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The influence of human capital factors and context on women's entrepreneurship: Which matters more?
Abstract
This paper explores whether human capital factors (education and perceived capabilities) or contextual factors (economic and political settings) explain differential start-up rates between men and women entrepreneurs, connecting data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) with the World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap. Results show that the effects of economic participation and entrepreneurship specific human capital (perceived capabilities) both play a role influencing the start-up rates of women entrepreneurs.
... Previous articles have discussed several traditional longterm problems. Examples are the lower rates of women entrepreneurship than men [14,26,[34][35][36], emphasis on masculine phenomena of entrepreneurship [14], gender inequality [27,34], and religious susceptibility [27,37]. From another aspect, women entrepreneurs have several advantages, such as identification of market gaps by using feminine characteristics [38]; bringing innovation, particularly in service, from sensitivity to market needs [39]; undeveloped economic resources [39]; important contributors to the economy [35]; and the possibility to change social perceptions of women [27]. ...
... Examples are the lower rates of women entrepreneurship than men [14,26,[34][35][36], emphasis on masculine phenomena of entrepreneurship [14], gender inequality [27,34], and religious susceptibility [27,37]. From another aspect, women entrepreneurs have several advantages, such as identification of market gaps by using feminine characteristics [38]; bringing innovation, particularly in service, from sensitivity to market needs [39]; undeveloped economic resources [39]; important contributors to the economy [35]; and the possibility to change social perceptions of women [27]. A consistent concept in previous women entrepreneurship articles is the importance of women joining economic activities. ...
... In the GSM survey, these are expressed as internal and external factors, as already described in the former section. Regarding internal factors, Brush et al. [35] regarded human capital as consisting of education, experience, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions and thought women have the disadvantage of such human capital. Moreover, the entrepreneurship rate does not increase without selfconfidence [35]. ...
The concept of Inclusive Entrepreneurship was raised in the European region to involve underestimated people in the economy. The research on inclusive entrepreneurship has focused on the impetus for starting a business and the comparison of regions. Although these studies are active in Europe, they have not yet been widely reported in Asia. The importance of the Asian economy is increasing because of the large influence of the Chinese and Indian population. To compare entrepreneurial activities of the regional differences and trends in India, Indonesia, China, South Korea, and Japan, 3 types of data are used. Those are GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) data, Basic national data by the United Nation, and the Hofstede measure. The analysis focused on Women entrepreneurship and Youth entrepreneurship in inclusive entrepreneurship. The differences between Women and Youth are clarified. Different types of trends also appeared in 5 countries. The environment for inclusive entrepreneurship depends on the nationality and the group. In intentions of Asian people for inclusive entrepreneurs, Female TEA (Total early-stage Entrepreneurial Activity) in India is the highest, and entrepreneurial intention is relatively higher. However, Chinese and Japanese people’s entrepreneurial intentions are very low. Asian governments’ policy for inclusive entrepreneurship also varies. Entrepreneurial Finance and Social and Cultural Norms in India and Indonesia are effective for both of Females and Youth. Chinese and Japanese governmental support would not be enough to raise Female and Youth TEA. Keywords Inclusive entrepreneurship; Global entrepreneurship monitor; Woman entrepreneurship; Youth entrepreneurship
... Becker's (1964) human capital theory emphasizes the importance of education and training in fostering entrepreneurial growth and economic success. In entrepreneurship, human capital encompasses skills, knowledge and experience needed to identify and exploit business opportunities and to foster entrepreneurial alertness and endeavors (Dutta and Sobel, 2018;Brush et al., 2017;Tang and Murphy, 2012). Strong human capital supports entrepreneurs in creating comprehensive business plans, managing risks and strategically positioning long-term ventures (Baum et al., 2001). ...
... Perceived human capital involves individuals' self-assessment of their skills and capabilities (Gielnik et al., 2020;Brush et al., 2017). It is influenced by subjective perceptions and confidence in one's abilities, which can shape entrepreneurial motivation and actions. ...
... Those who believe they have the necessary skills and knowledge to start a business are more inclined to seek and use financial resources for entrepreneurship (Hartog et al., 2010) and thus provide confidence to undertake the risk of entrepreneurship (Maczulskij and Viinikainen, 2023;Liao and Welsch, 2008;Reynolds et al., 2005). Empirical evidence shows that perceived entrepreneurial ability motivates individuals to take concrete actions, transitioning from the idea phase to entrepreneurship success (Bachmann et al., 2021;Gielnik et al., 2020;Townsend et al., 2010;McGee et al., 2009), especially among women (Brush et al., 2017). Recent cross-country analyses using GEM data by Yusuf et al. (2024) and Ali et al. (2023) further confirm that self-perceived capabilities are associated with greater growth in business start-ups across a range of countries. ...
Purpose
This study aims to reexamine the moderating role of human capital on the effect of extended financial inclusion (FI) for entrepreneurship, using data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor for a sample of 42 countries from 2006 to 2017.
Design/methodology/approach
This study distinguished between actual and perceived human capital. Actual human capital was measured through formal education while perceived human capital was captured by self-perceived capabilities for business start-ups. The moderating role of human capital was captured by the interaction terms between FI and human capital to investigate how the effects of FI on entrepreneurship vary with levels of human capital. The estimation used the panel-corrected standard error estimators and the two-step system generalized method of moments estimators.
Findings
Higher levels of formal education decrease the positive effect of extended FI on entrepreneurial activities. Individuals with high levels of self-capability do not leverage FI for entrepreneurial activities as much as those with lower levels of perceived capability. The results are robust to different estimation methods and different forms of actual human capital.
Research limitations/implications
Both financial and human capital matter for new business formation worldwide. The findings suggest that FI policies must account for the decreasing effect in response to high levels of human capital. Future research should explore different measures of entrepreneurial performance, various types of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship across gender groups to gain deeper insights into strategies for promoting entrepreneurship.
Practical implications
Education strategies should focus on specific types of education, such as entrepreneurship education with financial literacy, rather than traditional academic curriculum, to foster entrepreneurship knowledge, skills and creativity. Likewise, entrepreneurship support schemes should aim to nurture and share appropriate levels of self-efficacy, avoiding excessively high self-efficacy, which is deleterious to the benefits of FI for entrepreneurial activities.
Originality/value
This study offers novel evidence of the decreasing effects of FI on entrepreneurial activities in response to increased actual and perceived human capital.
... Los antecedentes teóricos sobre este tema han evidenciado la relación significa�va entre el capital humano y la compe��vidad de las empresas (Brush et al., 2017;Capelleras et al., 2019;Fernández Alvarado et al., 2022;Spitsina et al., 2022) también han demostrado que se requiere de una capacidad de innovación para establecer mejores resultados compe��vos (Mendoza-Arvizo y Solís-Rodríguez, 2022; Chaniago, 2022) Sin embargo a par�r de la pandemia es importante explicar la relación de estas variables en entornos digitales, en sectores industriales vulnerables como el turismo y en contextos sudamericanos de ciudades patrimoniales de menos de 300.000 habitantes. El presente trabajo de inves�gación pretende llenar este vacío de conocimiento aplicando un modelo cogni�vo en el cual se toma a la capacidad de innovación como una variable mediadora. ...
... En el caso concreto de este artículo, el capital humano está considerado como la educación adquirida y el conocimiento que los gerentes propietarios de las operadoras de turismo bolivianas acumulan por experiencia ya sea general por trayectoria profesional o experiencia específica en la industria turística (Brush et al., 2017;Capelleras et al., 2019;Fernández-Alvarado et al., 2022;Khan et al., 2023) La decisión de innovar en los procesos productivos está ligada al fortalecimiento de acciones que promuevan el conocimiento, por lo que el constante aprendizaje o el desarrollo del capital humano permite a las empresas mantenerse competitivas en el mercado (Mendoza-Arvizo y Solís-Rodríguez, 2022) y dar respuesta a los cambios tecnológicos y presiones comerciales del sector industrial en el cual se desenvuelven (Onufrey y Bergek, 2021). Así, el proceso secuencial de la innovación comienza con el conocimiento y la concepción de una idea creativa, para luego seguir estrategias hasta su implementación (Hyvärinen et al., 2020). ...
... dad de innovación, mientras que esta misma variable tiene un efecto de 0,63 con la competitividad empresarial. La variable capital humano, presenta un efecto total calculado de 0,61 con la capacidad de innovación, este resultado se puede valorar como grande, lo cual coincide con estudios que han medido de manera específica esta relación tales como Brush,et. al. (2017); Junejo et al. (2009) y Mendoza-Arvizo y Solís-Rodríguez (2022). Además, el capital humano tiene una relación indirecta con la competitividad empresarial a través de la capacidad de innovación tal como lo plantean Milbratz et. al. (2020) Además de acuerdo a la literatura y en consecuencia del resultado de la prueba de hipótesis mostrada ...
Este trabajo de investigación parte de la hipótesis de que existe una relación significativa entre el desarrollo del capital humano, la capacidad de innovación y la competitividad empresarial. Con este fin se ha propuesto medir la relación de tres variables respondiendo al interrogante: ¿Cuál es la influencia que tienen el capital humano y la capacidad de innovación para lograr la competitividad empresarial en las operadoras de turismo bolivianas? Para ello se han analizado 33 empresas operadoras de turismo en la ciudad de Sucre en Bolivia. El estudio es de enfoque cuantitativo, transversal y aplica modelos de ecuaciones estructurales basadas en el enfoque PLS (PLS-MEE). Los principales resultados evidencian una relación significativa entre las tres variables, la capacidad de innovación cumple un papel mediador siendo su efecto mayor sobre la competitividad empresarial en comparación al efecto del capital humano; lo que implica que las empresas, del sector estudiado, deben tomar mayor atención en el desarrollo de esta última variable.
... Therefore, the decision to start a business depends on perceived confidence about one's skills, knowledge, and ability to succeed in entrepreneurial behaviour (Arafat & Saleem 2017;Shapero & Sokol 1982;Liao et al. 2023). However, more research is needed on the extent to which perceived entrepreneurial abilities are gender-equal and how this relates to start-up business (Brush et al. 2017). ...
... In response to recent calls for research (Brush et al. 2017;Cheraghi, Adsbøll Wickstrøm & Klyver 2019;Sánchez-Escobedo et al. 2016), we used secondary data collected for Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) from the years 2003, 2009, 2015, and 2021 in order to get closer to this phenomenon in Finland. The study aimed to clarify the gender gap in entrepreneurship potential in Finland during recent decades, taking into account different age groups. ...
... At the individual level, entrepreneurship is a trade-off, but as this study is focused on the population level, we have taken entrepreneurship as a positive phenomenon for society and societal well-being (see e.g. Brush et al. 2017). ...
The gender gap in entrepreneurship is a widely recognized phenomenon meaning that women are less likely to start a business than men. However, increased gender equality is believed to remove barriers to female entrepreneurship. We used secondary data collected for Global Entrepreneurship Monitor from 2003, 2009, 2015, and 2021 to get closer to this phenomenon in Finland, one of the most equal countries in the world. The aim of the study was to clarify the gender gap in entrepreneurship potential in Finland during recent decades, taking into account different age groups. We found that the gender gap exists in business start-up intentions and has not narrowed in the twenty-first century in any age group. A clear gender gap was also found in fear of failure in starting a business and perceived skills in entrepreneurship. Finally, the underlying causes of the gender gap in the Finnish context are discussed.
... This work contributes to the design of entrepreneurship courses and enables instructors to develop specific competencies in students, helping them to enhance confidence and beliefs about their entrepreneurial abilities (Brush et al., 2017;Morris et al., 2013). This paper begins by exploring the theoretical foundations of research on entrepreneurial competencies, perceived entrepreneurial competencies, and related gender differences. ...
