruitment can be manifested rapidly. However, benefits can be markedly variable within a local seascape. Hence, effects of marine reserve networks, positive or negative, may be overlooked when only focusing on overall responses and not considering finer spatially-explicit responses within a reserve network and its adjacent fishing grounds. Our results therefore call for future research on marine reserves that addresses this variability in order to help frame appropriate scenarios for the spatial management scales of interest.
Marine reserves have been widely promoted as conservation and fishery management tools. There are robust demonstrations of
conservation benefits, but fishery benefits remain controversial. We show that marine reserves in Florida (United States)
and St. Lucia have enhanced adjacent fisheries. Within 5 years of creation, a network of five small reserves in St. Lucia
increased adjacent catches of artisanal fishers by between 46 and 90%, depending on the type of gear the fishers used. In
Florida, reserve zones in the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge have supplied increasing numbers of world record–sized
fish to adjacent recreational fisheries since the 1970s. Our study confirms theoretical predictions that marine reserves can
play a key role in supporting fisheries.
Fisheries have rarely been 'sustainable'. Rather, fishing has induced serial depletions, long masked by improved technology, geographic expansion and exploitation of previously spurned species lower in the food web. With global catches declining since the late 1980s, continuation of present trends will lead to supply shortfall, for which aquaculture cannot be expected to compensate, and may well exacerbate. Reducing fishing capacity to appropriate levels will require strong reductions of subsidies. Zoning the oceans into unfished marine reserves and areas with limited levels of fishing effort would allow sustainable fisheries, based on resources embedded in functional, diverse ecosystems.
Human-dominated marine ecosystems are experiencing accelerating loss of populations and species, with largely unknown consequences. We analyzed local experiments, long-term regional time series, and global fisheries data to test how biodiversity loss affects marine ecosystem services across temporal and spatial scales. Overall, rates of resource collapse increased and recovery potential, stability, and water quality decreased exponentially with declining diversity. Restoration of biodiversity, in contrast, increased productivity fourfold and decreased variability by 21%, on average. We conclude that marine biodiversity loss is increasingly impairing the ocean's capacity to provide food, maintain water quality, and recover from perturbations. Yet available data suggest that at this point, these trends are still reversible.
About 25% of the world's fisheries are depleted such that their current biomass is lower than the level that would maximize
the sustained yield (MSY). By using methods not previously applied in the fisheries conservation context, we show in four
disparate fisheries (including the long-lived and slow-growing orange roughy) that the dynamic maximum economic yield (MEY),
the biomass that produces the largest discounted economic profits from fishing, exceeds MSY. Thus, although it is theoretically
possible that maximizing discounted economic profits may cause stock depletions, our results show there is a win-win: In many
fisheries at reasonable discount rates and at current prices and costs, larger fish stocks increase economic profits. An MEY
target that exceeds MSY and transfers from higher, future profits to compensate fishers for the transition costs of stock
rebuilding would help overcome a key cause of fisheries overexploitation, industry opposition to lower harvests.
Contrary to common perceptions, the creation of protected areas does not start when they are officially declared but generally follows a long process. For instance, the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) was not “born” when it was formally announced on March 18th 1998, but several decades before that. Through document analysis and key informant interviews, we applied the “step zero” approach to examine what happened prior to the implementation of the GMR. This study reveals that the GMR did not arise from a social and political vacuum; rather, events took place in the distant past, even centuries ago, influenced the reserve's creation and current status. Its establishment was driven by complex geopolitical, economic, social, and environmental factors from both within and outside Galapagos. Additionally, the process of creating the GMR was convoluted, marked by hidden interests and conflictive political agendas that triggered controversies between users. The making of the GMR was also influenced by the interest in promoting “nature-based” tourism, and the regulations that followed had disadvantaged small-scale fishers. This knowledge about the reserve's pre-implementation phase enables a broader understanding of the current challenges facing the performance of the GMR and points to possible governance interventions needed to enhance its sustainability.
