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Are Some Natural Environments More Psychologically Beneficial Than Others? The Importance of Type and Quality on Connectedness to Nature and Psychological Restoration
Abstract
Exposure to nature can strengthen an individual’s sense of connectedness (i.e., emotional/cognitive bonds to the natural world) and enhance psychological restoration (e.g., feeling relaxed/refreshed). To date, there have been few large studies looking at the role that type and quality of natural environments may have on these outcomes. The present study used data from a large survey in England (sample analyzed = 4,515), which asked participants to recall a recent visit to nature. After controlling for covariates, respondents recalled greater connectedness to nature and restoration following visits to rural and coastal locations compared with urban green space, and to sites of higher environmental quality (operationalized by protected/designated area status, for example, nature reserves). A series of structural equation analyses provided evidence for a bidirectional association between connectedness and restoration. Consideration of the psychological benefits associated with different types and quality of environment has implications for human health, environmental management, and conservation.
... One way in which the human-nature relationship has been studied from the perspective of psychology is through the construct of nature connectedness-broadly speaking, the closeness of one's relationship with nature (Lengieza, Aviste, & Richardson, 2023;Lengieza & Swim, 2021b;Schultz, 2002). Extensive research has shown that nature connectedness is influenced by features of the surrounding environment (see Lengieza & Swim, 2021b, for a review), such as the presence of blue space (Hatty et al., 2022;Stehl et al., 2024;Wyles et al., 2019) or the quality of the space (i.e., protected status; Wyles et al., 2019). Thus, there is a clear opportunity for landscape and urban planning to contribute to global efforts aimed at reversing the growing disconnect between people and nature by designing for features that promote a psychological connection to nature (Hatty et al., 2022;Ives et al., 2018;McEwan et al., 2020). ...
... One way in which the human-nature relationship has been studied from the perspective of psychology is through the construct of nature connectedness-broadly speaking, the closeness of one's relationship with nature (Lengieza, Aviste, & Richardson, 2023;Lengieza & Swim, 2021b;Schultz, 2002). Extensive research has shown that nature connectedness is influenced by features of the surrounding environment (see Lengieza & Swim, 2021b, for a review), such as the presence of blue space (Hatty et al., 2022;Stehl et al., 2024;Wyles et al., 2019) or the quality of the space (i.e., protected status; Wyles et al., 2019). Thus, there is a clear opportunity for landscape and urban planning to contribute to global efforts aimed at reversing the growing disconnect between people and nature by designing for features that promote a psychological connection to nature (Hatty et al., 2022;Ives et al., 2018;McEwan et al., 2020). ...
... For the most part, the research on environmental factors that influence nature connectedness often focuses on a limited set of features, for example type (i.e., blue vs. green vs. grey space) or quality (i.e., protected or not protected; e.g., Wyles et al., 2019). Yet, landscapes and environments are not single-faceted nor are individuals' experiences of them always aligned with objective reality (Yuille et al., 2024). ...
Landscape planning and design holds the potential to contribute to efforts toward repairing our growing psychological disconnection with nature. To do so, however, it is important to know what types of environmental features impact how connected to nature certain environments make us feel. The present study used a novel application of network analysis to identify which environmental features are most important for nature connection experiences. In this research, 205 participants completed online surveys in which they reported the presence or absence of a variety of environmental features during four previous nature connection experiences. They also indicated their level of recalled nature connectedness for each experience. The network analysis revealed that the most positively important features were those commonly found in rural nature (e.g., wild nature, animals, and mountains or hills). Features reflecting human presence (e.g., buildings, paved roads, vehicles) were most negatively important. Features commonly found in semi-rural nature (e.g., trees and meadows) were seemingly only important insofar as they were associated with the wilder features. Additionally, trails, wild nature, and mountains or hills were three of the features most central to nature connection experiences, suggesting that they are particularly important for how they support other parts of the network. Overall, from a purely nature-connection perspective, these findings support the need for increased rewilding efforts—more than simply increasing basic access to urban nature—and also limiting the overt presence of human development. Other more nuanced findings are also discussed.
... Some evidence is emerging, mostly from the adult literature, highlighting how the type and dose of nature may affect outcomes, such as nature connectedness (how connected people feel to nature) [45][46][47] and psychological restoration. 47 Some evidence suggests that more natural environments (e.g. ...
... Some evidence is emerging, mostly from the adult literature, highlighting how the type and dose of nature may affect outcomes, such as nature connectedness (how connected people feel to nature) [45][46][47] and psychological restoration. 47 Some evidence suggests that more natural environments (e.g. natural protected parks with increased biodiversity versus less biodiverse urban parks) and increased time in nature 46 have greater effects on nature connectedness 45,47,48 and psychological restoration. ...