... Our research contributes to refining tailored entrepreneurship courses designed to promote specific entrepreneurial competencies among students while nurturing their confidence and belief in their entrepreneurial abilities (Brush et al., 2017;Morris et al., 2013). ...
... This study examines gender differences in students' perceived entrepreneurial competencies, investigating key competencies to understand the factors driving or inhibiting specific entrepreneurial behaviors. This deeper exploration also contributes to the development of tailored entrepreneurship courses aimed at nurturing specific competencies within students and cultivating their confidence and beliefs in their entrepreneurial abilities (Brush et al. 2017;Morris et al. 2013). Integrating experiential learning approaches and competency-based programs aimed at nurturing perceived entrepreneurial competencies can empower aspiring entrepreneurs, enabling them to translate their business ideas into tangible opportunities. ...
This study addresses a research gap in understanding the gender dimensions of perceived entrepreneurial competencies among undergraduate and MBA entrepreneurship students. It aims to unravel the underlying abilities shaping these competencies and explore potential gender variations in perceptions, ultimately contributing to the enhancement of entrepreneurship courses. The research uses quantitative and qualitative methods to gather data from students who participated in entrepreneurship courses over four years. A competency survey, rooted in Morris et al.'s framework, captures self-assessments of entrepreneurial competencies. The study complements these quantitative findings with a systematic analysis of students' self-reflections, providing a comprehensive understanding of perceived competencies and potential gender differences. The research identifies specific entrepreneurial competencies-opportunity recognition and conveying a compelling vision-and their underlying abilities perceived as crucial by male and female students. It explores the extent to which gender influences these perceptions. The dual-method approach enriches insights, offering a nuanced understanding of how competencies are perceived and varying influences based on gender. This research uniquely explores the intricate dynamics of perceived entrepreneurial compe-tencies, taking gender variations into account. It contributes to entrepreneurship course design and assessment, fostering students' belief in entrepreneurial abilities and significantly contributing to self-concept development.
... In an entrepreneurial context, people leverage both strong and weak ties for immediately relevant and novel ideas respectively to start and grow their businesses. In addition, family involvement and/or encouragement (Aldrich and Cliff 2003) and economic factors as well as a desire to improve the lives of families (Brush et al. 2017) has been shown to be an important entrepreneurial motivator. In such cases, it is not uncommon for family members to become involved in the business venture by contributing advice, time and effort, or providing startup capital and other resources, by sharing ownership or by acting as employees and helpers in the business venture (Kotha and George 2012). ...
... Prior literature on entrepreneurship reveals that women are as or more likely to be entrepreneurs as men (Brush et al. 2017). However, women face greater challenges then men when attempting to venture into business due to various societal, institutional, and regulatory restrictions. ...
... Prior research has established family obligations to be a career motivator (DeMartino and Barbato 2003) which our study found to be true for men but negatively so in the case of entrepreneurship. Research also shows that male entrepreneurs are motivated by economic reasons more than female entrepreneurs (Brush et al. 2017). Thus, our results would suggest that having a family and desiring to provide for them would be a negative motivator for male entrepreneurs. ...
Social media is ubiquitous and continuously evolving. This study investigates the impact of social media on the intention toward entrepreneurship/self-employment. Further, we explore the moderating effect of social media on the relationships between women, self-efficacy and leisure activities on intention toward entrepreneurship/self-employment using a survey-based dataset. We find that the ability to take advantage of social media within an entrepreneurial context does not necessarily mean that an individual is propelled towards entrepreneurship, however proactive individuals are able to exhibit this characteristic, as are creative women. A counter-intuitive finding is that entrepreneurship and conventional organizational employment choices are not mutually exclusive. While risk aversion inhibits entrepreneurship as expected, contextual conditions such as being married or being employed affects men and women differently.
... Subjective factors like the entrepreneur's individual or family characteristics directly impact the entrepreneurial process and outcomes (Coniglio & Brzozowski, 2018;Huang, 2023;Qing et al., 2021;Ward, 2017). Meanwhile, objective factors such as policy support and institutional environment indirectly influence these processes and outcomes (Brush et al., 2017;Lim et al., 2010;Liu et al., 2010). Notably, MWE, as a significant personal trait, can enhance a farmer's resource endowment, thereby increasing their likelihood of RHE (Brush et al., 2017). ...
... Meanwhile, objective factors such as policy support and institutional environment indirectly influence these processes and outcomes (Brush et al., 2017;Lim et al., 2010;Liu et al., 2010). Notably, MWE, as a significant personal trait, can enhance a farmer's resource endowment, thereby increasing their likelihood of RHE (Brush et al., 2017). However, existing research has insufficiently focused on the impact of MWE on farmers' RHE. ...
... In indirect studies on the relationship between MWE and RHE, existing literature, grounded in Resource-Based Theory, posits that the accumulation of economic, human, and social capital during migration serves as a vital mediating mechanism (Brush et al., 2017;Li et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2010;Qing et al., 2021). Scholars applying Push-Pull Theory argue that both migration and return entrepreneurship are influenced by the destination's pull, the origin's push, and intermediate barriers (Lee, 1966;Van Hear et al., 2018). ...
Migrant workers play a crucial role as potential entrepreneurs in enhancing the quality and efficiency of rural revitalization, garnering widespread attention from both the academic and practical realms. Our paper utilizes micro-survey data from 542 farmers collected by our research team from 2021 to 2022 and employs experimental economics methods to measure farmers’ cognitive abilities (CA) and risk preferences (RP). It systematically examines the impact and mechanisms of migration work experience (MWE) on migrant workers’ return home for entrepreneurship (RHE). The findings reveal that MWE promotes farmers’ participation in RHE. This conclusion remains robust after addressing endogeneity issues through robustness checks and instrumental variable methods. Further mechanism exploration indicates that MWE can enhance farmers’ CA, thereby increasing their likelihood of engaging in RHE. Additionally, RP strengthens the positive effect of MWE on farmers’ participation in RHE. These findings not only provide theoretical evidence for migrant workers’ involvement in RHE but also offer valuable insights for stimulating endogenous entrepreneurial vitality in rural areas and achieving rural revitalization.
... This linkage is not always clear to business owners, who often ignore this need, placing others as priorities. According to Brush (2017), based on a dominant view of the economy and entrepreneurship management, entrepreneurial literature is guided by three pillars: Market, Money, and Management. Since personal, economic, and life experiences are essential for identifying appropriate business opportunities, it also seems reasonable to consider gender differences (Bullough et al., 2017;Solesvik et al., 2019). ...
... For Brush (2017), the theory should be expanded to 5 pillars to include latently present areas when discussing the entrepreneurial woman. The fourth pillar would be Maternity, covering the entire family's services and care for the home. ...
... In that case, they will have the same probability of starting a venture. Furthermore, the perception of entrepreneurship plays an even more relevant role than the levels of education in filling the gap between genders within entrepreneurship (Brush, 2017). ...
Female entrepreneurship plays a central role in economic and social development; as a research topic, it has attracted attention from several areas. Work and research on female entrepreneurship are predominantly oriented from the perspective
of the roles socially attributed to women. This research is based on Organizational Theory and aims to analyze entrepreneurship-related competencies, developing an integrative framework between macro-skills from scientific literature and the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Through a systematic review of
the literature and applying a questionnaire, in which the data was subjected to cluster analysis using the agglomerative method, it was possible to develop a new proposal for grouping female
entrepreneurial skills. The results contribute to the literature on female entrepreneurship and to discussions of gender and equality in organizations, stimulating new policies and
strategies for the development of female entrepreneurship
... Entrepreneurship thrives in supportive environments (Dheer et al., 2019). However, for women, social and institutional barriers often add to the liabilities of doing business that weaken venturing aspirations (Brush et al., 2017). This study delves into how gendered institutions, encompassing economic, political, educational and health dimensions, interact with societal perceptions of failure to influence the early-stage female entrepreneurship. ...
... In many countries, the existence of gendered institutions is very evident from the gaps in labor force participation rates for women and in the wage inequality for similar work performed by women and men (World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report, 2020). We argue that gendered institutional environments (Brush et al., 2017) affect the legitimacy of entrepreneurial efforts and, very importantly, the participation of women entrepreneurs in entrepreneurship activity (Wang et al., 2019). ...
... Of particular interest have been the effects of institutions on the entry and growth decisions of women entrepreneurs (Henry et al., 2016;Reutzel et al., 2023;Simmons et al., 2019). In many societies, the under-representation of women in economic, political, educational and health institutions has been shown to negatively impact the legitimacy and start-up activities of women entrepreneurs (Brush et al., 2017). In fact, negative social judgments and gender disparities are important concerns for countries focused on stimulating wealth and job creation through entrepreneurship activity (Matricano, 2022;Terjesen et al., 2016;Vracheva and Stoyneva, 2020). ...
Purpose
In this study, we question: how do the social costs of failure interact with gendered institutions to affect the early stage entrepreneurship activity? We address this question by employing the institutional theory and a unique dataset of 286,989 entrepreneurs across 35 countries.
Design/methodology/approach
To test our hypotheses, we use a multilevel modeling analysis that nests individual entrepreneurs within the countries. To capture individual and country-level variables, we constructed a unique dataset that combines data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), European Flash Barometer (EUFB), World Bank Development Indicator (WDI), World Bank Doing Business Report (WBDB) and World Economic Forum (WEF).
Findings
Our analysis confirms that higher levels of the country-level gender equality positively correlate with the early-stage entrepreneurship activity of women. Moreover, we find that this positive relationship is amplified in institutional environments with high social costs of failure, suggesting that societal intolerance for failure can exacerbate the negative effect of gender inequality on the participation of women in entrepreneurship.
Research limitations/implications
Our research contributes to academic interest on the role of legitimacy in women entrepreneurship and is of particular interest to international business scholars, seeking a better understanding of multidimensional construction of institutional frameworks across countries. In this study, we set out to address an important research question: how do the social costs of failure interact with gendered institutions to affect entrepreneurship activity? Our study provides a comprehensive portrait of gendered institutions by including the framework conditions of education, healthcare and political power. We found that in societies with gender equality, the likelihood of individuals engaging in the early-stage entrepreneurship activity is higher and that the positive relationship is strengthened in national environments with high social costs of failure.
Practical implications
Our study findings underscore the need for government policies addressing global gender gaps in economic empowerment. In particular, policies assisting women in obtaining education in high-growth industries like information technology or providing funding to women-dominated industries may foster activity for women seeking to do business in such industries. Such policies connect the early-stage entrepreneurship activities with gender equality concerns and initiatives.
Social implications
Regarding the social costs of failure construct, specifically, prior studies generally focus narrowly on the context of failed entrepreneurs. We cast a wider net on men and women entrepreneurs’ entry decisions (irrespective of prior experience with business failure) and provide new views on the effects of social costs of failure on entrepreneurial ecosystems. We also extend the research on the legitimacy of women as entrepreneurs with the gender equality construct.
Originality/value
Unlike previous studies, which often focus on the “3Ms” of market, money and management, our research adopts a more holistic perspective. We recognize that the opportunities and challenges faced by entrepreneurs are shaped not only by individual skills and resources but also by the broader macroenvironment. By incorporating the framework conditions of education, healthcare and political power, alongside the intricate interplay of social costs and norms, our study paints a comprehensive picture of the landscape of female entrepreneurship.
... Female immigrant entrepreneurs face added barriers such as work-family balance and lack of business training (Ramadani et al., 2013(Ramadani et al., , 2015, the absence in family businesses and child support systems and stereotyping (Meyer, 2018). Hence, a favourable context narrows the gap between immigrant males and females regarding entrepreneurship (Brieger and Gielnik, 2020). ...
