Taking a Gap Year: A Guide for Prospective Clinical Psychology Ph.D. Students

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212 the Behavior Therapist
Faculty and graduate students are fre-
quently approached by undergraduates
seeking advice about whether to take a gap
year before applying (or reapplying) to clin-
ical psychology Ph.D. programs. This article,
written by current clinical psychology grad-
uate students, is intended to serve as a
resource for two primary audiences: (a)
undergraduates uncertain about their
readiness to apply to clinical psychology doc-
toral programs, who wanttolearn about the
advantages and disadvantages of taking a
gap year, and (b) those seeking guidance
about improving their application after
applying but not being admitted to clinical
psychology doctoral programs. Our hope is
that faculty advisors and graduate student
mentors will disseminate this resource to
Ph.D. hopefuls grappling with these predica-
ments.
SO YOU’RE NEARINGTHE END of college
and have decided to pursue a Ph.D. in clin-
ical psychology … but you’ve run into
roadblocks. Maybe you feel unqualified
due to concerns you have not accumulated
enough research experience to make you a
competitive applicant. Maybe you feel con-
fident about your academic vita, but have
personal hesitations about jumping into a
doctoral program immediately following
graduation. Alternatively, perhaps you
have already applied to clinical psychology
doctoral programs but feel lost after receiv-
ing rejection notices. In this article, we
draw upon our own experiences, as well as
the experiences of undergraduates we have
supervised, to guide Ph.D. hopefuls in
determining the best course of action to
gain admittance to a clinical psychology
program. First, we help readers examine
whether they have accumulated sufficient
experience to ensure their competitiveness
for clinical psychology doctoral programs.
We also believe consideration of personal
factors is a neglected, yet crucial area of
consideration. Thus, we help readers con-
sider whether they are personally prepared
to take on another 5 to 7 years of schooling.
Next, because students sometimes feel dis-
appointed when faced with the possibility
of delaying academic goals, we normalize
the decision to take time off between
undergraduate and doctoral education. We
then describe and critically evaluate the
two most common paths taken by students
en route to their Ph.D.—completing a
master’s program, and obtaining employ-
ment as a research assistant (RA). Finally,
we conclude with suggestions for making
the most of a gap year by gaining additional
clinical experience, improving GRE scores,
attending conferences, and establishing
and maintaining professional relation-
ships.
Of note, while this topic has been dis-
cussed in other articles (Calhoun & Prin-
stein, 2017; Prinstein, 2017), our article is
unique in that it is written by six clinical
psychology Ph.D. students who pursued a
range of different pathways toward their
doctoral degree, including research-ori-
ented master’s programs—an option
largely overlooked in prior guides. We also
provide an up-to-date list of easily accessi-
ble online resources for students. Finally,
although our personal experiences do not
allow us to speak directly to related degrees
and disciplines (e.g., experimental psychol-
ogy, Psy.D. programs, school psychology,
counseling psychology, social work), we
believe many of the issues addressed below
cut across these disciplines as well.
How Do I Know If I’m Ready?
When gauging readiness for entering a
Ph.D. program in clinical psychology, there
are two key domains to consider. The first
domain—academic qualifications—refers
to the skills and experiences that will deter-
mine how competitive you will be during
the application process, andenableyouto
hit the ground running when you begin a
doctoral program. The second domain—
personal readiness—reflects your level of
enthusiasm for further schooling and your
preparedness for undergoing a major life
transition. Together, academic qualifica-
tions and personal readiness contribute to
your potential for gaining admission and
succeeding in graduate school.
The academic qualifications needed for
acceptance into graduate school encom-
pass a range of skills and experiences.
Though an in-depth discussion of readi-
ness goes beyond the scope of this paper
(for further guidance see: http://mitch.web.
unc.edu/files/2017/02/MitchGradSchool
Advice.pdf as well as "Additional
Resources" at the end of this article), we
provide an overview of considerations for
determining the type of program best
suited to your interests, and whether you
will be perceived as an attractive candidate.
First, reviewing program websites will help
you confirm that you are pursuing the
degree and discipline aligned with career
goals. For example, students opposed to the
extensive clinical training required in a
clinical psychology Ph.D. program should
consider pursuing a purely research-
focused doctoral degree in a related disci-
pline (e.g., neuroscience and behavior).