... 47 Some evidence suggests that more natural environments (e.g. natural protected parks with increased biodiversity versus less biodiverse urban parks) and increased time in nature 46 have greater effects on nature connectedness 45,47,48 and psychological restoration. 47 In a recent study, this relationship was more confused, with significant increases in nature connectedness seen also in urban parks as well as more natural environments. ...
Background
Urbanisation is taking place worldwide and rates of mental illness are rising. There has been increasing interest in ‘nature’ and how it may benefit mental health and well-being.
Aims
To understand how the literature defines nature; what the characteristics of the nature intervention are; what mental health and well-being outcomes are being measured; and what the evidence shows, in regard to how nature affects the mental health and well-being of children and adolescents.
Method
A meta-review was conducted, searching three databases for relevant primary and secondary studies, using key search terms including ‘nature’ and ‘mental health’ and ‘mental well-being’. Inclusion criteria included published English-language studies on the child and adolescent population. Authors identified the highest quality evidence from studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Data were extracted and analysed using descriptive content analysis.
Results
Sixteen systematic reviews, two scoping reviews and five good quality cohort studies were included. ‘Nature’ was conceptualised along a continuum (the ‘nature research framework’) into three categories: a human-designed environment with natural elements; a human-designed natural environment; and a natural environment. The nature ‘intervention’ falls into three areas (the ‘nature intervention framework’): access, exposure and engagement with nature, with quantity and quality of nature relevant to all areas. Mental health and well-being outcomes fit along a continuum, with ‘disorder’ at one end and ‘well-being’ at the other. Nature appears to have a beneficial effect, but we cannot be certain of this.
Conclusions
Nature appears to have a beneficial effect on mental health and well-being of children and adolescents. Evidence is lacking on clinical populations, ethnically diverse populations and populations in low- and middle-income countries. Our results should be interpreted considering the limitations of the included studies and confidence in findings.
... These can be just as beneficial, perhaps even more so, than green spaces for humans 51 . While green spaces mainly include urban parks, forests, and gardens 44 , blue spaces include the ocean, rivers, lakes etc. 51,52 . Their recreational use has been shown to improve mood and attention, reducing depression, stress and anxiety 18,22,[53][54][55][56][57][58][59] . ...
... Emotions or self-reported restoration were measured with three items on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = fully disagree to 5 = fully agree), adapted from White et al. 51 and Wyles et al. 52 . The scale had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.77 in our study. ...
Being outdoors benefits both humans’ physical and mental well-being, but the reasons for this connection are difficult to pinpoint. This study examines 40 recreational areas to understand their individual characteristics’ impact on mental well-being. We interviewed 1184 visitors on their perception of the place and feeling of mental well-being. In a second survey, 49 participants were shown images of the areas to assess whether they perceived them in the same way as people on-site did. Biologists then evaluated the areas through bird and biotope surveys, also assessing various other landscape characteristics of the study areas. Analysis using a two-level multivariate GLM revealed that perceived naturalness and perceived bird diversity are significant predictors of improved mental well-being. On the flip side, mental well-being declines with increased human impact, as indicated by the amount of infrastructure and the Human Footprint Index value. Notably, perceived naturalness positively correlates with actual bird diversity (p = 0.005) and negatively with human impact (p = 0.006). A strong perception of birds enhances the mental well-being of greenspace visitors (p < 0.001), while a high birding specialization negatively affects recalled restoration (p = 0.014). The estimated restoration value (p = 0.001) and estimated beauty (p < 0.001) from the online survey correlate positively with emotions experienced on-site. The perception of naturalness in images aligns with on-site perception, suggesting pathways for future research and the design of recreational areas.
... Such theories offer a basis from which to gain an understanding of the positive effects of nature. However, questions remain as to whether some natural environments are more restorative than others (Wyles et al., 2019). Research suggests that specific properties of environments can make them more, or less, restorative. ...
... Past research has predominantly focused on whether nature environments are more restorative than urban settings, and the amount of exposure to green space required for evidence of restoration to be shown (for meta-analysis, see Menardo et al., 2021). More recently, the focus has shifted towards the restorative qualities of different types of nature whilst attempting to identify the qualities of nature most likely to trigger psychological restoration (e.g., Wyles et al., 2019). All types of nature, from wilderness (Milligan et al., 2021) to urban parks (Weber & Trojan, 2018), to back gardens (Howarth et al., 2020;Van Den Berg & Custers, 2011) and even allotment gardening (Wood et al., 2016), have been shown to be restorative. ...