... Collins (2008) rejects the unsophisticated discrimination point of view that female immigrants are undereducated and claims that in some cases, they have much higher human capital than the typical native woman. Empirical research also shows that when work experience and education parity is assumed, no significant differences can be found between male and female entrepreneurs (Brush et al., 2017). Moreover, perceived capabilities (self-efficacy) can be linked to entrepreneurial social identity, whereby females may consider themselves less likely to be founders or owners of a business. ...
... Women are likely to perceive themselves less as founders, and therefore have lower confidence in their skills, resulting in lower starting rates (Verheul et al., 2005). These results also suggest that immigrants, and especially immigrant women, are more likely to start their business if the local entrepreneurial context is close to parity between men and women (Brush et al., 2017). Bank (2020) The relationship between the parity of women and men in TEA and the percentage of immigrant businesses is illustrated in Figure 1. ...
This study examines the relationship between female entrepreneurship, immigrant entrepreneurship, and the entrepreneurial context. The primary objective is to investigate the extent to which the host country's entrepreneurial context accounts for differences in the start-up rates of immigrant entrepreneurs. The lack of research on immigrant entrepreneurship makes it challenging to capture changes in this phenomenon. A quantitative approach using Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data was adopted to determine the relationship between women's/men's entrepreneurship parity ratios and the degree of immigrant entrepreneurship in different countries. Linear regression (OLS) models showed that differences in female/male entrepreneurship indicators (fear of failure and early-stage entrepreneurship activity) significantly impacted the proportion of immigrant entrepreneurs in different countries. The findings suggest that immigrant women can considerably increase the proportion of new businesses in countries where women are more entrepreneurial. However, these new firms are more likely to be driven by necessity as opposed to opportunity.
... Entrepreneurship scholarship suggests that relationships between entrepreneurs facilitate the acquisition of novel ideas, consequently enabling those with extensive networks to more readily establish new ventures [68]. For women entrepreneurs, the recent literature has indicated that networks with other entrepreneurs can significantly contribute to new venture creation [73]. Furthermore, women entrepreneurs often require specific technical skills that can be acquired through interactions with established entrepreneurs. ...
... This finding aligns with work emphasizing the significance of role models and peer impact in fostering entrepreneurial intention [59]. The significant impact of networking mirrors observations from industrialized countries, such as the United States, where mentorship and access to entrepreneurial ecosystems are essential [73]. ...
Saudi Vision 2030, a strategic framework aimed at diversifying the economy and enhancing societal inclusivity, aligns with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by promoting gender equality and sustainable economic growth. Sustainability is central to fostering women’s entrepreneurship, as it drives social equity, economic diversification, and innovation, elements which are crucial to sustainable development. While the existing literature has primarily focused on women’s entrepreneurship in the Western world, limited attention has been given to its development in the Global South, particularly in Saudi Arabia. As a nation undergoing transformative social, cultural, and economic shifts, women entrepreneurs play a critical role in aligning entrepreneurial efforts with global sustainability goals. This research investigates the factors influencing Saudi women to become entrepreneurs, specifically examining the factors that inspire or hinder them from creating their own ventures. Drawing upon cognitive and social capital theories, which have proven their soundness in the existing literature, this research utilizes a dataset of 1715 women entrepreneurs analyzed through binomial logistic regression. The findings indicate that social desirability, relational capital, experience as angel investors, age, income, and education significantly increase the likelihood of women’s entrepreneurship. By contextualizing women’s entrepreneurship within Saudi Arabia’s evolving societal and economic landscape, this research highlights their potential as drivers of inclusive growth and sustainable economic empowerment. Furthermore, the research outlines strategies to enhance women’s entrepreneurial participation, contributing both to the entrepreneurship literature and the realization of Saudi Vision 2030.
... One key area of gender difference in entrepreneurship is motivation. Brush et al. (2017) found that women entrepreneurs often have different motivations for starting businesses compared to their male counterparts. While men were more likely to be motivated by financial gains and autonomy, women frequently cited work-life balance and social impact as primary motivators. ...
... This finding is consistent with studies like Brush et al. (2017), who found that women entrepreneurs often have different motivations and face unique challenges compared to their male counterparts. It also aligns with the work of Hechavarr ıa et al. (2018), who highlighted the persistent gender gaps in entrepreneurial activity across different economies. ...
This study examines the role of gender in entrepreneurship education and its influence on business success in the city of Barranquilla, Colombia. The research question focuses on gender-specific patterns of participation in entrepreneurship education programs and the impact on business growth. Two hypotheses are tested to explore differences in program access between men and women and the relationship between education participation and business success for both genders. Data from 89 participants were analyzed using chi-square tests, t-tests, and regression analysis. The findings suggest gender-specific differences in program access and a positive relationship between education participation and business success, with varying effects based on gender. The study highlights the importance of promoting gender diversity in entrepreneurship education to foster an inclusive and supportive entrepreneurial ecosystem in Barranquilla.
... Motivated by existing research and managerial practices, we integrated the entrepreneurial alertness literature (Tang et al., 2012) and institutional theory (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983;Scott, 2013) to put forward the mediating role of entrepreneurial alertness in bridging the link between voluntary sector employment and entrepreneurial intentions (See Figure 1), while also examine contingent roles of two societal culture, benevolence and egalitarianism. With a multilevel and multi-year dataset from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) survey and two additional country-level archival datasets, we use Propensity Score Matching (PSM) and multilevel logistic regression analyses to test the conceptual model (Boudreaux et al., 2019;Brush et al., 2017;Ye et al., 2021;Zacharakis et al., 1999). ...
... The primary data source is the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Adult Population Survey (GEM APS), widely recognized as one of the most comprehensive and reliable cross-country comparable dataset for studying individual entrepreneurial intention and behavior (Goltz et al., 2015) and has been widely used in academic research on entrepreneurship (Boudreaux et al., 2019;Brush et al., 2017;Deng et al., 2023;Ye et al., 2021). The GEM APS conducts random sampling of at least 2,000 individuals from the adult population (aged 18-64) across participating countries to investigate the entrepreneurial motivations, behaviors, and outcomes of individuals (Deng et al., 2024). ...
This study addresses how voluntary sector employment can enhance an individual’s general entrepreneurial alertness and intentions. Specifically, it examines the mediating role of entrepreneurial alertness and the moderating role of the societal values of benevolence and egalitarianism, across several countries. We tested the model using a larger dataset of 457,407 country-year matched samples based on Propensity Score Matching (PSM) to alleviate endogeneity and selection bias from 38 countries/regions spanning 2015–2019. Results reveal that individuals with voluntary sector experience are more alert to recognizing entrepreneurial opportunities, and this relationship is amplified in societies with strong benevolence and egalitarian values. Consequently, this research advances the theoretical understanding of opportunity and provides actionable implications for individuals navigating the intersection of voluntary work and entrepreneurship.
... RBV makes it easier to comprehend how gender differences in access to school and employment opportunities affect the human capital that female entrepreneurs accumulate (Kyrgidou et al., 2021). Understanding the role of human capital in RBV allows academics to investigate how women's capacity to take advantage of entrepreneurial possibilities is aided or hindered by their professional and educational backgrounds (Brush et al., 2017;Pimpa, 2021). ...
... the research that looked into how access to funding, human capital, and financial capital affected the success of male and female entrepreneurs is also covered in this theme. It also looks at the value of gender diversity in top management teams (tMts) and how it affects business success (Brush et al., 2017;Goel & Göktepe-hultén, 2019). With a focus on the economic activities of SMes and start-ups in many locations, including africa, China, Ghana, Norway, South africa, and the United States, as emphasised by studies in the recent past, this issue strives to resolve inequities and promote diversity in entrepreneurship (adom & asare-Yeboa, 2016;Coleman et al., 2019). ...
Entrepreneurship has been at the centre of societal advancement and economic development, and the intersectionality of gender within entrepreneurial discourses continues to be a fascinating topic for researchers. In order to explore the complex terrain of gendered entrepreneurial discourses, this study offers a thorough bibliometric analysis. Through synthesis and analysis of n = 2098 selected academic published research papers compiled from the Scopus and WOS databases, this study mapped the intellectual landscape, identified significant topics, and uncovered trends in the field’s progression. This study aims to review the scholarly discourses on gender and entrepreneurship and pave the path for future research in this domain. Advanced bibliometric techniques, such as co-citation analysis, co-occurrence of keywords, and co-word analysis, are included in the methodology. The research’s first perspective helps the researchers understand gender and entrepreneurship and their interlinkages, promoting a more cohesive and supportive academic community. The second perspective this research highlighted is the co-word analysis done in VOS viewer from where the themes were derived. The thematic analysis unveiled four distinct clusters within the gendered entrepreneurship literature, highlighting prevalent themes such as access to finance, the prevalence of gendered inequalities in the entrepreneurial ecosystem, societal perceptions, and policy interventions. Furthermore, the study traces the chronological evolution of these themes, providing insights into how scholarly attention has shifted over time and building the foundations for future research.
... noted that entrepreneurship is a means of economic development and social mobility. Unfortunately, for women entrepreneurs in disadvantaged societies, this path is still littered with barriers to realizing their dreams (Brush et al., 2019). New data from Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2022) shows that female entrepreneurship is rising worldwide. ...
This qualitative study presents the perceived merits and obstacles
of capacity-building programs for women entrepreneurs in
disadvantaged communities based on data collected through a brief
survey during the training program from a pool of 150 participants.
The study examines how such programs play a role in skill
enhancement, business development, and the empowerment of
marginalized women within their communities. Broad themes
emerging from the data were increased financial literacy, improved
self-esteem, networking opportunities, and external barriers such
as limited access to capital and socio-cultural limitations. The
results point to the transformative power of such tailored
entrepreneurial training but also emphasize the need for tailored
support systems that can further enhance the injection of long
term benefits. This study presents some lessons for policymakers,
development organizations, and educators interested in creating
more inclusive and effective capacity-building interventions for
underserved women entrepreneurs.
Keywords: Women entrepreneurs, capacity building, underserved
communities, qualitative study, empowerment, business training
... This idea demonstrates the monetary worth that people can gain from their schooling, learning, and hands-on experiences (Goldin, 2024). Human capital comprises elements like education, technical and soft skills, intellectual abilities, and innovation, all influencing productivity and efficiency across different sectors (Brush et al., 2017). Human capital plays a crucial role in economic and social progress by empowering individuals to adjust to labor market changes and support institutional development effectively (Weinstein, 2022). ...
Due to evolving business environments and heightened competition, human capital management (HCM) is encountering new challenges in adopting advanced digital technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), necessitating a delicate balance between addressing these challenges and promoting organizational growth and development. The objective of this research is to pinpoint the challenges encountered when utilizing AI technologies in HCM within the Saudi Communications, Space, and Technology Commission (CST). This study utilizes a qualitative method that includes a literature review on the subject. The results showed various challenges hindering the implementation of AI in HCM on a global scale, which can be categorized into methodological, societal, and technological challenges. In the Saudi context, and within the CST, five main challenges of using AI in HCM were identified, including data privacy, data security, automation, social acceptance, and lack of professional competencies. According to the results of this research, it can be inferred that utilizing AI technology in HCM, if done properly, has the potential to unlock featured opportunities at the CST. It is recommended to conduct further research on developing a feasible framework for incorporating AI into HCM.