Alternatively, students who are disinter-
ested in research but passionate about
working as a clinician may wish to pursue a
degree entirely focused on preparation for
clinical practice (e.g., master’s in social
work, Psy.D. programs). Next, the neces-
sary qualifications for admittance will
differ based on the types of programs to
which you apply. Within clinical psychol-
ogy, programs adopt different training
models (i.e., clinical science, scientist-prac-
titioner, practitioner-scholar), correspond-
ing to different areas of emphasis (see Bell
& Hausman, 2014, for a description of
common training models). Generally,
research-focused programs expect
prospective students to have already
demonstrated productivity in research,
such as an honors thesis, poster presenta-
tions, and even peer-reviewed publica-
tions—which are increasingly represented
in application packets of competitive doc-
toral applicants. In contrast, clinically ori-
ented programs place a greater emphasis
on prior exposure to clinical settings. It is
important to review program websites to
get a sense of what skills are most valued in
incoming graduate students.
Next, all APA-accredited clinical pro-
grams are required to provide data on
admitted students within a section of their
website entitled “Student Admissions, Out-
comes, and Other Data.” Comparing your
scores to program average GPAs and GRE
scores should give you a rough indication
of how competitive you might be academi-
cally. Of course, even if your scores are
STUDENT FORUM
Taking a Gap Year: A Guide for Prospective
Clinical Psychology Ph.D. Students
Molly R. Franz, Hanna M. Grandgenett, Michelle Haikalis,
Christina L. Hein, Anna E. Jaffe, Anne L. Steel, University
of Nebraska-Lincoln

September •2017 213
TAKING AGAP YEAR
consistently above the mean of previously
accepted students, this is not a guarantee
that your overall application will be evalu-
ated favorably. Additional academic quali-
fications including research experiences
(reflected in personal statements and cur-
riculum vitae) and letters of recommenda-
tion are equally important components of
your application. Similarly, if your GPA
and GRE scores are consistently below the
mean, this may not be a deal breaker in the
evaluation process if your other qualifica-
tions are exceptional. Faculty may have dif-
ferent standards for your GPA depending
on the relevance and rigor of your under-
graduate coursework. Programs also differ
in how much weight they place on appli-
cants’ GRE scores; many programs recog-
nize that the results of standardized tests
only weakly relate to graduate school suc-
cess and may be biased against students
coming from disadvantaged backgrounds
(Miller & Stassun, 2014; also see
https://aas.org/posts/news/2015/12/
presidents-column-rethinking-role-gre).
Whether a given applicant is qualified
for a Ph.D. is based on a unique amalgam
of factors. You can learn a great deal about
your own competitiveness from speaking
to faculty or academic advisors who are
familiar with the graduate admissions
process. Ideally, you can identify a faculty
member for whom you have served as an
RA and set up a meeting, long before appli-
cation deadlines, to discuss your career
goals. During this meeting, the faculty
member can help you recognize areas of
strength and weakness. It is critical to come
prepared with a copy of your curriculum
vitae (CV) so the faculty member can get a
comprehensive understanding of your
qualifications to date (for tips on how to
write a strong CV, see Bannon & Rowe-
Johnson, 2013). Because research experi-
ences are difficult to quantify, faculty can
help you determine whether your experi-
ences are substantial enough to make you
competitive.
Like academic readiness, personal
readiness to undertake doctoral training is
also multifaceted. First, it is helpful to
gauge your own gut reaction, and consider
hesitations you may have at the thought of
applying to a doctoral program. Common
reasons students delay applyingtodoctoral
programs include being geographically
limited, perhaps due to ties with significant
others, family obligations, or financial con-
siderations. Students may have a range of
financial concerns, including a desire to
earn an income to pay off debt from under-
graduate education, hesitations about their
ability to manage the cost of applications,
or uncertainty as to whether a given doc-
toral stipend will be sufficient to offset the
cost of living in certain locales. Although
many APA-accredited clinical psychology
doctoral programs waive tuition and pro-
vide students with stipends, these pro-
grams are typically more competitive than
tuition-charging programs, which com-
monly charge between $10,000–$40,000
per year (see http://clinicalpsychgrad-
school.org/dprog.php for information
about incurred debt). A good understand-
ing of the costs associated with graduate
school is helpful for informing decision-
making related to financial concerns.