The growing interest in harnessing natural environments to enhance mental health, including cognitive functioning and mood, has yielded encouraging results in initial studies. Given that images of nature have demonstrated similar benefits, they are frequently employed as proxies for real-world environments. To ensure precision and control, researchers often manipulate images of natural environments. The effectiveness of this approach relies on standardization of imagery, and therefore, inconsistency in methods and stimuli has limited the synthesis of research findings in the area. Responding to these limitations, the current paper introduces the Salford Nature Environments Database (SNED), a standardized database of natural images created to support ongoing research into the benefits of nature exposure. The SNED currently exists as the most comprehensive nature image database available, comprising 500 high-quality, standardized photographs capturing a variety of possible natural environments across the seasons. It also includes normative scores for user-rated (801 participants) characteristics of fascination, refuge and prospect, compatibility, preference, valence, arousal, and approach–avoidance, as well as data on physical properties of the images, specifically luminance, contrast, entropy, CIELAB colour space parameter values, and fractal dimensions. All image ratings and content detail, along with participant details, are freely available online. Researchers are encouraged to use this open-access database in accordance with the specific aims and design of their study. The SNED represents a valuable resource for continued research in areas such as nature-based therapy, social prescribing, and experimental approaches investigating underlying mechanisms that help explain how natural environments improve mental health and wellbeing.
... Much of the existing research on improving quality of life is related to health aspects, such as relaxation therapy (Sulistyarini 2013), hemodialysis therapy (Mailani 2017), balance therapy (Kiik et al. 2018), spiritual emotion freedom technique therapy (Aftrinanto et al. 2018;Roza et al. 2020), yoga therapy (Setiawan et al. 2021), social support (Meidikayanti and Wahyuni 2017), and self-care (Chaidir et al. 2017). Environmental factors can also influence the quality of life (Wyles et al. 2017;Ngo and Lung 2023). ...
... From a psychological perspective, external and internal factors can affect quality of life. External factors that can affect quality of life include social support (Chollou et al. 2022;Alalouf and Soffer 2023) and the environment (Wyles et al. 2017;Ngo and Lung 2023). Internal factors that can affect the quality of life include resilience (Chung et al. 2023), psychological well-being (Carretti et al. 2022), stress (Homayuni 2023), personality traits (Hunt et al. 2023), coping strategies (Kaewwilai et al. 2022), and social preferences (Lange et al. 1997). ...
Environmental degradation endangers human life. Future generations will be at risk if the necessary impact is not immediately addressed. Addressing environmental issues and enhancing quality-of-life (QoL) require pro-environmental behavior. This study aimed to examine the moderating role of social-value-orientation (SVO) in the association between pro-environmental behavior and QoL. Conducting in Indonesia and involving 402 students i.e., 303 female-students (Mages = 20.48 years, SD = 1.42) and 99 male-students (Mages = 20.49 years, SD = 1.42), this study used General Ecological Behavior Scale (α = 0.83), the WHOQOL-BREF (α = 0.87), and the triple-dominance of SVO. JASP 0.17.2.1 was performed to analyse data namely descriptive statistics and testing the moderating effect. The results showed that pro-environmental behavior and SVO predicted QoL (R2 = 0.247, F(3.398) = 45.533, p = 0.001), SVO moderated the association between pro-environmental behavior and QoL significantly (β = 0.141, p = 0.002). These findings have important implications for the sustainable behavior's promotion and the QoL's improvement.
... The research showed that lower stress and higher satisfaction are more closely related to being in natural environments such as forests, lakes, seas, and urban green spaces rather than to physical activity or being around other people. Other places such as homes, gardens, balconies, or local streets did not have the same effect (Wyles et al. 2017). Additionally, studies have also found that older adults in Poland often consider time spent in nature to be one of the best parts of their day (Jarosz 2023). ...
... Compared to their rural counterparts, urban elderly residents have substantially fewer opportunities for regular contact with nature. Studies conducted in the United Kingdom demonstrate that the ability to take a walk in a park or even a smaller green square positively influences people's quality of life and health (Wyles et al. 2017). Therefore, initiatives related to the "de-concretisation" of cities and the restoration of biodiversity are of immense importance in improving the situation of older adults. ...
The article aims to evaluate the potential impact of the European Funds for Infrastructure Climate and Environment Program 2021–2027 (Feniks Program) on the spatial determinants of older people’s situation in Poland, particularly in light of climate change adaptation. The evaluation focuses on those Program priorities that can effectively address institutional discrimination against older people and minimise the risks associated with the adverse effects of climate change on this demographic. This study employs a mixed methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of demographic data from sources such as Eurostat and GUS (period: 2002–2022) with qualitative evaluations of policy documents. The research focuses on assessing regional variations in the ageing process and the effectiveness of Feniks Program priorities in addressing these variations. In the demographic analysis, comparisons were made across all EU countries and regionally for differences between provinces in Poland. Due to its nationwide nature, the potential impact of Feniks is analysed for the entire country. The program’s focus on energy modernisation, water management, and green infrastructure has the potential to significantly improve the living conditions of the elderly and combat the negative impact of climate change on their situation. Investments in energy-efficient buildings, urban adaptation projects, and circular economy initiatives are crucial. The program prioritises less developed regions and urban areas most affected by demographic ageing and climate change challenges. The Feniks Program is well-positioned to enhance the quality of life for Poland’s ageing population by addressing key infrastructure and environmental challenges. The Program provides separate measures targeting urbanised areas, which is particularly important given the increasing number of older people in cities. However, the success of these initiatives depends on effective implementation and continuous monitoring to ensure inclusivity and sustainability. Future research should focus on the long-term impacts of these projects and explore additional measures to support the elderly in adapting to climate change.