... It focused on women entrepreneurs, their characteristics, psychology, motivation, and network issues in developed countries like the US, Canada, and the UK. It can emphasize studies from Latin America, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe on immigrant and rural women entrepreneurs in international reviews and studies (Brush et al., 2017;Ewoh, 2014;Ahl, 2006). This review focused on the characteristics of female entrepreneurs. ...
According to GEM, women entrepreneurs should know where to invest their money , time, and resources. Entrepreneurship is seen as a good career choice, with 18-64-year-olds worldwide showing interest in starting their businesses. This study focuses on the backgrounds, socioeconomic status, and motivations of rural women entrepreneurs, exploring gender disparities and the challenges faced by solopre-neurs. It examines how these women overcome challenges in their personal lives and businesses, as well as their role in boosting economic development. Strategies adopted by rural women entrepreneurs to succeed in their ventures and how they manage savings from business earnings are also explored. Additionally, the study considers the impact of government schemes and programs in supporting women 76 entrepreneurs. Using a mixed-method descriptive research design and convenience sampling, the study includes 66 participants.
... When individuals perceive structural advantages in their own conditions (such as gender and access to resources), their cognitive empathy is more likely to be transformed into a positive bridging effect on the segmentations in teacherstudent entrepreneurial confidence [49]. Conversely, the perception of conditioned constraints may amplify the stance bias in cognitive empathy and enhance the teacher-student confidence segmentation [50]. Therefore, individual condition perception affects the dynamic evolution of group confidence boundaries, by reshaping the "weight" of subjects' empathic information interpretation. ...
Objective
From the perspective of empathy theory, this study focuses on the process of entrepreneurship education to explore the mechanism between teacher-student empathic relationship and psychological connection.
Background
Entrepreneurship education aims to provide talent to support the innovative development of society. Previous studies have focused on the educational significance of the promoting entrepreneurial intention, and few have paid attention to the psychological differentiation caused by the incomprehension between teachers and students.
Method
By conducting three experiments on cognitive empathy shaping to eliminate confidence segmentation, affective empathy shaping to eliminate confidence segmentation, and the non-negligible affective bias, a total of 424 college undergraduates were invited to participate in this study (405 final valid samples were collected). This study analyzed the impact of cognitive empathy, affective empathy and affective bias on confidence segmentations in entrepreneurship, within the theoretical framework of empathy, as well as the moderating role of objective environmental perception.
Results
Cognitive empathy and affective empathy has significant positive effects on the entrepreneurial confidence segmentation between teachers and students, while affective bias plays its role to aggravate the entrepreneurial confidence segmentation. On this basis, objective factors such as individual conditions and supporting environment serve as important moderators, and the significance of rational relationship is higher than that of perceptual relationship.
Conclusions
This study indicates that the teacher-student empathic relationship in entrepreneurship education is a dual-process mechanism of connection, and that the rational relationship is more vital than the emotional one. We confirm the psychological significance of teacher-student empathic relationship in entrepreneurship education, and demonstrate the framework of empathy theory in a new context.
... El emprendimiento se define como la creación de nuevos productos, servicios, procesos o modelos de negocio que fomenten la competitividad del mercado y el desarrollo económico (Martínez-Martínez, 2022). Este proceso está condicionado por la capacidad de detectar y aprovechar oportunidades, la cual depende tanto de factores individuales como del contexto sociocultural y económico (Brush et al., 2017). ...
Este estudio explora la relación entre el nivel educativo, las motivaciones culturales y el emprendimiento turístico en Manabí, Ecuador. Mediante encuestas a emprendedores y técnicas de análisis estadístico multivariante, se identificaron dos clústeres: “Emprendedor-Cultura” y “Emprendedor Trabajo”. El primero, integrado por emprendedores con educación superior y motivaciones culturales arraigadas, muestra mayor estabilidad empresarial y capacidad de generación de empleo. En contraste, el segundo clúster está compuesto por emprendedores con menores
niveles educativos y motivados principalmente por la necesidad económica, enfrentando mayores desafíos estructurales y una menor consolidación de sus negocios. Los resultados destacan la necesidad de diseñar políticas diferenciadas que fortalezcan las capacidades empresariales desde un enfoque cultural y reduzcan la vulnerabilidad económica, promoviendo ecosistemas emprendedores sostenibles. Este análisis contribuye al debate sobre las dinámicas del emprendimiento en contextos turísticos y plantea estrategias para impulsar el desarrollo socioeconómico en Ecuador.
... Prior studies show an increase in female literacy rates contribute both to women's economic wellbeing (Hill & King, 1995) and to egalitarian family laws and land rights (Cherif, 2015;Yasun, 2018). Furthermore, improvement in women's literacy rates creates awareness about economic opportunities and impacts the economic entrepreneurism of women and their economic rights translating to increased asset ownership (Brush et al., 2017;Schultz, 1993). While women's educational attainment was significantly lower in Nepal in 2011, with only 29.53% of women having attained secondary or above secondary education, women's literacy has increased from 3.9% in 1971 to 57.4% in 2011 and 69.4% in 2021, a significant change (CBS Nepal, 2003. ...
Does civil war improve women’s access to economic resources in the post-war years? By defining access to economic resources in terms of land ownership, which is influenced by cultural norms and gender practices, this research develops the argument that civil war can improve women’s access to economic resources in the post-war years if war-induced social rupture breaks down traditional gender norms and cultural practices that discriminate against women. This rupture leads to an increase in women’s social visibility and political participation, further eroding traditional norms and institutions that discriminate against women, leading to an increase in women’s access to economic resources. Analyses of sub-national level data on civil war violence, women’s political participation, and land ownership in post-war Nepal show a positive relationship between civil war violence and women’s political participation. Additionally, women’s political participation was positively related to women’s land ownership.
... The term "women's work" is commonly used in emerging countries, where the societal status of women differs from that in developed countries (Jahan, 2014). Emerging countries are recognized as pivotal for entrepreneurial needs because of their challenging economic conditions (Brush et al., 2017). In the context of emerging economies, research into women's entrepreneurship is still evolving, encompassing examinations of various aspects such as barriers to entrepreneurship (Panda, 2018), cultural transmission (Chakraborty et al., 2016;Kapinga and Montero, 2017), patriarchy and its impact on women's entrepreneurship models (Panda, 2018), women's empowerment (Karwati et al., 2018;Margaret et al., 2019), sociocultural dynamics (Anggadwita et al., 2017;Dana, 1995) and access to financial resources (Manwari et al., 2017). ...
Purpose
The academic literature on women’s entrepreneurship in the internationalization of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) continues to increase, possibly due to the enormous potential of women’s entrepreneurship to promote social empowerment and economic growth in a country. This study aims to systematically review existing research on women’s entrepreneurship in the internationalization of SMEs and provide a robust understanding of academic developments in this field. This study also aims to identify and explore key thematic areas within the research field related to women’s entrepreneurship in SME internationalization.
Design/methodology/approach
This study selected 62 articles retrieved from the four databases (Scopus, Web of Science, EBSCO and Google Scholar). Content analysis was conducted to identify key research issues and gaps, which were then mapped on cluster themes. VOSviewer was used to represent the research cluster themes visually.
Findings
This study identifies and discusses six research streams related to the concept of women’s entrepreneurship in SME internationalization: export behavior and gender in SMEs; entrepreneurship and country economic development; gender, innovation and performance in SME internationalization; women entrepreneurship in international business and management research; internationalization process of SMEs; and business experience and export experience. Some topics that emerged as potential for future research include personal and organizational dynamics, internationalization behavior, decision-making, adoption of strategies or technologies and orientation toward international markets.
Originality/value
This study offers valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders aiming to foster women’s entrepreneurship within the internationalization landscape of SMEs. The findings provide a roadmap for identifying underexplored areas in women’s entrepreneurship within SME internationalization, guiding future research initiatives.
... We construct a dummy variable with a value of 1 assigned for countries whose majority spoken language is a weak FTR language, 0 4 Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the ratio of opportunity to necessity entrepreneurship is not available for most countries after 2018, so we limit our sample to that endpoint to maximize our sample of countries. 5 The GEM database is one of the most popular data sources for cross-country empirical studies on entrepreneurship due to the consistency in the data collection over time and across countries and this ratio has been widely used in prior literature (for example, see Amorós, Ciravegna, Mandakovic, and Stenmolm (2019) ;Brush, Ali, Kelley, and Greene (2017); Dutta and Sobel (2016); Avnimelech, Zelekha, and Sharabi (2014); Liñán and Fernandez-Serrano (2014); Stenholm, Acs, and Wuebker (2013); De Clercq, Lim, and Oh (2013); Bonini, Alkan, and Salvi (2012)). otherwise. ...
A rapidly growing literature explores the link between linguistic structures and economic outcomes. The language a speaker uses systematically influences cognition, thinking, and thus behavior. It also influences the form and content of cultural information that is shared through time and generations. We examine how these linguistic structures influence entrepreneurship. Not all forms of entrepreneurship are equally conducive to, nor associated with, economic growth and prosperity. A distinction is often made between necessity entrepreneurship, which is a result of individuals being pushed into self-employment by adverse circumstances, and opportunity entrepreneurship in which individuals choose to pursue promising ideas. We find that countries with languages not dropping personal pronouns in their major spoken language, or those speaking a weak future time reference (FTR) language, have higher proportions of opportunity relative to necessity-driven entrepreneurs, and that this effect is stronger in countries with higher levels of economic freedom.
... Estudios previos sugieren que, si los estudiantes universitarios hombres y mujeres tienen confianza en sus capacidades empresariales tendrán la misma probabilidad de iniciar un emprendimiento (Brush et al., 2017) y otros trabajos manifiestan que las mujeres emprendedoras tienen más posibilidad de emprender que los hombres (Alvarado Carrillo et al., 2022). ...
Objetivo: El objetivo de este artículo es analizar las diferencias de los atributos personales hacia la creación de empresas que tienen los estudiantes de una universidad pública en el Ecuador, la Universidad de Cuenca, con una perspectiva de género y su influencia en la intención de emprender. Método: Se aplicó una prueba no paramétrica a una muestra de 1.100 estudiantes para determinar las diferencias entre estudiantes hombres y estudiantes mujeres, además se realizó una regresión logística binaria para establecer si el género influye en la intención emprendedora, así como los atributos personales, las redes de apoyo y la experiencia previa. Resultados: Los resultados revelan que existen diferencias por el género en los atributos personales para emprender. Por otro lado, el género y la experiencia laboral no tienen influencia en la intencionalidad de emprender y las redes de apoyo si tienen influencia. Conclusiones: Al ser algunos atributos personales influyentes hacia la creación de empresas, se sugiere fortalecer las habilidades blandas en las mallas curriculares de la institución de educación superior que permita crear una actitud hacia la creación de empresas, así como fortalecer las redes de apoyo de los estudiantes.
... It was mentioned by Dutta and Sobel (2018)that the success of new firms is influenced by the level of school education as well as the knowledge spillover that are important components of the HMC specific to a location. This notion is supported by Brush, Kelley, and Greene (2017), who emphasized that the surviving rate of firms is higher when there is a high rate of educational attainment in a specific region. Findings reveal that the low level of success and survival rate of a firm may not be linked with the low level of literacy in a region. ...