If you do sense personal hesitations, we
recommend you ask yourself two ques-
tions. First, “Despite these hesitations, am I
still committed to pursuing a Ph.D. in clin-
ical psychology?” If yes, then ask yourself,
“Can I address any of these concerns
during a gap period before graduate
school?” For example, if you are unsure
whether you truly enjoy the research
process, spending time working in a
research lab postbaccalaureate may help
inform your decision. However, if you are
opposed to the often necessary relocation
required to attend graduate programs, you
will need to honestly consider whether
these hesitations could change over the
course of a gap year. Although a certain
level of anxiety accompanies any major life
decision, it is up to you to determine
whether the benefits of graduate school
outweigh the costs.
Relatedly, we recommend examining
whether there are factors propelling you
toward doctoral study in clinical psychol-
ogy. It is a good sign if you feel inspired and
enthusiastic at the prospect of jumping
back into another 5 or more years of
school. A key factor that may inform your
level of enthusiasm is whether you have
identified a specific research area about
which you feel passionate. During graduate
school, you will develop expertise in a very
specific area; students may find this
prospect either thrilling or daunting,
depending on their level of interest in the
material. To this end, taking an extra year
to identify your research passion may
result in a more rewarding graduate (and
future career) experience. Finally, it can be
challenging to make an informed decision
to apply to doctoral programs if you do not
know what being a graduate student actu-
ally looks like day-to-day. For example, in
undergraduate programs, students’ pri-
mary goal is to obtain a high GPA; in con-
trast, doctoral programs deemphasize the
importance of obtaining perfect grades in
favor of building a program of research and
developing clinical competencies, with the
ultimate goal of preparing students for
careers as independent researchers and
clinicians. Therefore, we recommend you
speak to graduate students (more than one
if possible, as opinions may vary!) to get a
better sense of what graduate school
entails.
Coming to Terms With a Gap Year
The process of reflection is vital to
making informed decisions about whether
you are ready to pursue a doctoral degree
in clinical psychology, and, if you choose to
take a gap year, will help you make the
most of that time. For some, making the
decision to take a gap year is relatively easy.
For others, coming to terms with the deci-
sion to delay entry to graduate school in
favor of a gap year is challenging. Students
intent on pursuing a Ph.D. in clinical psy-
chology tend to be highly ambitious and
driven to succeed. Perhaps, at present, you
feel you don’t have enough research expe-
rience to make you sufficiently competi-
tive, personal considerations are holding
you back, or a combination of the two is
making you hesitant to apply. Regardless of
the reason(s), for some, the decision to take
agapyear(ortwo)may,atfirst,triggerfeel-
ings of dejection. When imagining career
trajectories, you may have assumed you
would proceed seamlessly from your
undergraduate education to your Ph.D.
program if you worked hard enough. If so,
coming to terms with the fact that you may
be unable to achieve your goals in the time
line you expected can be disheartening.
Further, sharing your decision with impor-
tant people in your life can be particularly
challenging. You may worry that your
family and friends will be disappointed in
you, possibly perceiving that your decision
to take time off is indicative of “giving up.”
Unfortunately, many are unaware of the
competitiveness of clinical psychology
Ph.D. programs! Addressing these misper-
ceptions is important to helping your loved
ones understand that you have made an
informed decision that will best help you
reach your goals, and does not reflect upon
your commitment to your career. Support-
ing the notion that coming to terms with a
gap year is challenging, an online search
reveals a number of Internet forums (e.g.,
The GradCafe Forums, The Student
Doctor Network) with countless threads
offering advice to individuals seeking
words of wisdom about graduate applica-

214 the Behavior Therapist
tion concerns. Among the most popular
threads are those in which students ask
others to evaluate “what are my chances” of
acceptance into a clinical psychology pro-
gram (i.e., WAMC threads; https://
forums.studentdoctor.net/threads/wamc-
what-are-my-chances.686573). Spend a
few minutes reading through comments on
these websites, and one quickly senses how
the decision to delay application (or take a
gap year following rejection) is sometimes
beset by frustration and self-doubt.
We are here to reinforce the message
that there is nothing wrong with deciding
to take a gap year. In fact, although we are
unaware of existing empirical data, the
trend of taking gap year(s) between college
and doctoral education may well have
increased as clinical psychology Ph.D. pro-
grams have become more competitive over
time (see http://mitch.web.unc.edu/files/
2013/10/AdmissionsRates.pdf for admis-
sion rates by program between 2008-2013).