... One individual difference that may play a role is the degree of connection that people feel to the environment [22] that can be assessed as both a trait and state [60]. Related to this, individuals' degree of openness to and awareness of their ongoing present-moment experiences may affect if and how they are impacted by various aspects of the environment. ...
... Interestedness, as an indicator of mindfulness, showed a similar correlation pattern with the psychological measures. This corroborates previous studies on how individuals' degree of openness to and awareness of their ongoing present-moment experiences affect their perception of the environment [60]. ...
The environment’s psychological impacts on humans have been long studied, but many questions remain unanswered. We conducted a micro-scale study to examine the relationships among the objective characteristics of urban environmental settings, people’s subjective perception of such settings, and the related psychological responses. We employed a geo-enabled survey tool to gather data on individuals’ perceptions of the immediate environment within their daily activity space. The psychological processes assessed included emotional and affective states such as perceived stress and happiness. The data points were mapped on a high-resolution aerial image, which was classified to derive quantitative properties to examine the dose-response relationship between environmental exposure and psychological responses. Our results showed negative correlations between the momentary stress level and the amount of environmental elements such as water, trees, and grass. Positive correlations were detected between stress level and the amount of parking lot and barren land, as well as the distance to buildings. In terms of perceived happiness, positive environmental factors included water, trees, and artificial surfaces, with all other elements having negative correlations. Most of the correlations examined were not strong correlations. This could be due to the significant differences in how individuals respond to environmental stimuli.
... There is no consensus on what kind of UGS is more beneficial to mental health, and few studies have focused on the causes of differences in the effects of different UGSs on mental health [30]. Different types of UGSs provide varying recreational ecosystem services, resulting in differences in their mental health benefits [14,31]. A longitudinal cohort study conducted in London, UK, showed that for adolescents, woodlands have a higher mental health-enhancing effect than grasslands and blue spaces [32]. ...
... Only few researchers have further begun to focus on the function that nature connectedness has in the association between various UGS types and psychological benefits. Compared with UGSs, individuals who are in contact with coastal beaches have a higher degree of nature connectedness, which in turn leads to higher psychological recovery [14]. Similarly, the impact of diverse UGS types on the degree of social interaction and relationships varies. ...
Scientific researchers are known for their demanding intellectual efforts and are particularly susceptible to mental health disorders. Urban green spaces (UGSs) are beneficial for people’s mental health, yet there is limited research on what types of UGSs and activities are effective for improving researchers’ mental health. Here, we investigate if researchers’ mental health can be enhanced by visiting affiliated green spaces, pocket parks, comprehensive parks, and coastal beaches. The research hypothesis was that the natural and social pathways of recreational ecosystem services jointly reduce researchers’ mental stress and attentional fatigue. The results suggest that nature contact, nature connectedness, and social interaction directly or indirectly have positive impacts on scientific researchers’ mental health. Both nature connectedness and social interaction serve as crucial mediating variables between nature contact and mental health. In terms of direct impact, high-frequency recreational activities in small UGSs with high accessibility, markedly relieve stress, whereas visit frequency in large UGSs with low accessibility has a limited effect on long-term mental stress relief. In terms of indirect impact, small UGSs alleviate attentional fatigue through the mediation of nature connectedness, while large UGSs mainly mitigate mental stress and attentional fatigue through the mediation of social interaction. This study provides a natural-social integrated perspective on recreational ecosystem services to enhance the well-being of scientific researchers. We provide recommendations for researchers to mitigate work-related stress and fatigue and to offer information useful for decision-making support to create a healthy environment for scientific researchers.