Objective: The study is aimed at examining the impact of the economic condition on entrepreneurial development in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In particular, the study has examined the impact of economic growth, physical capital, human capital, poverty, and income inequality on entrepreneurial development. Data and methodology:Data is based on 13 different provinces over the period of 21 years from 2000 to 2020. The Panel data method is employed. OLS and fixed effect estimates are employed as the most robust estimates to achieve the objectives of the current study. Results: The findings of the study have revealed that the impact of economic growth, physical capital, human capital, poverty, and income inequality on entrepreneurial development is significant. Significance: The study is among the pioneering study on the KSA where, self-employment, small firms, firm start-ups, , young enterprises, SMEss, and patents are indicators of entrepreneurship. There is a high rate of income inequalities in KSA, which are similar to the high rate of economic growth. When a crisis begins in the economy, income inequalities start decreasing. Practical Implication: The study will be helpful for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers in developing and understanding on the issues related to economic conditions on entrepreneurial development in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
... ara el desarrollo de las distintas habilidades empresariales y de gestión dentro de las mujeres emprendedoras, mismas que son el impulso clave para generar nuevas oportunidades.Brixiová et al. (2020), determinaron en su estudio que una percepción de menores habilidades tiene relación con un desempeño más débil en las empresas dirigidas por mujeres.Brush et al. (2017) evidenciaron que dentro de los factores significativos de las brechas entre hombres y mujeres utilizando los datos del GEM, están las capacidades percibidas. ...
Introducción: El estudio analiza las habilidades administrativas y financieras de las mujeres emprendedoras en el sector popular y solidario en el Ecuador, diferenciando entre emprendimientos por necesidad y oportunidad. Metodología: Se aplicaron 427 encuestas a mujeres emprendedoras de diversas provincias, utilizando un diseño no experimental de campo, descriptivo-analítico. Las encuestas, compuestas por preguntas cerradas con escala Likert, permitieron recolectar datos sobre motivaciones y habilidades. Resultados: Los resultados se analizaron mediante estadística descriptiva, revelando que el 51% de las mujeres emprendedoras, inician sus negocios por necesidad, mientras que el 49% lo hace por oportunidad. Las deficiencias en el control de inventarios y la gestión de cuentas por cobrar son significativas, afectando la liquidez y sostenibilidad de los emprendimientos. Discusión: Se determina que el estado civil y la edad de las emprendedoras influye en su motivación para emprender, con una alta participación de mujeres jóvenes y solteras. Resultados: la percepción de capacidad para trabajar eficazmente está asociada con el emprendimiento por necesidad, destacando la importancia de fortalecer las competencias administrativas y financieras y mejorar el acceso a recursos educativos y financieros a través de programas de capacitación para la sostenibilidad y crecimiento de los emprendimientos femeninos en Ecuador.
... Nevertheless, contrary to conventional beliefs, research affirms that women entrepreneurs possess comparable skills in creative thinking and business development (De Bruin et al., 2006;Orhan and Scott, 2001), with women's active engagement sometimes surpassing that of men (Zhang and Zhou, 2019). Brush et al. (2017) highlight the importance of considering both individual capabilities and external conditions in analysing the success of women entrepreneurs. Despite shared characteristics between male and female entrepreneurs in various aspects (Brush and Vanderwerf, 1992), research findings highlight significant differences in the underlying motives of female entrepreneurship. ...
The study's main goal is to identify the extrinsic and intrinsic factors that encourage rural women to pursue entrepreneurial endeavors. Furthermore, the study aims to determine whether these women's decision to become entrepreneurs is influenced by "pull" factors, "push" factors, or a combination of the both. A sample of 183 female entrepreneurs from Oman's rural districts participated in a quantitative study. The research hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling (SEM) by SmartPLS software. The study's findings provide insight into the existence of a positive influence of extrinsic factors on the behaviour of Omani rural women entrepreneurs to start organizing their own projects. The findings also show that the attitudes and motivations of female entrepreneurs have an impact on their behavior when it comes to choosing self-employment.
... Proses perubahan masyarakat yang membutuhkan waktu, tenaga, dan biaya demi membangun ruang untuk komunitas janda sebagai faktor produksi selain tanah dan tehnologi membuktikan bahwa pendekatan modal manusia (human capital) berhasil mengubah potensi sumber daya manusia menjadi keunggulan komparatif (Brush et al., 2017). Meningkatkan kualitas sumber daya janda melalui investasi pendidikan dan pelatihan ibarat meningkatkan kesuburan tanah sehingga memiliki kualitas dan menghasilkan output bernilai ekonomis. ...
Komunitas janda di perdesaan adalah kelompok marginal dan mendapatkan stigma negatif karena ketidakmampuannya merebut ruang produktif. Berbagai upaya dilakukan untuk meningkatkan kualitas sumber daya janda melalui investasi pendidikan dan pelatihan. Ibarat meningkatkan kesuburan tanah sehingga memiliki kualitas dan menghasilkan output bernilai ekonomis telah banyak dilakukan oleh berbagai pihak dengan beragam metode dan pendekatan. Namun demikian, aspek keberlanjutan menjadi titik kelemahan ketika pihak tersebut telah berpamitan dan berharap tetap berlanjut. Tujuan artikel ini adalah memaparkan praktek pendekatan PAR untuk pemberdayaan komunitas janda dalam mengatasi masalah, pemenuhan kebutuhan praktis, produksi ilmu pengetahuan , dan proses perubahan sosial. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan karakteristik alami sebagai sumber data langsung dan bersifat deskriptif yang mengikuti sepuluh daur pendekatan Participatory Action Research (PAR). Hasil penelitian ini menegaskan bahwa upaya pemberdayaan masyarakat membutuhkan pilihan ideologi agar mereproduksi ruang produktif untuk memihak kelompok marginal dengan bantuan perguruan tinggi sebagai fasilitator. Dukungan, keterlibatan, kemitraan, kepemilikan penuh dari pihak kampus kepada komunitas janda di Dusun Nglawan menjawab tantangan dan peluang untuk membelajarkan masyarakat sehingga komunitas janda memiliki kekuatan untuk membangun dirinya melalui interaksi dengan lingkungannya.
... Government support toward entrepreneurship has been acknowledged to positively influence new business propensity in literature (Goel and Madan, 2019;Joo and Min, 2023). Brush et al. (2017) argued that economic participation and perceived capabilities were pivotal in influencing women's entrepreneurship. ...
Purpose
New business density (NBD) is the ratio of the number of newly registered liability corporations to the working-age population per year. NBD is critical to assessing a country's business environment. The present work endeavors to discover and gauge the contribution of 28 potential socio-economic enablers of NBD for 2006–2021 across developed and developing economies separately and to make a comparative assessment between those two regions.
Design/methodology/approach
Using World Bank data, the study first performs exploratory data analysis (EDA). Then, it deploys a deep learning (DL)-based regression framework by utilizing a deep neural network (DNN) to perform predictive modeling of NBD for developed and developing nations. Subsequently, we use two explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) techniques, Shapley values and a partial dependence plot, to unveil the influence patterns of chosen enablers. Finally, the results from the DL method are validated with the explainable boosting machine (EBM) method.
Findings
This research analyzes the role of 28 potential socio-economic enablers of NBD in developed and developing countries. This research finds that the NBD in developed countries is predominantly governed by the contribution of manufacturing and service sectors to GDP. In contrast, the propensity for research and development and ease of doing business control the NBD of developing nations. The research findings also indicate four common enablers – business disclosure, ease of doing business, employment in industry and startup procedures for developed and developing countries.
Practical implications
NBD is directly linked to any nation's economic affairs. Therefore, assessing the NBD enablers is of paramount significance for channelizing capital for new business formation. It will guide investment firms and entrepreneurs in discovering the factors that significantly impact the NBD dynamics across different regions of the globe. Entrepreneurs fraught with inevitable market uncertainties while developing a new idea into a successful new business can momentously benefit from the awareness of crucial NBD enablers, which can serve as a basis for business risk assessment.
Originality/value
DL-based regression framework simultaneously caters to successful predictive modeling and model explanation for practical insights about NBD at the global level. It overcomes the limitations in the present literature that assume the NBD is country- and industry-specific, and factors of the NBD cannot be generalized globally. With DL-based regression and XAI methods, we prove our research hypothesis that NBD can be effectively assessed and compared with the help of global macro-level indicators. This research justifies the robustness of the findings by using the socio-economic data from the renowned data repository of the World Bank and by implementing the DL modeling with validation through the EBM method.
... Another definition of a woman entrepreneur is someone who controls and owns a business in which women hold at least 51% of the capital and at least 51% of the jobs created by the business (Arvind & Ranjith, 2023). Even though women entrepreneurs frequently face significant challenges in starting and managing their businesses, they play an important role in the development of the global economy (Brush et al., 2017;De Vita, Mari & Poggesi, 2014). In limited circumstances where women have fewer rights and resources than men, these difficulties are made worse (Chamlou, Klapper & Muzi, 2008). ...
Purpose: This study explored entrepreneurial coaching to develop women entrepreneurs by enhancing their entrepreneurial self-efficacy. It sought to understand how entrepreneurial self-efficacy in women entrepreneurs can be developed through entrepreneurial coaching. Design/methodology/approach: This study's methodology was a descriptive literature review. Findings: The findings showed that entrepreneurial coaching is a development intervention that can be used to enhance the entrepreneurial self-efficacy beliefs of women entrepreneurs, thereby increasing their chances of engaging in successful business creation and operation. Research limitations/implications: Entrepreneurial coaching for women entrepreneurs as a research field is still in its developmental stage, as such, there are limited sources of literature. Practical implications: The study contributes to the overall discourse on entrepreneurial coaching as a supportive intervention in enhancing entrepreneurial self-efficacy for women entrepreneurs. Originality/value: The combination of entrepreneurial coaching, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and the development of women entrepreneurs is still emerging.
... (Cervelló-Royo et al., 2019;Crecente-Romero et al., 2018;Dou et al., 2019;Gilmore et al., 2018;Newbery et al., 2018;Nowi ski & Haddoud, 2019) Journal of Business Venturing Insights 6 2.67 0.824 1.32 Foro para la difusión rápida de nuevas investigaciones de fenómenos empresariales. (Brändle et al., 2018;Brush et al., 2017;Diallo, 2019;Hessels et al., 2020;Mason, 2018;Walter & Block, 2016) Computers in Human Behavior 3 6.14 2.245 1.71 Aborda las interacciones humanas con las computadoras,. La computadora como un medio de configuración y expresión. ...
Al emprendimiento se le ha relacionado con el tema la educación dese dos posturas distintas. Hay quienes opinan que para emprender no es necesario haber cursado la educación formal y mucho menos estudios universitarios. Hay otros que opinan que la educación es el pilar que fundamente cualquier idea de emprendimiento y que por lo tanto no solo es necesaria si no que permite visualizar y tener mejores herramientas empresariales. En el presente trabajo se elaboró una revisión sistemática documental sobre emprendimiento y educación en la base de datos Science Direct. Los resultados muestran una gran diversidad de documentos que abordan el emprendimiento desde diferentes ángulo y muestra que la educación es indispensable para cualquier ser humano sin importar si pretende emprender en algún negocio. La discusión sigue en los términos abordados pues surgen nuevos paradigmas ahora con la tecnología digital.
... Assuming that venture creation opportunities exist at any point in time, what are the mechanisms that determine when an entrepreneur jumps on them? In extant necessity-based entrepreneurship research, this timing tends to be determined by broader economic conditions and individual attributes that foreclose other employment options (Poschke, 2013;Brush et al., 2017;Fairlie and Fossen, 2018). In contrast, in our framework, the timing of the entrepreneurial itch is determined by the point at which vicarious learning leads the decision maker to become unconvinced about the attractiveness of wage-employment. ...