The Galápagos Marine Reserve, declared 1998, was the result of a long scientific and political process, which spanned several governments, starting 1973 with the first management plan for the Galapagos National Park and the following biodiversity evaluation and conservation proposals by Wellington (1975). Discussions about governance, institutional jurisdictions, and compatible resource uses delayed the legal declaration of a marine protected area, until 1986, when a marine resource reserve was legally established. Until the final establishment of the Galápagos Marine Reserve, however, several initiatives for management planning and conservation failed due to lack of management capacity, interinstitutional agreements, and priority of the marine environment. Thus, even after the creation of the RRMG, new illegal fisheries for sea cucumber joined, increasing pressures due to industrial fisheries, shark finning, and overexploitation of coastal stocks of groupers and spiny lobsters. This recount was build after 40 years of scientific and advisory work experience in the Galapagos Islands, does not pretend to be objective and complete, and may be biased by the weight I have given to different actors and their roles in subsequent phases of development.
A total of 31,242 bigeye tuna was captured, tagged, and released, 30,793 with dart tags (DTs) and 449 with geolocating archival tags (ATs), in the equatorial central Pacific Ocean along the 140° W, 155° W, 170° W, and 180° meridians, during 2008 through 2012, of which 10,029 (32.1%) of the DTs and 74 (16.5%) of the ATs were returned. A subset of high-confidence filtered DT data was retained for 5807 fish at liberty for 30 d or more, for evaluating linear displacements from release to recapture positions. For the filtered DT data, days at liberty ranged from 30 to 1701 d (median = 187 d). Linear displacements ranged from 1 to 5372 nautical miles (M) (median = 936 M), with 71% eastward and 29% westward, and 95% within 3614 M of their release positions. The data indicate significant differences in the linear displacements by release locations, days at liberty, and fish length at release. An unscented Kalman filter model with sea-surface temperature measurements integrated (UKFsst) was used to process 48 AT data sets from bigeye tuna at liberty for 30 d or longer, to obtain most probable tracks, improved estimates of geographic positions, and movement parameters. The 95% volume contours surrounding the position estimates, along the most probable tracks from bigeye tuna releases along the 140° W, 155° W, 170° W, and 180° meridians show substantial overlap. For the pooled AT data sets, the median parameter estimates from the UKFsst model for errors in longitude (σx) and latitude (σy) were 0.52° and 1.75°, for directed eastward and northward movements (u and v) were −2.01 M/d and −1.41 M/d, and for dispersive movement (D) was 496.7 M2/d. The linear displacements and most probable tracks obtained from these tagging data demonstrate constrained latitudinal dispersion, some regional fidelity, some extensive eastward longitudinal dispersion, and substantial mixing of bigeye tuna between release longitudes. The amount of mixing of bigeye tuna among these release areas in the equatorial central Pacific Ocean, with those in adjacent areas of the equatorial eastern and western Pacific Ocean, is dependent on distances between areas, with, in general, the greatest mixing occurring between the areas that are closest to one another.
The movements, behavior, and habitat utilization of yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares, following capture and release with archival tags in the Revillagigedo Islands Archipelago Biosphere Reserve (RIABR), Mexico, are described from analyses of 16 578 days of time-series data, downloaded from 52 archival tags recovered from yellowfin (78–173 cm in length and 1.7–8.0 yr of age) at liberty from 93 to 1773 days ( = 411 days), collected during 2006–2012. An unscented Kalman filter model with sea-surface temperature measurements integrated (UKFsst) was used to process the archival tag data sets to obtain improved estimates of geographic positions, most probable tracks (MPTs), and movement parameters. The MPTs indicate restricted movements, low levels of dispersion, and fidelity of yellowfin tuna to the RIABR. The median parameter estimates from the UKFsst model for errors in longitude (σx) and latitude (σy) were 0.46° and 1.84°, respectively, for directed movements (u and v) –0.05 NM day−1 and –0.05 NM day−1, respectively, and for dispersive movement (D) 117.99 NM2 day−1. Analyses of daily timed depth and temperature records resulted in the classification of the data into four distinct behaviors. There are significant differences among ages in the durations of Type I and Type II diving behaviors and in the daytime and nighttime vertical habitat utilization distributions. The oceanography surrounding the RIABR appears to have a profound influence on the movements, behavior, and habitat utilization of yellowfin in this area.