... Com os resultados dos seus estudos publicados em revistas científicas e posteriormente recolhidos nos seus livros, o Prof. Qing Li demonstrou que os benefícios do Forest Bathing são os resultados da resposta do nosso organismo à exposição aos monoterpenos 1 (ISPS -CNR, 2012) e iões negativos presentes em florestas e ambientes naturais (Krueger, 1976;NIKKEN RESEARCH INSTITUTE, s.d.). Outros investigadores (Ulrich, 1979(Ulrich, , 1983Kellert, 1993;Kaplan, 1995;Stigsdotter & Grahn, 2002;Wilson, 2004;Ohly et al., 2016;Wyles et al., 2019) trabalharam nos arquétipos da paisagem e nos seus efeitos psicológicos e emocionais, ativados pelas atividades de conexão com a natureza praticados pelos participantes, encontrando resultados que reforçam a congruência dos efeitos gerais das atividades de Forest Bathing nas pessoas. 1 Monoterpenos são hidrocarbonetos (C10) produzidos pelas plantas (fitoquímicos), são os principais constituintes dos óleos essenciais, e são emitidos pelas folhas de árvores em quantidades consideráveis. 3.10 Uma experiência de Forest Bathing no Parque da Devesa Vale a pena dizer que a investigação científica sobre os monoterpenos e os benefícios do Forest Bathing está a evoluir rapidamente e a produzir cada vez mais resultados, bastando fazer uma pesquisa na internet utilizando estas palavras -chave para encontrar artigos mais recentes e focados em aspetos mais particulares. ...
... Therefore, the lower cortisol levels observed in our low-diversity forest condition might not solely reflect biodiversity effects but also the psychological comfort derived from familiar and orderly environments. These insights underscore the importance of considering landscape structure and management in designing restorative natural spaces [28]. ...
Recent research underscores the positive effects of nature exposure on health and well-being. Growing evidence also links biodiversity within these environments to enhanced health outcomes, as diverse ecosystems may offer a broader range of multi-sensory stimuli. This experimental field study investigated the effects on psychological and physiological outcomes linked to spending time in a forest compared to an urban environment. Sixty-six healthy participants were randomly assigned to spend 20 min in either a forest environment with alternating tree species richness in the Wienerwald near Vienna, Austria, or an urban environment. Psychological data were collected using validated scales, and saliva cortisol samples were taken before and after the intervention. Findings showed that the forest visit significantly reduced negative emotions, enhanced positive affect, and lowered cortisol levels more effectively than the exposure to the urban environment. However, increased tree diversity within the forest setting did not further amplify these benefits. These results suggest potential mental health and stress reduction benefits of forest exposure in the case of the Wienerwald, supporting the consideration of nature-based interventions in urban public health initiatives. While forest biodiversity appears to have limited additional effects, future research could further investigate its role in nature-based interventions and forest therapy practices.
... According to the socioecological framework (Lachowycz & Jones, 2013), the impacts of greenspace exposure on health may be moderated by environmental (e.g., greenspace with water, traffic speed on routes to the park, and climate) and individual characteristics (e.g., social status and temperament). For example, greenspaces with water are particularly restorative (Wyles et al., 2019), and greenspace exposure is more positively associated with happiness among boys with lower effort control than among those with greater effort control (Cui & Yang, 2022). Future research should investigate these moderation effects and examine how different facets of greenspace exposure interact. ...
Research has shown that the frequency, duration, and intensity of greenspace exposure are significantly associated with children's adjustment. However, most studies have examined these facets separately. There is a lack of research that integrates them to offer a more comprehensive understanding of their unique associations with adjustment. This study investigates the unique associations between various facets of greenspace exposure and children's emotional (happiness and emotional problems) and behavioral (helping behavior and direct aggression) adjustment at both the daily and individual levels. The sample included 509 children (235 boys; Mage = 10.58 years, SD = 0.85 years) who completed a 14 days diary on greenspace exposure and adjustment. Multilevel analyses revealed that greenspace exposure (versus nonexposure) was associated with adjustment, and the various facets showed unique associations with adjustment. Specifically, on days when children were exposed to greenspace with more attributes than usual, they reported greater same‐day happiness and fewer emotional problems. Compared with children who were exposed to greenspace with fewer attributes, children who were exposed to greenspace with more attributes on average presented greater happiness and more helping behaviors. With respect to duration, on days when children spent more time in greenspace than usual, they reported greater same‐day happiness and more helping behaviors. However, frequency was not significantly associated with adjustment at either level. Our findings underscore the importance of enhancing the attributes of greenspace in the construction of child‐friendly cities. Practitioners may consider increasing the number of opportunities for children to be exposed to greenspace with rich attributes in greenspace‐based intervention programs.
... The demand to understand the benefits that vegetation provides for the urban population has been highlighted in the scientific literature, with benefits such as: mitigation of climate change that is increasingly frequent and in a shorter space of time, gains for biodiversity in the urban environment directly reflecting on the sustainability of the urban environment, contributing to the physical and psychological well-being of populations, promotion of physical activity, recreation and social interaction, among other benefits (Lin et al., 2014;Wyles et al., 2019). ...