Varying risk-taking tendency is an important area of inquiry for the Carnegie perspective. Drawing on organizational learning literature, we develop a model to illuminate the mechanisms that can underlie time-varying risk taking tendency in entrepreneurship. In particular, we delineate conditions under which abrupt risk taking punctuates periods of risk-avoiding behaviors, a pattern that we call “intermittent risk taking.” We use serial entrepreneurs whose bouts with risk taking are often depicted as driven by an entrepreneurial itch to illustrate our model. In our conceptualization, decision makers engage in an interplay of experiential and vicarious learning as they move into and out of higher-risk self-employment (i.e., venture creation) with in-between stints in lower-risk wage-employment. Using a computational model to simulate the dynamics of this conceptualization, we find that vicarious learning from satisfied risk-avoiding peers can exert a pull that draws disappointed entrepreneurs into periods of risk avoidance (i.e., wage-employment). However, the moment that the satisfaction of these peers fails to convince, this pull wanes. In effect, the entrepreneur vicariously learns that the grass may not be greener on the other side which then leads them to return into self-employment. The itch for risk taking then recurs not necessarily because risky venture creation offers higher payoffs than risk-avoiding options but because decision makers come to see that risk avoidance may not be a satisfactory alternative either — a conceptualization that adds nuance to prior notions of varying risk tendencies and serial entrepreneurship.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is embarking on an ambitious journey towards economic diversification and a knowledge-based economy. Fostering a vibrant startup ecosystem is a key pillar of this transformation, with the healthcare sector presenting fertile ground for innovation. This research delves into the intricate web of factors that shape the creation of healthcare startups within the unique Saudi context. Drawing on empirical data and insights specific to the Saudi Arabian landscape, the study aims to shed light on the challenges and opportunities that healthcare startups encounter. It goes beyond simply identifying these factors; a nuanced analysis is conducted to understand the interplay between various influences. This multifaceted approach can provide invaluable knowledge for aspiring healthcare entrepreneurs, policymakers, and stakeholders invested in propelling the Saudi healthcare startup ecosystem forward. The research findings can empower key players to develop targeted support systems and initiatives. These can equip healthcare startups with the tools they need to navigate the intricacies of the Saudi market, fostering a new wave of innovation that ultimately improves healthcare delivery and accessibility for the region. By unveiling the complex landscape that shapes the Saudi healthcare startup scene, this research can serve as a valuable roadmap for stakeholders to cultivate a thriving ecosystem that fosters groundbreaking advancements in healthcare for the benefit of the Kingdom and beyond.
Die Nutzung einiger Finanzierungsquellen wird davon beeinflusst, ob der Leitung eines jungen Unternehmens Frauen angehören. So zeigen Analysen auf Basis des IAB/ZEW Gründungspanels und ergänzende Expertinneninterviews, dass rein frauengeführte Unternehmen Bankkredite seltener nutzen als rein männer-und gemischtgeschlechtlich geführte Unternehmen. Demgegenüber greifen frauengeführte Unternehmen häufiger auf öffentliche Förderung sowie Freunde und Familie zurück, während Risikokapital häufiger von männergeführten Unternehmen genutzt wird. Frauen-und männergeführte junge Unternehmen haben gleich häufig Probleme bei der Beschaffung von Bankkrediten. Die geringere Nutzung von Bankkrediten seitens frauengeführter Unternehmen beruht vielmehr auf Selbstrationierung, das heißt, sie verzichten häufiger als männergeführte Unternehmen von vornherein auf die Beantragung eines Kredits, weil sie dessen Ablehnung erwarten.
The use of some sources of financing depends on whether the management of a young business is female. Analyses based on the IAB/ZEW Start-up Panel and supplementary interviews with female experts show that purely female-led businesses use bank loans less frequently than purely male-led and mixed-gender led businesses. In contrast, women-led businesses more frequently draw on public funding as well as friends and family, while venture capital is used more frequently by male-led businesses. Women-led young businesses undergo as often as men-led young businesses problems in obtaining bank loans. Thus, women-led businesses using bank loans less often is rather due to self-rationing, i.e., they are more likely than men-led businesses to refrain from applying for a loan from the outset because they expect it to be rejected
This scholarly book magnifies reflections from young scientists in South Africa, Africa and beyond around the COVID-19 pandemic. With contributions by upcoming scientists, this scholarly book provides a synopsis of socio-ecological-economic views on the impact of COVID-19. Through its chapters, the book takes a multi-disciplinary approach to reflecting on what it was like to be a scientist during the COVID-19 pandemic. By doing so, each chapter re-imagines science from the viewpoint of its discipline, offering insights from the perspective of young scientists that could benefit other scholars, academics and policymakers.
This study investigates factors that encourage and discourage women entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia. The research uses the Adult Population Survey (APS) and analysed data collected from 1,305 women. Findings show that perceived capability, opportunity perception, risk perception, social network and informal investment significantly influence women’s propensity to entrepreneurship. However, the entrepreneurial propensity of women who have financed others’ businesses is negative. This study highlights the need for entrepreneurship researchers to examine factors that mobilize and inhibit entrepreneurial initiatives among women and study cognitive and social capital variables in an integrated framework.
Existing literature suggests that women’s digital entrepreneurship is still in its infancy, revealing a need for comprehensive studies to deepen and expand the field. This study aims to address this gap by contributing to the understanding of women’s digital entrepreneurship, a relatively unexplored topic.This study explores key aspects of women’s digital entrepreneurship, including how it differs from other types of entrepreneurship, its fundamental characteristics, and the ways in which women entrepreneurs utilize digital technologies. It also examines strategies to support women in digital entrepreneurship and highlights successful examples from both Türkiye and the global arena.
Corresponding author: ayseasilturk@trabzon.edu.tr
Women entrepreneurs are the segment of business owners that is expanding the quickest, and recent years have seen a considerable rise in research being done on women entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurship has become a popular research domain. Research on the women entrepreneurship (WEs) has been increased. Successful women entrepreneurs are emerging globally. Despite this expansion, the literature on women entrepreneurs still appears somewhat fragmented, with different studies focusing on different aspects without integrating state of the art developments in this field. We attempt to address this gap by conducting a literature review to explore the research on women's entrepreneurship.
Purpose
Despite the well-documented importance of empathy and mentoring in entrepreneurship, there is a need for a deeper understanding of how empathy influences individuals’ “willingness to be mentored”.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper investigates gender differences in “Willingness to be mentored” based on the mentor’s types of empathy (cognitive vs affective) and entrepreneurship (social vs for-profit). Drawing on the personal identification and the entrepreneurship literature, we measured the respondents’ “Willingness to be mentored” by manipulating the type of empathy and entrepreneurship and comparing its effect between male and female respondents. Primary survey data were collected from master’s degree students in entrepreneurship from diverse business schools. An explanatory qualitative study on female start-uppers complemented the findings.
Findings
The results from the quantitative study show that female respondents prefer to be mentored by an entrepreneur who exhibits some affective empathy rather than only cognitive empathy, with a preference for a social entrepreneur. The qualitative study confirms the evidence. This research contributes to the discussion on developing social capabilities to succeed in new ventures. It extends our understanding of the importance of empathic entrepreneurs as mentors to foster entrepreneurship among women.
Originality/value
Theoretically, we demonstrate the existence of a gender difference in “Willingness to be mentored” based on the type of empathy displayed by the entrepreneur. Additionally, we introduce a new construct in the entrepreneurship literature, “Willingness to be mentored”, and differentiate it from “Attitude toward entrepreneurship”.
Policies, programmes and other measures have been in place to foster an enabling environment for women’s entrepreneurship to flourish further in the Philippines. However, despite this seemingly successful growth of women’s entrepreneurship in the country, women still face difficulties in prospering in entrepreneurship. Guided by the 5M gender-aware framework, this study mapped the pain points affecting women in entrepreneurship in the Philippines by conducting a focus group discussion composed of 40 entrepreneurs. Individual and institutional/structural factors and actors that play pivotal roles in enabling a more conducive entrepreneurial environment for women (i.e., government, education, NGOs, men, house helpers) were identified. More significantly, this article emphasized the need for men’s involvement in empowering women entrepreneurs in various capacities and aspects of their lives, especially in the motherhood sphere. Acknowledging men and involving them in women’s economic activities can potentially address the gap in entrepreneurship.
Gender-related entrepreneurship research remains essential for analyzing various socioeconomic, cultural, and socio-family abstractions of human capital that are distinct to gender. This study provides a comprehensive review of the literature about the theoretical foundations, results, assessment, and research that considers specifically composition of human capital as a moderator in the structure of gender entrepreneurial behavior. In this review study course, the SSLR (Semi-Systematic Research Review) approach is utilized to develop future research outlines. The key findings state that studies on female entrepreneurs that concentrate specifically on education and perceived abilities have a number of shortcomings. This includes failing to grasp the importance of simultaneously addressing individual and country-level indicators, as well as structural, historical, and cultural variables. The findings thus reinforce the importance of viewing the structure of female entrepreneurs as part of a holistic interdependent system, highlighting how the interaction of factors at various levels shapes identities, career choices, and perceptions of entrepreneurial opportunities and constraints. Finally, findings indicated that there is a need for a new approach to gender and economic inclusion methods, such as life histories, longitudinal empirical analysis, narrative analysis, approaches with in-depth interviews, or discourse analyses. At the end an agenda for future research is developed based on the review, with implications for entrepreneurship educational attainment and perceived abilities being highlighted.
Purpose
This study aims to identify both intrinsic and extrinsic factors motivating rural women to participate in entrepreneurial activities in Oman. Specifically, it seeks to clarify which pull and push factors influence their decisions to engage in entrepreneurship.
Design/methodology/approach
Quantitative research was conducted with a sample of 183 women entrepreneurs in rural areas of Oman. Structural equation modelling (SEM) using SmartPLS software was employed to test the research hypotheses.
Findings
The results of the research highlight the positive impact of external motivations, such as financial needs and dissatisfaction with current employment, on the entrepreneurial behaviour of rural women in Oman. These external factors play a significant role in prompting women to initiate their own projects. Additionally, the study reveals that attitudes, such as self-efficacy and the perception of social support, significantly influence women entrepreneurs' adoption of self-employment.
Practical implications
These findings offer valuable insights into the concrete incentives driving women’s entrepreneurship in rural Oman. Policymakers can utilize these insights to develop initiatives aimed at promoting the social empowerment of rural Omani women and facilitating their active participation in economic ventures, thereby contributing to Oman’s development.
Originality/value
This study presents a novel framework for enhancing women’s entrepreneurship, offering insights into the motivations and barriers influencing women's participation in rural areas of Oman. By addressing gaps in existing literature, it contributes to a deeper understanding of the entrepreneurial dynamics among rural women in Oman.
This chapter investigates the role of social capital in boosting the economic aspirations and success of women entrepreneurs in Egypt. It examines how women entrepreneurs form and use networks to access information, resources, and opportunities. The chapter adopts social network theories and frameworks while relying on the principle of reciprocity and social support, which substantially influence the success of women-led companies. Women are transformed by social capital, which provides mentorship, collaborations, and market insights, allowing them to succeed in their thrilling entrepreneurial experiences. The chapter highlights the vital role of trust and reciprocity in creating collaborative connections between female entrepreneurs and stakeholders. This nexus paves the way for emotional support, boosts self-efficacy, and increases resilience, allowing women to face obstacles confidently. The findings suggest developing interventions to increase social capital among Egyptian women entrepreneurs, understanding the value of social networks and how the support systems contribute to establishing an inclusive environment that enables women to flourish and contribute to the nation’s economic success. Women entrepreneurs can achieve their full capabilities and promote long-term development by leveraging social networks and creating an atmosphere of trust and support.
Entrepreneurship, and especially the involvement of women, is crucial to the advancement of the economy and society as a whole. By using bibliometric analysis, this article gives a thorough review of contemporary research on women’s entrepreneurship. This study examines a variety of factors, including countries, academic publications, authors and suggested areas for further research. The study’s objectives are to guide future research, educate policymakers and serve as a resource for researchers interested in furthering the study of women’s entrepreneurship and its societal implications.