Among the six student authors of this arti-
cle, the majority (four of six) took between
1to3gapyearspriortoacceptanceintothe
Clinical Psychology Training Program
(CPTP) at the University of Nebraska-Lin-
coln. All four of us benefitted immensely,
both professionally and personally, from
our decision to take time off. We all believe
we gained entry into a competitive clinical
psychology program fitting our career
goals by making the deliberate decision to
use our gap time to our advantage. To help
you decide how best to use your gap
year(s), the next section delineates the two
options that we believe offer students the
greatest opportunities to gain critical
research and clinical experiences needed
for acceptance to a strong clinical psychol-
ogy program.
Master’s Programs
Some students may want to pursue a
master’s degree in clinical psychology or a
related field (e.g., experimental psychology,
counseling psychology) as an intermediate
step on the way to doctoral programs. As a
master’s student, you may have opportuni-
ties to boost the quality of your research
and clinical experiences, expand expertise
within a certain area of study, and obtain
stronger, more tailored letters of recom-
mendation—all ingredients of a strong
graduate school application. Completing a
master’s program can also familiarize you
with the rigors of graduate-level training,
thus, potentially easing your transition into
adoctoralprogram.
It is important to identify master’s pro-
grams that will serve to assist you in reach-
ing your end goal. We recommend pursu-
ing programs that are known for preparing
students for future doctoral study. These
programs tend to emphasize training in
research methods and statistics (as
opposed to practice-oriented programs).
Not only can these programs help you
build research skills, but students who have
not identified a clear research interest can
gain concentrated experience within a par-
ticular content area, and have opportuni-
ties to disseminate their work in peer-
reviewed outlets (e.g., conferences,
journals). Relatedly, we recommend only
pursing master’s programs with a thesis
option. Completing an empirical thesis in
your master’s program will allow you to
gain valuable experience conducting a
study independently, which will provide
you fodder for your personal statement and
interviews, and enable you to develop
foundational research skills pertinent to
success in doctoral programs. It is possible
(though certainly not guaranteed) that
completing a thesis in your master’s pro-
gram will even allow you to waive your
doctoral program’s thesis requirement.
Though arguably less important for
doctoral admission, some master’s pro-
grams also provide clinical training.
Because it can be difficult to find clinical
opportunities prior to completing a bache-
lor’s degree, many undergraduate students
apply to graduate school withlimitedclin-
ically relevant experience. Master’s-level
clinical practica will not only boost this sec-
tion of your CV, but may also prepare you
for doctoral-level clinical training. While
your cohort members struggle with the
anxieties of seeing their very first client,
you might find solace in knowing that you
indeed have some basic clinical skills. Fur-
thermore, assessment, intervention, and
supervision hours accrued during your
master’s program will ultimately be
included on your application for internship
(the final step in your doctoral training).
Additionally, because the best master’s
programs tend to accept small cohorts of
students, you are likely to have substantial
interaction with faculty members across
various aspects of training (e.g., courses,
research, clinical work). This will allow you
to establish close relationships with faculty
who can attest to your ability to do gradu-
ate work, thus facilitating stronger letters of
recommendation as well as mentorship
and guidance in the application process.
Finally, if you decide not to pursue your
doctorate in clinical psychology after
obtaining your master’s in clinical psychol-
ogy, you may be able to work as a master’s-
level clinician under the supervision of a
licensed practitioner, depending on your
state of residence.
Despite the benefits of pursuing a
master’s degree, it is important to consider
the potential drawbacks of this option.
First, master’s programs can be costly.
Many do not offer assistantships or fellow-
ships to offset tuition costs. Second, com-
pleting a master’s degree will not necessar-
ily shorten the length of your Ph.D.
training. You may be able to transfer some
course credits and even waive the thesis
requirement. However, even then, you will
likely have at least 4 years of doctoral train-
ing aheadofyou. Third, although earning a
master’s degree can bolster certain aspects
of your application to a doctoral program,
it does not guarantee that you will be
admitted into a Ph.D. program. Finally,
though a master’s program will provide
you with a breadth of experience, clinical
and course requirements may indeed
detract from research productivity. Some
argue that research experience is most per-
tinent to doctoral admission, and as such,
gap year options focused solely on research
might be more worthwhile.