Green spaces are part of the urban infrastructure and, with growing urbanization and the problems caused by global warming, they have gained prominence in recent research, highlighting the ecosystem, environmental, and social services they provide. In this context, this paper aims to discuss, through a bibliometric analysis and a literature review: the characteristics of urban green spaces; and the social and environmental contributions resulting from the ecosystem services they provide to society, with emphasis on mitigating the effects of climate change in the urban environment; as well as exemplifying the main types of green infrastructure used and the challenges for urban managers related to urban green infrastructure. The bibliometric analysis was based on the ‘Proknow-C’ methodology, starting with a preliminary investigation of the topic to select the search keywords, followed by a search of the Scopus and Web Of Science database portfolios, returning a total of 2945 documents, to which filters were applied, resulting in the final selection of 72 articles used to prepare the systematic literature review. There were several studies evaluating the contributions of infrastructure to the urban environment, highlighting the ecosystem services provided. Another relevant aspect was the classification of these infrastructures according to their functions, morphological characteristics, scale, land use and ecosystem services. Given the lack of research into the planning and management of urban green areas, it is proposed that studies be carried out that take into account current management demands, highlighting the importance of these studies integrating innovative and multidisciplinary concepts.
... An indoor plant is any plant that is grown indoors in places such as residences and offices, for example, peace lily, Zanzibar gem, and Echeveria [58]. Indoor plants as a nature-based intervention offer frequent and prolonged contact with nature [59,60] and the opportunity to interact with nature intentionally and directly [61,62], as well as the flexibility (variety and aesthetic) within personal spaces [63] to improve an individual's psychological and physiological well-being [64][65][66]. Studies have shown that engaging with indoor plants (for example, transplanting houseplants for 15 min) can significantly reduce psychological and physiological stress, offering a respite from the demands of mental work [67]. ...
Stressful life events are often undesirable, inevitable, and significant changes in one’s life, often triggering rumination and posing risks to mental health. However, these risks can be managed through coping strategies. Contact with nature has been shown to reduce rumination and enhance mental well-being. The current study investigated the effectiveness of a one-month nature-based intervention in enhancing psychological well-being and building resilience to manage rumination following a stressful life event. In this mixed-method study, 26 participants were randomly allocated to either an experimental group (n = 13), which tended to the Zamioculcas zamiifolia indoor plant for one month, or a waitlist control group (n = 13). Quantitative findings showed that tending to indoor plants was significantly effective in reducing depressive symptoms (p = 0.003), perceived stress (p < 0.001), negative affect (p = 0.017), and rumination (p = 0.015), as well as in enhancing resilience (p = 0.03) compared to the control group post-intervention. Qualitative findings provided insight into how the nature-based intervention fosters rumination resilience, the mediating effects of tending to an indoor plant, and the contribution it makes to psychological well-being. ‘Offers a slice of nature by bringing the outside, in’ demonstrates how caring for indoor plants creates a bridge for connection with nature. ‘Fosters an emotionally regulating personal sanctuary’ captures how tending to indoor plants can help manage emotions and provide a sense of empowerment that helps mitigate the tendency to ruminate. ‘Plants seeds for improving self-care, personal growth and introspection’ highlights indoor plants as a symbolic representation of resilience and renewal. A narrative emerges: as indoor plants grow and thrive with attention, so too does the individual, forming a deep, reciprocal relationship between nature and personal well-being. This study demonstrates nature’s role in coping with stressful life events and developing rumination resilience, paving the way for further research to explore its caveats and refine and expand nature-based interventions.
... Moreover, the study by Alsoud et al., (2023) found that the relationships between SMMA and sustainable tourism through the brand image as a mediator have a positive impact on two constructs (trendiness and e-WOM). However, the interaction construct of social media through brand image on sustainable tourism results found a negative relationship, which is reliable with the results of Barreda et al., (2020) but challenges the effects of Wyles et al., (2019) who obtained that interaction as one of the social media constructs had an important effect on sustainable tourism. In the contemporary digital time, the quick progress of technology and the widespread use of social media applications have created a progressively demanding scenery for industries aiming to keep pace with market trends and sustain a current brand image. ...
This study aims to establish the mediating role of brand image, including advertising and promotion content distributed on social media platforms, which can improve positive brand image in the relationship between social media advertising and sustainable tourism practices at Petra in Jordan. This study survey contained 332 of the participant’s respondents who visited Petra from different countries. | A structured questionnaire was also embraced to gather primary data. The data were analyzed utilizing Smart-PLS, which was used to classify the measurement and structural models. The mediating influence of together social media advertising and sustainable tourism practices was tested too. The outcomes showed that brand image positively mediates the link between social media advertising and sustainable tourism practices at Petra. For that reason, it can be supposed that brand image among tourists who visit Petra plays a crucial role in promoting social media advertising for improved sustainable tourism practices at Petra. Finally, this study delivers an empirical indication of a phenomenon not studied at Petra in Jordan where the tourists who visited Petra concreted in norms and customs for sustainable tourism practices. The outcomes underline the significance of brand image in mediating the link between social media advertising and sustainable tourism practices at Petra.