1. SUMMARY This report presents the current stock assessment of bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) in the eastern Pacific Ocean (EPO). As in the last assessment, this assessment was conducted using Stock Synthesis II (SS2; Methot 2005). The assessment reported here is based on the assumption that there is a single stock of bigeye in the EPO, and that there is no exchange of fish between the EPO and the western and central Pacific Ocean. The stock assessment requires a substantial amount of information. Data on retained catch, discards, catch per unit of effort (CPUE), used as indices of abundance, and size compositions of the catches from several different fisheries have been analyzed. Several assumptions regarding processes such as growth, recruitment, movement, natural mortality, and fishing mortality, have also been made. Catch, CPUE, and length-frequency data for the surface fisheries have been updated to include new data for 2007 and revised data for 2003-2006. Analyses were carried out to assess the sensitivity of results to: 1) a stock-recruitment relationship; 2) use of the southern longline CPUE data only; 3) using two time blocks for the size selectivities of the floating-object fisheries, separated by the implementation in 2001 of IATTC Resolution C-00-08, which prohibited discards of tunas in the EPO. There have been important changes in the amount of fishing mortality caused by the fisheries that catch bigeye tuna in the EPO. On average, since 1993 the fishing mortality of bigeye less than about 15 quarters old has increased substantially, and that of fish more than about 15 quarters old has increased slightly. The increase in the fishing mortality of the younger fish was caused by the expansion of the fisheries that catch tuna in association with floating objects. Over the range of spawning biomasses estimated by the base case assessment, the abundance of bigeye recruits appears to be unrelated to the spawning potential of adult females at the time of hatching. There are several important features in the estimated time series of bigeye recruitment. First, estimates of recruitment before 1993 are very uncertain, as the floating-object fisheries were not catching significant amounts of small bigeye. There was a period of above-average recruitment in 1995-1998, followed by a period of below-average recruitment in 1999-2000. The recruitments have been above average since 2000, and were particularly large in 2005. The most recent recruitment is very uncertain, due to the fact that recently-recruited bigeye are represented in only a few length-frequency samples. The extended
Long-term density data for the sea cucumber, Isostichopus fuscus, from Canal Bolivar (separating western Isabela and eastern Fernandina Islands), Galápagos, were compared with catch statistics and used in a stock depletion model to determine the extent of the effects of the fishery on the existing population and the potential for the population to recover after each fishing season. Recruitment indices were found to be low from 1994 until mid-1999, when a mass recruitment event was registered and numbers of small individuals increased dramatically. The increase in density of juveniles peaked in 2001 and has declined since. Recruitment in this species of sea cucumber appears to be highly sporadic and may depend on intense climatic events such as the warm El Niño. Current levels of fishing activity are unsustainable. The management implications of pulse recruitment in this fishery are discussed.
Fewer protected areas exist in the pelagic ocean than any other ecosystem on Earth. Although there is increasing support for marine protected areas (MPAs) as a tool for pelagic conservation, there have also been numerous criticisms of the ecological, logistical and economic feasibility of place-based management in the dynamic pelagic environment. Here we argue that recent advances across conservation, oceanography and fisheries science provide the evidence, tools and information to address these criticisms and confirm MPAs as defensible and feasible instruments for pelagic conservation. Debate over the efficacy of protected areas relative to other conservation measures cannot be resolved without further implementation of MPAs in the pelagic ocean.
During the 1997-98 El Nino, the equatorial Pacific Ocean retained 0. 7 x 10(15) grams of carbon that normally would have been lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. The surface ocean became impoverished in plant nutrients, and chlorophyll concentrations were the lowest on record. A dramatic recovery occurred in mid-1998, the system became highly productive, analogous to coastal environments, and carbon dioxide flux out of the ocean was again high. The spatial extent of the phytoplankton bloom that followed recovery from El Nino was the largest ever observed for the equatorial Pacific. These chemical and ecological perturbations were linked to changes in the upwelling of nutrient-enriched waters. The description and explanation of these dynamic changes would not have been possible without an observing system that combines biological, chemical, and physical sensors on moorings with remote sensing of chlorophyll.
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