If, after weighing the various factors dis-
cussed above, you decide to pursue a
master’s degree during your gap year(s),
then it will be important to carefully choose
ahigh-qualitymaster’sprogram.Asnoted,
a “stepping stone program” that provides
abundant research training and opportuni-
ties to present and publish will better fit
your goals than would a clinically focused
program aiming to train master’s-level
clinicians. If clinical training is offered,
look for programs that emphasize cogni-
tive behavioral therapy or other evidence-
based approaches. You can also identify
stepping-stone programs by talking with
program directors about the number of
students who go on to apply and gain
admission to doctoral programs in clinical
psychology. Some examples of these pro-
grams, which emphasize CBT training, can
be found in a previous tBT article (Tafuri,
Jaffe, & DiLillo, 2015).
Research Assistant Positions
As an alternative to the master’s degree
route, some students may choose to
acquire additional experience by working
as an RA. These positions have various
titles, such as research technician, study
coordinator, and project manager. Regard-
less of title, taking on a full- or part-time
FRANZ ET AL.

TAKING AGAP YEAR
September •2017 215
RA position will bolster your resume by
providing you the opportunity to carry out
diverse research activities, focus your
research interests to a particular content
area, and develop greater clarification of
your own career goals. Typically, research
assistantships last between 1 and 2 years,
and are either funded or volunteer. Ideal
research positions provide you the oppor-
tunity to be involved in multiple stages of
the research process, including: (a) grant
writing, which provides you experience
assembling components of a new project;
(b) study start-up, which may involve pro-
tocol design and preparation of documents
for the Institutional Review Board (IRB);
(c) recruitment and data collection, which
often involves interaction with participants
and learning unique procedures (e.g.,
structured interviews, physiological assess-
ments, behavioral coding); (d) data entry
and management, which allows you to gain
familiarity with important software pro-
grams; and (e) data analysis/manuscript
preparation, skills essential for conducting
your own independent research. If tasks
you desire are not written into your job
description, simply asking to do more can
go a long way! RAs who are motivated to
take on additional responsibilities are
greatly appreciated by their supervisors.
However, if you are unable to obtain the
experiences you desire in your current
position, be sure to seek them out else-
where through volunteering.
There are several key benefits to post-
baccalaureate research assistantships. The
best research positions immerse you in the
detailed workings of a research lab, thus
preparing you for what will be expected of
you in a Ph.D. program. Many principal
investigators (PIs) will allow RAs to con-
duct secondary data analyses of previously
collected research, which may be presented
at local, national, or international confer-
ences (a clear resume builder). Ambitious
RAs may even seek to publish a manuscript
in a peer-reviewed journal; doing so helps
you stand out among other applicants in
the pool. Additionally, you will likely be
provided the opportunity to run research
participants, allowing you hands-on clini-
cal interaction, which can significantly add
to your breadth of experiences.
An added benefit of completing a
research assistantship is the number of pro-
fessional connections that you will build as
a result of your time commitment. Based
on your diligence in completing tasks to
which you are assigned, your skills in work-
ing with research participants, your ability
to work effectively as part of a team, and
your prowess for conducting work inde-
pendently, your supervisor(s) may have
much to say in a letter of recommendation
about your strengths. Thus, when consid-
ering various research positions, it is
important to assess the extent to which you
will develop a professional relationship
with your PI, and ensure this level of con-
tact matches your desired level of supervi-
sion. Some supervisors may meet with their
RAs on a weekly basis, offering close super-
vision, while other PIs may have you report
directly to an intermediary point of contact
such as a postdoc or graduate student.
Finally, because RAs often work in a team
setting, you will likely receive support and
resources from both your peers and profes-
sionals as you prepare to take the next step.
Despite the benefits of research assist-
antships, there are some limitations of
which you should be aware. First, some
research positions may not give you the
opportunities that ideally set you up for
graduate school (e.g., a position that pri-
marily involves one task, such as data
entry). Asking questions at job interviews
about your specific responsibilities is
essential to ensuring your expectations
match the reality of the position. Addition-
ally, you may find it difficult to obtain a
paid research assistantship. Paid positions
are not plentiful, particularly in the current
funding climate. Thus, you may find your-
self competing with nearly as many appli-
cants as you would find applying to doc-
toral programs! Individuals most
competitive for paid RA positions tend to
already have experience in research. If you
are unable to obtain a paid RA position, it
may be possible to pursue a quality volun-
teer position that provides you the oppor-
tunities you are seeking, while simultane-
ously working elsewhere part-time.