... Therefore, individuals' knowledge and perception of green space are not influenced by their level of education. This finding is consistent with previous research suggesting that factors other than education may play a more significant role in shaping attitudes toward green spaces [7,78]. Further exploration of these alternative influencing factors could provide valuable insights for urban planning and environmental management. ...
... There is growing interest in the scientific understanding of the interactions between humans and nature. Creating green spaces in cities, adding water features to businesses, and providing outside recess time are all attempts to connect humans with natural environments and are shown to have calming, restorative effects on human cognitive functions (Berman et al., 2008;Berto, 2014;Chawla, 2015;Wyles et al., 2019). When humans have opportunities to observe or interact with animals in their natural habitat, increases in calmness and other aspects of psychological and physical health are reported (DeMares, 2000;Keniger et al., 2013). ...
Human-wildlife interactions have been shown to positively impact tourist beliefs and actions in relation to wildlife and the environment. The purpose of this study was to explore guest beliefs and perceptions about dolphins and dolphin programs before and after participating in human-dolphin interactions ( HDI ). We surveyed 142 guests participating in a self-selected HDI located in a natural lagoon facility at The Roatán Institute for Marine Sciences in Sandy Bay Roatán, Honduras. Of the 142 survey respondents, 130 completed the survey fully, and 28 of those 130 also completed a two-week follow-up survey. The results indicated that the guests maintained pre-existing positive attitudes towards dolphins, learned new information, and reported feeling connected with nature following their HDI experiences. The HDI experience format resulted in few differences in participant responses, suggesting that interactive programs maintained existing attitudes while subtly shaping beliefs about human-animal interactions.
... Additionally, many topics of interest in environmental psychology are multiply determined with far more than just a single cause. Again, considering nature connectedness as an example, research has revealed that there are multiple pathways (i.e., types of activities; e.g., Lumber, Richardson, & Sheffield, 2017), psychological phenomena (e.g., Schutte & Malouff, 2018), situational features (e.g., Wyles et al., 2019) and emotions (e.g., Capaldi et al., 2014) that influence nature connectedness (see Lengieza & Swim, 2021b, for a review). With so many different determinants, looking for a single highly explanatory factor, while valuable, ignores the more holistic picture of a network of factors that influence important sustainability outcomes (see Capizzi & Kempton, 2023, or Costantini et al., 2019, for examples of how networks can be useful in psychological research). ...
Many of the psychological phenomena that are relevant to the environmental crises facing the globe are determined by a complex set of interrelated constructs—that is, they are determined by a network of factors. In recognizing that these factors form a network and do not work in isolation, the need for research that captures the holistic interrelations between variables becomes obvious. As a way of exploring the value of such an approach for other areas of environmental psychology, we tested the utility of treating nature-connectedness experiences as a network using principles adapted from social network analysis. In Study 1, we look at the affective situation network concerning nature-connectedness experiences. In Study 2, we draw upon the pathways to nature framework to investigate the activity situation network for nature connectedness experiences. In Study 1, we find that awe, inspiration, and love are all important and central to nature-connectedness experiences. In Study 2, we find that meaningful (e.g., meaning-making) and deliberate engagement (e.g., noticing) are important and central to nature-connectedness experiences. More importantly, the results from this pair of studies indicate that using this network approach is a useful exploratory tool that is both generative and flexible and can yield important insights that can catalyse novel lines of confirmatory research. Thus, we suggest that research in other areas of environmental psychology consider this approach.
... Yet there are also several important ways in which biodiversity and ecosystem quality produced through restoration activities can mediate the pathways towards human health. In other words, the health and well-being of urban residents benefit from these processes (Wyles et al., 2019). ...
Growing urbanisation impacts both human health and biodiversity. Urban environments are currently home to 55% of the world’s human population, and many cities are located within the world’s biodiversity ‘hotspots’. Thus, urban planning for current and future cities demands concepts and actions that foster co-benefits for both people and nature. From an ecological perspective, cities may want to restore urban ecosystems through, for example, adding biodiversity elements (native plant diversity, structural complexity) to improve depleted ecosystem functioning and enhance ecosystem resilience. From a psychological perspective, research shows that contact with natural environments can promote people’s psychological restoration and enhance psychological resilience. In this chapter, the parallels between ecosystem restoration and psychological restoration in urban environments are explored. The ecological and psychological perspectives are bridged through the concepts of restoration and resilience, with urban biodiversity as a fundamental link between the two that can offer win-wins for urban planning. Evidence from the literature and case studies on ecosystem restoration initiatives, biophilic design concepts, urban garden social-ecological research, and nature-based social prescriptions demonstrates how a co-benefit approach to planning and managing city environments can support biodiverse urban ecosystems that create opportunity for psychological restoration and human health.