The underlying intents and long-lasting impacts of economic policies are not only significant drivers of the quantity and productiveness of entrepreneurial action but also its diversity, equitability, and breadth. Calibrating policies to achieve these varied aims is a persistent challenge, due in no small part to the complex role uncertainty plays in entrepreneurship. While extant research has shown that both too much and too little uncertainty stifles entrepreneurial action, other studies have revealed that policy remedies and interventions themselves are often an important cause of uncertainty by reshaping and redefining the 'rules of the game' in unexpected ways. As such, the general importance of economic policy uncertainty (EPU) is well established, yet little work has been undertaken to identify and explicate its heterogenous impacts on entrepreneurial action. This gap constitutes a material hindrance to the field's ongoing efforts to better align entrepreneurship research with grand social challenges. One of these challenges relates to the long-standing impediments to gender-based fairness and equity. By investigating the differential impacts of EPU on entrepreneurial action among men and women, our findings bring to light the extent to which EPU heterogeneously shapes the experiences and outcomes of female and male entrepreneurs.
This analysis focuses on the three different phases of the business startup process - i.e., aspiring (an intention to pursue, or commitment to continue, an entrepreneurial career), preparing or nascent (an attempt to establish a business), and entering (the actual startup of a fledgling new business). While previous studies have focused on one of the following three areas of this process, this study combines all three areas in the analysis.The areas included are: (1) individual, (2) environment, and (3) activities undertaken by entrepreneurs during the business startup. From a potential pool of 9,533 Norwegians interviewed, 197 individuals identified as nascent entrepreneurs agreed to participate. Data were collected from these individuals from 1996 through 1999.The results indicate that higher education is positively associated with becoming a nascent entrepreneur but does not have a significant effect on aspiring entrepreneurs or business founders.Having entrepreneurial experience is positively associated with all three phases of the process. Further, the study determines that different types of resources impact whether an entrepreneur reaches the different phases.Human resources are shown to be better predictors of the success of the business startup process than are environmental resources. (SRD)
Entrepreneurship contributes to economic development in countries worldwide. Entrepreneurial activity is beneficial for both men and women, including those in developing countries. However, men and women may not engage in entrepreneurship to the same extent because of differential access to (various forms of) capital. This study examines the relative importance of three types of capital – human, family and financial – in pursuing entrepreneurship. Using data collected in Turkey, we find that regardless of sex, all three forms of capital influence the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur in varying degrees. Contrary to expectations, the impact of human capital on the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur is higher for women than men. Data also revealed that family capital facilitates women's entry into entrepreneurship only when family size is very large (i.e. seven or more). No gender differences are observed in the impact of financial capital on the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur. Findings suggest that to encourage entrepreneurship in Turkey, policy-makers should emphasize access to human and financial capital. Furthermore, findings suggest that women's likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur will be especially encouraged if they have increased access to education, as well as the skills necessary to take advantage of their family capital.
Drawing on the literature on knowledge and self-efficacy, we examine the effects of individuals' possession of and exposure to knowledge on the likelihood to engage in business start-up activity. Our analyses are based on data collected for the 2002 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. More specifically, we analysed data from individuals located in Belgium and Finland in terms of their education and skills, and their contacts with the entrepreneurial community. Our findings suggest that knowledge-based factors indeed have a strong impact on the decision to engage in business start-up activity. We also found cross-country differences for these knowledge-based effects, in particular as regards the growth-orientation of business start-up activity. We discuss our findings and provide directions for future research. K E Y WO R D S : business start-up activity; knowledge; nascent entrepreneurship; self-efficacy
Sheds light on the process leading to new enterprise formation and identifies the impact of some selected demographic variables on business start-ups. In contrast to traditional research methodologies, this study used a new and more comprehensive approach to survey entrepreneurial intention. It studied both those who actually set up a new business and those “nascent entrepreneurs” who abandoned their idea prior to trading. The findings of an empirical analysis of 93 such entrepreneurs are presented. Using multivariate techniques to analyse the data, the importance of three demographic variables - gender, previous government employment and recent redundancy - was identified as having potential negative influences on small business formation, and comparisons are made with past studies.
Human capital obtained through education has been shown to be one of the strongest drivers of entrepreneurship performance. The entrepreneur’s human capital, though, is only one of the input factors into the production process of her venture. In this paper we will analyze to what extent the education levels of other (potential) stakeholders affect the entrepreneur’s performance. The education level of consumers may shape the demand function for an entrepreneur’s output, whereas the education level of employees may affect the entrepreneur’s productivity and thereby shape her supply function. Based on this, we hypothesize that the performance of an entrepreneur is not only affected positively by her own education level but in addition, also by the education level of the population. We find empirical support for this hypothesis using an eight years (1994-2001) panel of labor market participants in the EU-15 countries. An implication of our finding is that entrepreneurship and higher education policies should be considered in tandem with each other.
What makes organizations so similar? We contend that the engine of rationalization
and bureaucratization has moved from the competitive marketplace to the state and
the professions. Once a set of organizations emerges as a field, a paradox arises:
rational actors make their organizations increasingly similar as they try to
change them. We describe three isomorphic processes--coercive, mimetic, and
normative-leading to this outcome. We then specib hypotheses about the impact of
resource centralization and dependency, goal ambiguity and technical uncertainty,
and professionalization and structuration on isomorphic change. Finally, we suggest
implications for theories of organizations and social change.
Families and businesses have often been treated as naturally separate institutions, whereas we argue that they are inextricably intertwined. Long-term changes in family composition and in the roles and relations of family members have produced families in North America that are growing smaller and losing many of their previous role relationships. Such transformations in the institution of the family have implications for the emergence of new business opportunities, opportunity recognition, business start-up decisions, and the resource mobilization process. We suggest that entrepreneurship scholars would benefit from a family embeddedness perspective on new venture creation.
In this article, we explore how gendered entrepreneurship rates are affected by both soft (values, beliefs and expectations) and hard (institutionalized norms and practices) measures of cultural institutions. We use data from the 2001 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor for 25 265 individuals in 11 countries to examine how institutional arrangements related to women's employment (role of occupational segregation, gender wage inequality, female business leadership and public childcare support) interact with individual-level perceptions in ways that increase women's start-up. Controlling for national variations in opportunity structure, our results show that gendered institutions (female business leadership, gender wage inequality and public expenditures on childcare) influence the decision to start a business indirectly through perceptions and gender.
This article reports on a unique study of a large, random sample of business start-ups that were identified prior to the actual, commercial launch of the ventures. The purpose of this article is twofold. The first is to present frequencies on the involvement of the Swedish population in the small business sector (particularly in firm start-ups) and to compare these with estimates from Norway and the USA, which are based on studies using a similar research design. We also discuss the possible reasons for the country differences that emerge. Secondly, we analyse the characteristics of nascent entrepreneurs (i.e. individuals trying to start an independent business). We also compare these characteristics for sub-groups within the sample and with characteristics of business founders as they appear in theoretical accounts or retrospective empirical studies of surviving small firms.
In order to get a representative sample from the working age population, respondents
(n= 30 427) were randomly selected and interviewed by telephone. We found that 2.0 % of the Swedish population at the time of the interview were trying to start an independent business. Sweden had a significantly lower prevalence rate of nascent entrepreneurs compared to Norway and the USA. Nascent entrepreneurs were then compared to a control group of people not trying to start a business. The results confirmed findings from previous studies of business founders pointing at the importance of role models and the impression of self-employment obtained through these, employment status, age, education and experience. Marital status, the number of children in the household, and length of employment experience were unrelated to the probability of becoming a nascent entrepreneur. The sex of the respondent was the strongest distinguishing factor. Importantly, the results suggest that while we have a reasonably good understanding of the characteristics associated with men going into business for themselves, the type of variables investigated here have very limited ability to predict nascent entrepreneur status for women.
This study attempts to reveal how macroeconomic and technology policies that encompass the opportunity and individual drivers of entrepreneurship explain the dynamics of new firm formation in a country. To do so we rely on the Schumpeterian, industrial organization, and labor economics traditions of entrepreneurship, and performed an exploratory test with longitudinal U.S. data from 1968 to 1993. The results of this study suggest that R&D investments, patents, economic concentration, pro-competition policy, and labor mobility are important areas in which government policy can influence the intensity of new firm formation. Copyright Springer 2006
The growth of young, technology-based firms has received considerable attention in the literature given their importance for the generation and creation of economic wealth. Taking a strategic management perspective, we link the entrepreneurial strategy deployed by young, technology-based firms with firm growth. In line with recent research, we consider both revenue and employment growth as they reflect different underlying value creation processes. Using a unique European dataset of research-based spin-offs, we find that firms emphasizing a product and hybrid strategy are positively associated with growth in revenues. The latter strategy also has a positive influence on the creation of additional employment. Contrary to expectation, however, we find that firms pursuing a technology strategy do not grow fast in employment. Our study sheds new light on the relationship between entrepreneurial strategy and firm growth in revenues and employment.
ABSTRACT : This paper looks at how well Finland performs in high growth entrepreneurship and uses data from the Global Entrepreneurship monitor to benchmark Finland against other European countries. It is found that Finland’s prevalence rate of high growth entrepreneurial activity lags significantly behind most of its European and all of its Scandinavian peers. That this weak performance in high-growth entrepreneurship goes hand in hand with Finland being a world leader in per capita investment in R&D may be described as a paradox. The reasons underlying the underperformance of Finland remain however unclear. At this point, explanations should be sought in culture, industrial traditions and systemic experience in high growth entrepreneurship.
Strategies for attaining competitive advantages emphasize developing and configuring existing resource strengths into a valuable and unique resource base. But what if you do not yet have a legacy of resource strengths? Entrepreneurs in emerging organizations must first assemble resources, then combine them to build a resource platform that will yield distinctive capabilities. The case studies included in this article illustrate the challenges entrepreneurs confront in identifying, attracting, combining, and transforming personal resources into organizational resources. We offer two analytical tools for assessing initial resource needs and developing a resource strategy that can enhance possibilities for wealth creation. Our pathway approach provides guidance for entrepreneurs constructing a resource base.
Women's political leadership may contribute to women's entrepreneurship by removing existing constraints on the economic behavior of women assuming these changes are then enforced. We examine the association of women's political power and country's rule of law with women's entrepreneurial entry using the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor dataset combined with other indicators. Both variables are positively associated with women's entry in entrepreneurship, and the association between political empowerment and entry into entrepreneurship is moderated by rule of law, with higher levels of women's political power having greater effects in countries with higher levels of rule of law. Implications are discussed.
Based on the notion that trade-offs in public policies form the basis of the separation of managed and entrepreneurial economies; this paper investigates the impact of policy on actual entrepreneurship activity in these two categories of economies. Using data from 19 European Union member countries, the impact that policy trade-offs in the goal, target, location and system of finance have on entrepreneurship activity is measured using ordinary least squares regression. The results indicate that while business regulation negatively impact entrepreneurship activity, the location of policy does not show any measurable impact. They suggest the need for still more supportive institutions in the effort to develop entrepreneurship and create entrepreneurial economies and realize economic benefits.
Although prior research primarily has investigated the independent financial, human, and social capital effects on the decision to create a new venture, little research has investigated the combined effects, leaving potentially meaningful interdependencies less well understood. This study addresses that void explicitly by investigating both the independent effects and the combined effects of human, social, and financial capital influences on the new venture creation decision. The results of the study suggest a change in focus from resource access to resource use and produce important theoretical and practical implications.