Perhaps after reading this, you decide
you are interested in pursuing a research
assistantship. Faculty and/or graduate stu-
dents at your undergraduate program are
among your greatest resources for getting
connected with PIs at research-intensive
universities or academically affiliated hos-
pitals actively conducting research in an
area of interest. We also recommend you
search online for faculty working in a
research area of interest (e.g., using
PsycINFO) and email them inquiring
whether they have research assistantships
available. If you already applied to doctoral
programs but were not admitted, it is per-
fectly acceptable to email faculty who were
unable to admit you and inquire about
potential positions. Successful doctoral
applicants can and do move for gap year
experiences! There are additional resources
available as well. You may wish to join free
listservs advertising postbaccalaureate
assistantships and other job opportunities
(such as the ABCT members digest at
http://www.abct.org/Members/?m=mMe
mbers&fa=ListServe). You can search
https://projectreporter.nih.gov/reporter.
cfm to look for grants in your area of inter-
est which have been recently funded, and
email the study PI. Your local Psi Chi chap-
ter may regularly receive emails about job
opportunities for positions. Finally, we rec-
ommend visiting http://clinicalpsychgrad-
school.org/pbacc.php and searching online
for "clinical psychology research assistant-
ships," along with keywords related to your
area of interest.
How Many Gap Years Should I Take?
As mentioned, four of us delayed appli-
cation to doctoral programs to serve as RAs
or enroll in a clinical master’s program.
Specifically, we took off 1 year (n= 1), 2
years (n=1),and 3years(n=2).Thereare
several factors to consider when deciding
how long to delay applying to doctoral pro-
grams. First, if your goal in taking a gap
year is to gain critical research, clinical, and
academic experiences, you may choose
how long to take off based on what you
need to increase your competitiveness. For
example, those with substantial research
experience by the end of college may only
need 6 months to a year to gain additional
worthwhile experiences. Of course, there is
no litmus test for determining when you
have accrued the necessary experience, but
our guide above, in addition to our refer-
ence list below, can help point you in the
right direction. Next, the amount of time
you take off may be dictated by logistical
reasons. For example, your master’s pro-
gram or research position may require up
front a commitment of 2 years. Taking 2
gap years can be advantageous in helping
faculty and supervisors get to know you
better before writing letters of recommen-
dation (remember, individuals choosing to
take 1 year off will need to solicit recom-
mendations the fall after they graduate
from college). Finally, you may choose to
take several gap years because you are
enjoying the time away from school, in
addition to accruing valuable experiences.
For example, the two authors who decided
to take 3 years off were able to see large-
scale research projects through to comple-
tion, publish findings, earn a salary, and
enjoy extra leisure time before launching
back into school.

216 the Behavior Therapist
FRANZ ET AL.
Additional Resume Builders and
Professional Networking
If you decide to take a gap year, there are
anumberofotheractivitiesthatwillhelp
you to further strengthen your application,
as well as more clearly identify your inter-
ests. Prospective students may wish to gain
clinical experience, which can be obtained
by volunteering on acrisis hotline, assist-
ing at a domestic violence shelter or child
advocacy center, working as a behavioral
aid, or assisting with group therapy or skills
training in a residential treatment setting.
These opportunities can help you gain
exposure to clinical populations of interest,
and make an informed decision about
whether you ultimately want to pursue a
clinically oriented Ph.D. Speak to faculty
and academic advisors at your undergrad-
uate institution to get the best information
about valuable clinical opportunities in
your region. As a disclaimer, although clin-
ical experience with a population of inter-
est is looked upon favorably by Ph.D.
admissions committees, faculty at more
research-oriented doctoral programs gen-
erally do not consider this a vital part of an
application (Prinstein, 2017). Thus, we rec-
ommend students seek clinical opportuni-
ties as an adjunct to continued research.
During your gap year(s), it may also be
wise to retake the GRE depending on the
score you received. Undergraduates often
take the GRE for the first time in their final
year of college; this is a busy time during
which it can be challenging to adequately
prepare. To make an informed decision, we
recommend reviewing the websites of
prospective doctoral programs, updated
annually, to determine whether your GRE
scores fall within the range of scores of
recently accepted students. Furthermore,
upon reviewing the required materials for
prospective doctoral programs, some stu-
dents may find that the GRE Psychology
Subject Test is required, necessitating you
to devote additional time to prepare for
another exam. If you do decide to retake
the GRE, you can visit https://www.ets.
org/gre/revised_general/prepare to obtain
resources such as flashcards, study guides,
and sample tests.
Another valuable way to enhance your
CV and develop connections with faculty
mentors of interest is through presenting
research at regional and national confer-
ences. If you have a role in an ongoing pro-
ject at your undergraduate institution, dis-
cuss opportunities with your research
advisor for presenting findings. Confer-
ences are a prime way to disseminate your
research, network with potential faculty
advisors, and meet other students with
similar interests. To determine appropriate
outlets, speaktocurrentgraduate students
and faculty at your undergraduate institu-
tion about conferences they frequent. We
recommend attending the annual ABCT
convention. In addition to being populated
by a range of professionals with diverse
interests, ABCT offers a “Getting Into
Graduate School” panel each year, sure to
be useful as you navigate through the
process. Joining professional organizations
as a student or postbaccalaureate member
also offers numerous networking, mentor-
ing, and presentation opportunities. For
example, ABCT offers approximately 40
Special Interest Groups (SIGs), which unite
members with similar research and/or clin-
ical interests. Undergraduates may wish to
submit posters through a SIG because they
have later submission deadlines and a
greater proportion of submissions are
accepted. Even if you are unable to show-
case your own research, it may still be ben-
eficial to attend conferences to introduce
yourself and share your research interests
with potential faculty mentors and gradu-
ate students.
It is also useful to communicate your
interest to faculty via email during the fall
before applying to doctoral programs.
First, check the faculty websites to obtain
all available information. When emailing
faculty, be sure to avoid questions already
answered on their website (e.g., whether
they plan on taking a graduate student the
following year). We recommend you
briefly introduce yourself (e.g., undergrad-
uate institution, current research employ-
ment) and express your fit with the faculty
mentor and your enthusiasm for the pro-
gram as a whole. Finding a good match
with a faculty mentor is invaluable in grad-
uate school; thus, it is essential to be
thoughtful in your search.
Finally, if you decide to take time off fol-
lowing your undergraduate education and
you have already developed close profes-
sional relationships, we recommend you
communicate your plans for your gap
year(s) to faculty, and inquire whether they
would be willing to write a letter of recom-
mendation for you when the time comes to
apply to graduate school. During your gap
year(s), stay in touch with these faculty by
sending email updates quarterly, and keep-
ing them abreast of your new experiences,
as well as your career goals. This will allow
letter writers to say they have remained in
contact with you and communicate the
experiencesyou have gained over the gap
year(s) in their letters of recommendation.
Conclusion
There are many factors to consider
when deciding whether to take a gap year
before applying to Ph.D. programs in clin-
ical psychology. Committing not only to a
graduate program, but also to a career in
clinical psychology is a major life decision
that should be carefully considered. Reflect
on your commitment to this broad career
choice (becoming a psychologist), the spe-
cific field (clinical psychology), and your
particular research and clinical interests.
Consider your readiness for graduate train-
ing by reflecting on both academic pre-
paredness and personal factors. Discuss
any concerns with academic advisors,
graduate students, mentors, and other sup-
ports in your life. If you identify areas need-
ing improvement, consider whether these
areas can be addressed over the course of
one or more gap years. Be honest with
yourself about what you would do during
these gap years; taking time off only helps
improve your chances of graduate admis-
sions if you use this time to build your vita
and improve your application. Remember
that there are a variety of options to gain
additional research and clinical experience,
including master’s programs, paid and vol-
unteer research assistantships, and clini-
cally relevant employment opportunities.
Build upon the momentum you have now
to seek out and take on new experiences.
We hope this article will serve as a help-
ful resource in directing your attention
toward some important considerations
when deciding whether to take a gap year.
Ambiguity and uncertainty about these
career decisions are common at this stage.