This study examines how institutional conditions provide assurances founders seek when creating businesses. Classical theories predict legal institutions promote supportive conditions that foster business creation. We develop an alternative theory for why this relationship is not as straightforward in emerging economies. In these regions, people may be discouraged from taking entrepreneurial action because of the difficulties in accessing legal protections efficiently. We also introduce theory regarding the moderating role of generalized social trust because of its normative influences on business creation. We argue that generalized trust in strangers exerts positive moderating effects on the direct relationship between legal protections and entrepreneurship. The findings from our multilevel analysis of 30 emerging economies are consistent with our theory. Our work advances a new framework for how entrepreneurs cope with uncertain business conditions in emerging economies where informal, normative social structures offer more privately oriented safeguards than do formal, publicly oriented institutions. Our study also reconnects macro-institutional theories with individual-level accounts of entrepreneurship.
We examine the relationship between the extra sum of squares SSR(x2|x1), the regression sum of squares SSR(x2), and the correlation coefficients ry1, ry2, and r12. From this we develop a necessary and sufficient condition for suppression in terms of the correlation coefficients. We use this to investigate the conditions under which suppression can occur algebraically and graphically. We believe that expressing suppression in terms of correlation coefficients may help students and applied researchers to identify cases of suppression and to understand when suppression can occur.
An extreme example of regression on two variables is presented in which there is almost no correlation between y and x1 and y and x2, yet the coefficient of determination is 1. This example illustrates the often counter-intuitive nature of multivariate relationships and is also relevant to discussions on multicollinearity and variable selection techniques.
The relationships between gender, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intentions were examined for two sample groups: adolescents and adult master of business administration (MBA) students. Similar gender effects on entrepreneurial self-efficacy are shown for both groups and support earlier research on the relationship between self-efficacy and career intentions. Additionally, the effects of entrepreneurship education in MBA programs on entrepreneurial self-efficacy proved stronger for women than for men. Implications for educators and policy makers were discussed, and areas for future research outlined.
This paper sets out to explore contexts for entrepreneurship, illustrating how a contextualized view of entrepreneurship contributes to our understanding of the phenomenon. There is growing recognition in entrepreneurship research that economic behavior can be better understood within its historical, temporal, institutional, spatial, and social contexts, as these contexts provide individuals with opportunities and set boundaries for their actions. Context can be an asset and a liability for the nature and extent of entrepreneurship, but entrepreneurship can also impact contexts. The paper argues that context is important for understanding when, how, and why entrepreneurship happens and who becomes involved. Exploring the multiplicity of contexts and their impact on entrepreneurship, it identifies challenges researchers face in contextualizing entrepreneurship theory and offers possible ways forward.
Previous research on the psychology of entrepreneurs found that personality traits such as locus of control failed to distinguish entrepreneurs from managers. In search of an individual characteristic that is distinctively entrepreneurial, we proposed an entrepreneurial self-efficacy construct (ESE) to predict the likelihood of an individual being an entrepreneur. ESE refers to the strength of a person’s belief that he or she is capable of successfully performing the various roles and tasks of entrepreneurship. It consists of five factors: marketing, innovation, management, risk-taking, and financial control.
This study examines nascent entrepreneurship by comparing individuals engaged in nascent activities (n=380) with a control group (n=608), after screening a sample from the general population (n=30,427). The study then follows the developmental process of nascent entrepreneurs for 18 months. Bridging and bonding social capital, consisting of both strong and weak ties, was a robust predictor for nascent entrepreneurs, as well as for advancing through the start-up process. With regard to outcomes like first sale or showing a profit, only one aspect of social capital, viz. being a member of a business network, had a statistically significant positive effect. The study supports human capital in predicting entry into nascent entrepreneurship, but only weakly for carrying the start-up process towards successful completion.
We use cross-national harmonized micro data from a broad sample of developed and developing countries and investigate the heterogeneity of the effect of entry, contract enforcement regulation, and financial development on both the decision to become an entrepreneur and the level of employment of newly created businesses. We focus on the interaction between the level of regulation and financial development and some individual characteristics that are important determinants of entrepreneurship, such as gender, business skills, and social networks. We find that entry regulation moderates the effect of business skills, while accentuating the effect of gender, even after accounting for the level of financial development. Specifically, women are more likely to enter into entrepreneurship in countries with higher levels of entry regulation, but mainly because they cannot find better work. This effect is also more pronounced in countries that are less financially developed. Furthermore, individuals who report having business skills are less likely to enter entrepreneurship in countries with higher entry regulation. Finally, we also find that individuals who know other entrepreneurs are less likely to start large businesses in countries with higher levels of entry and contract enforcement regulation. (JEL: K23, L26, L51) (c) 2010 by the European Economic Association.
This paper provides a survey on studies that analyze the macroeconomic effects of intellectual property rights (IPR). The first part of this paper introduces different patent policy instruments and reviews their effects on R&D and economic growth. This part also discusses the distortionary effects and distributional consequences of IPR protection as well as empirical evidence on the effects of patent rights. Then, the second part considers the international aspects of IPR protection. In summary, this paper draws the following conclusions from the literature. Firstly, different patent policy instruments have different effects on R&D and growth. Secondly, there is empirical evidence supporting a positive relationship between IPR protection and innovation, but the evidence is stronger for developed countries than for developing countries. Thirdly, the optimal level of IPR protection should tradeoff the social benefits of enhanced innovation against the social costs of multiple distortions and income inequality. Finally, in an open economy, achieving the globally optimal level of protection requires an international coordination (rather than the harmonization) of IPR protection.
Why are intentions interesting to those who care about new venture formation? Entrepreneurship is a way of thinking, a way of thinking that emphasizes opportunities over threats. The opportunity identification process is clearly an intentional process, and, therefore, entrepreneurial intentions clearly merit our attention. Equally important, they offer a means to better explain—and predict—entrepreneurship.We don't start a business as a reflex, do we? We may respond to the conditions around us, such as an intriguing market niche, by starting a new venture. Yet, we think about it first; we process the cues from the environment around us and set about constructing the perceived opportunity into a viable business proposition.In the psychological literature, intentions have proven the best predictor of planned behavior, particularly when that behavior is rare, hard to observe, or involves unpredictable time lags. New businesses emerge over time and involve considerable planning. Thus, entrepreneurship is exactly the type of planned behavior and for which intention models are ideally suited. If intention models prove useful in understanding business venture formation intentions, they offer a coherent, parsimonious, highly-generalizable, and robust theoretical framework for understanding and prediction.Empirically, we have learned that situational (for example, employment status or informational cues) or individual (for example, demographic characteristics or personality traits) variables are poor predictors. That is, predicting entrepreneurial activities by modeling only situational or personal factors usually resulted in disappointingly small explanatory power and even smaller predictive validity. Intentions models offer us a significant opportunity to increase our ability to understand and predict entrepreneurial activity.The current study compares two intention-based models in terms of their ability to predict entrepreneurial intentions: Ajzen's theory of planned behavior (TPB) and Shapero's model of the entrepreneurial event (SEE). Ajzen argues that intentions in general depend on perceptions of personal attractiveness, social norms, and feasibility. Shapero argues that entrepreneurial intentions depend on perceptions of personal desirability, feasibility, and propensity to act. We employed a competing models approach, comparing regression analyses results for the two models. We tested for overall statistical fit and how well the results supported each component of the models. The sample consisted of student subjects facing imminent career decisions. Results offered strong statistical support for both models.(1) Intentions are the single best predictor of any planned behavior, including entrepreneurship. Understanding the antecedents of intentions increases our understanding of the intended behavior. Attitudes influence behavior by their impact on intentions. Intentions and attitudes depend on the situation and person. Accordingly, intentions models will predict behavior better than either individual (for example, personality) or situational (for example, employment status) variables. Predictive power is critical to better post hoc explanations of entrepreneurial behavior; intentions models provide superior predictive validity. (2) Personal and situational variables typically have an indirect influence on entrepreneurship through influencing key attitudes and general motivation to act. For instance, role models will affect entrepreneurial intentions only if they change attitudes and beliefs such as perceived self-efficacy. Intention-based models describe how exogenous influences (for eample, perceptions of resource availability) change intentions and, ultimately, venture creation. (3) The versatility and robustness of intention models support the broader use of comprehensive, theory-driven, testable process models in entrepreneurship research (MacMillan and Katz 1992). Intentional behavior helps explain and model why many entrepreneurs decide to start a business long before they scan for opportunities.Understanding intentions helps researchers and theoreticians to understand related phenomena. These include: what triggers opportunity scanning, the sources of ideas for a business venture, and how the venture ultimately becomes a reality. Intention models can describe how entrepreneurial training molds intentions in subsequent venture creation (for example, how does training in business plan writing change attitudes and intentions?). Past research has extensively explored aspects of new venture plans once written. Intentionality argues instead that we study the planning process itself for determinants of venturing behavior. We can apply intentions models to other strategic decisions such as the decision to grow or exit a business. Researchers can model the intentions of critical stakeholders in the venture, such as venture capitalists' intentions toward investing in a given company. Finally, management researchers can explore the overlaps between venture formation intentions and venture opportunity identification.Entrepreneurs themselves (and those who teach and train them) should benefit from a better understanding of their own motives. The lens provided by intentions affords them the opportunity to understand why they made certain choices in their vision of the new venture.Intentions-based models provide practical insight to any planned behavior. This allows us to better encourage the identification of personally-viable, personally-credible opportunities. Teachers, consultants, advisors, and entrepreneurs should benefit from a better general understanding of how intentions are formed, as well as a specific understanding of how founders' beliefs, perceptions, and motives coalesce into the intent to start a business. This understanding offers sizable diagnostic power, thus entrepreneurship educators can use this model to better understand the motivations and intentions of students and trainees and to help students and trainees understand their own motivations and intentions.Carefully targeted training becomes possible. For example, ethnic and gender differences in career choice are largely explained by self-efficacy differences. Applied work in psychology and sociology tells us that we already know how to remediate self-efficacy differences. Raising entrepreneurial efficacies will raise perceptions of venture feasibility, thus increasing the perception of opportunity.Economic and community development hinges not on chasing smokestacks, but on growing new businesses. To encourage economic development in the form of new enterprises we must first increase perceptions of feasibility and desirability. Policy initiatives will increase business formations if those initiatives positively influence attitudes and thus influence intentions. The growing trends of downsizing and outsourcing make this more than a sterile academic exercise. Even if we successfully increase the quantity and quality of potential entrepreneurs, we must also promote such perceptions among critical stakeholders including suppliers, financiers, neighbors, government officials, and the larger community.The findings of this study argue that promoting entrepreneurial intentions by promoting public perceptions of feasibility and desirability is not just desirable; promoting entrepreneurial intentions is also thoroughly feasible.
ABSTRACT : This paper looks at how well Finland performs in high growth entrepreneurship and uses data from the Global Entrepreneurship monitor to benchmark Finland against other European countries. It is found that Finland’s prevalence rate of high growth entrepreneurial activity lags significantly behind most of its European and all of its Scandinavian peers. That this weak performance in high-growth entrepreneurship goes hand in hand with Finland being a world leader in per capita investment in R&D may be described as a paradox. The reasons underlying the underperformance of Finland remain however unclear. At this point, explanations should be sought in culture, industrial traditions and systemic experience in high growth entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurs, processes of founding and new firm performance
- Cooper
Business accomplishments, gender and entrepreneurial self-image
- Verhuel
Gender differences and the formation of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Presented at the United States Association of Small Business and Entrepreneurship (USASBE) Annual Conference
- W Chowdhury
- M Endres
Sometimes R2 > ry12 + r y22
- Hamilton