A leap of faith is required in making any
major life decision, including entering a
graduate program, and you are not
expected to have mapped out your exact
career trajectory prior to entering graduate
school. Be aware of any tendencies you
may have to be too critical (or perhaps not
critical enough) of your qualifications. If
you otherwise feel ready to apply to gradu-
ate school, but are unsure whether your
credentials would merit acceptance into a
competitive program, you may consider
applying with a backup plan in mind if you
are not accepted. In sum, remember that
there are no right or wrong choices, but
giving careful consideration to the idea of a
gap year may help you to improve your
long-term success in the field of clinical
psychology.

September •2017 217
IRRITABILITY IN YOUTH
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spective on applying to graduate school in
(clinical) psychology: A step-by-step
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unc.edu/files/2013/10/TipsForApplying-
ToGradSchool.pdf
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M., (2006). Graduate Admissions in Psy-
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https://cms.bsu.edu/-/media/WWW/
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Norcross, J. C., & Sayette, M. A. (2016).
Insider's guide to graduate programs in
clinical and counseling psychology.New
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...
The authors have no conflicts of interest or
funding to disclose.
Correspondence to Molly R. Franz,
Department of Psychology, 238 Burnett
Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588;
MollyRFranz@gmail.com
ABriefBackground
By age 10, “James” had a long history of fre-
quent, severe temper outbursts—at home, at
school, and with peers. His parents described
themselves “walking on eggshells” con-
stantly, so as not to frustrate him with
demands. He wasn’t asked to do household
chores. Getting James to complete his home-
work was a laborious task for everyone in
the family. Family jaunts outside the home
were infrequent. More often than not James
woke up cranky and grumpy, and this irri-
table mood sometimes continued through-
out the day as he was easily annoyed or pro-
voked by others, especially at school. At age
4, he had been asked to leave preschool
because of his behavior. With his current
classmates he was typically inflexible (e.g.,
arguing that other kids should do things his
way). These struggles made it difficult for
James to make and keep friends; rarely was
he invited on playdates. He often felt guilty
and remorseful about his behaviors, espe-
cially toward his parents, and hedesperately
wanted close friends. At the same time, he
couldn’t imagine being any other way.
Irritability is one of the most common pre-
senting problems for which children and
adolescents are referred to treatment (e.g.,
Collishaw et al., 2010; Peterson et al., 1996).
Chronic, severe irritability in early life con-
fers risk for other forms of psychopathol-
ogy (e.g., anxiety, unipolar depression),
functional impairment, and suicidality in
adulthood (e.g., Copeland et al., 2014;
Nock et al., 2007; Pickles et al., 2010). In
brief, irritability constitutes a prevalent,
substantial public health burden.
However, irritability has come into the
research spotlight relatively recently. In the
1990s, there was controversy surrounding
the diagnosis of bipolar disorder in chil-
dren and whether chronic, nonepisodic
irritability may be a developmental presen-
tation of bipolar disorder. Leibenluft and
colleagues (Leibenluft et al., 2003; reviewed
in Leibenluft, 2011) addressed this noso-
logical debate by operationalizing symp-
tom criteria for chronic, severe irritability
and directly examining whether it is indeed
apresentationofbipolardisorderinyouth.
This work demonstrated that youth with
chronic, severe irritability differed from
youth with classically defined bipolar dis-
order (i.e., clearly demarcated episodes of
mania or hypomania) on longitudinal
course, family psychiatric history, and key
brain and behavioral measures. Collec-
tively this work supported that irritability is
not a developmental presentation of bipo-
lar disorder, and facilitated the scientific
study of irritability in its own right. In addi-
tion, this work informed the development
of the DSM-5 diagnosis, disruptive mood
dysregulation disorder (DMDD), intended
to characterize children such as James for
improved evaluation and treatment.
SCIENCE FORUM
Irritability in Youth: Expert Perspectives
on the State of the Science
Katharina Kircanski, Emotion and Development Branch, National
Institute of Mental Health
CONTRIBUTORS:MelissaA.Brotman,Neuroscience and Novel Therapeutics, Emotion
and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health;ChristenM.Deveney,
Wellesley College;FrancheskaPerepletchikova,Weill Cornell Medical College;
Amy K. Roy, Fordham University;DenisG.Sukhodolsky,Child Study Center,
Yale University School of Medicine