... Therefore, it can be inferred that the restorative environment also encompasses the concept of place. Based on the aforementioned description, since previous studies have indicated that rural landscapes with natural characteristics, such as agricultural landscapes, farms, and forests, contribute to people's psychological recovery (Hung et al., 2022;Simkin et al., 2020;Wyles et al., 2019) or exhibit a healing effect (Conradson, 2005;Yan & He, 2020), this study infers that PR elicited in a specific paddy field setting with restorative characteristics may influence PA through the psychological health-place connection from the perspective of therapeutic landscapes. ...
112 年 12 月 26 日；第一次修正：113 年 1 月 22 日； 第二次修正：113 年 2 月 16 日；接受日期：113 年 3 月 1 日 摘要 農業景觀具心理恢復潛力，也是遊客與農村聯結的重要元素，了解遊客對農業景觀的心 理恢復與地方依附關係有必要性。目前雖有少數知覺恢復性與地方依附關係的文獻，但缺乏 兩者關係一致性之結果與少有兩者關係在農業景觀的調查。因此，本研究以治療性景觀為基 礎，整合注意力恢復和地方依附觀點，提出知覺恢復性、正向情緒、記憶性和地方依附的研 究架構進行調查，也探討正向情緒和記憶性在知覺恢復性與地方依附間的中介角色。以臺東 池上鄉稻田景觀實證，共 406 份有效問卷。結果顯示，除知覺恢復性對地方依附無顯著影響 外，其餘變項間關係皆顯著，正向情緒和記憶性在知覺恢復性與地方依附間扮演完全中介角 色。本研究根據結果提出理論意涵探討及實務建議。 【關鍵字】：知覺恢復、情緒、記憶性、地方依附、注意力恢復理論、鄉村旅遊 Abstract Agricultural landscapes not only possess potential for psychological restoration but also serve as crucial elements bonding visitors' experiences with rural areas. Understanding the psychological restoration and place attachment of visitors to agricultural landscapes is essential. Although there is literature addressing the relationship between perceived restorativeness and place attachment, there is an inconsistency in the results and a gap of previous studies in investigating the relationship between the two in the context of agricultural landscapes. Therefore, based on the foundation of a therapeutic landscapes concept, this study integrates perspectives from Attention Restoration Theory and Place Attachment Theory, proposing a research model that investigates the relationships among perceived restorativeness, positive emotions, memorability, and place attachment. Additionally, it explores the mediating roles of positive emotions and memorability in the relationship between perceived restorativeness and place attachment. The results of structural equation modeling on data from 406 valid questionnaires distributed to visitors visiting paddy fields in Chishang Township, Taitung, Taiwan, indicated that perceived restorativeness has no significant effect on place attachment, while the relationships among the other variables are all significant. Positive emotion and memorability play a fully mediating role in the relationship between perceived restorativeness and place attachment. Based on the research results, this study offers theoretical implications for discussion and provides practical recommendations.
... Gender roles and relations, as well as gender stereotypes and safety concerns, might affect contact with natural spaces (see Day, 2000): which urban greenspaces are visited, with what frequency, with whom, when, and whyaspects which are recognized as key aspects of restorative pathways (Barton & Pretty, 2010;Cheon, Han, Kim, & Kwon, 2019;Hartig et al., 2014;Staats, Jahncke, Herzog, & Hartig, 2016;Wyles et al., 2019). In terms of frequency of contact, there is some evidence that women seem to visit natural spaces less often than men (Basu & Nagendra, 2021;Cohen et al., 2007Cohen et al., , 2021Derose, Han, Park, Williamson, & Cohen, 2019;Sonti, Campbell, Svendsen, Johnson, & Auyeung, 2020). ...
... In the framework, exposure to blue space is the precondition for generating health benefits. Specifically, three potential pathways linking blue space exposure to health benefits are (1) mitigation, suggesting that the presence of blue spaces can enhance ambient environments and reduce health threats by regulating urban temperature (Ampatzidis & Kershaw, 2020), reducing air pollution (Ren et al., 2018), buffering traffic noise (Rådsten-Ekman et al., 2013), etc.; (2) restoration, proposing that blue spaces can decrease the risk of stress-induced diseases and enhance restoration capabilities, based on two well-known theories: Attention Restoration Theory (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) and Stress Reduction Theory (Ulrich et al., 1991); (3) instoration, positing that blue spaces offer ideal settings for physical and social activities (Perchoux et al., 2015;Wyles et al., 2019). Note that the three pathways are not independent but interact with each other, which exerts a joint health benefit, such as stress reduction during physical activity around blue space, i.e., the interaction between instoration and restoration pathways (Hartig et al., 2014). ...
Urban blue space offers substantial health benefits by encouraging population physical activity. Despite much evidence on the nature-health nexus, the relationship between blue space and recreational exercises remains under-studied, limiting the realisation of health benefits in blue space design. Using crowdsourced data, including volunteered geographic information and street view image data, this study investigates the associations of blue space quality with recreational running and cycling in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Results show that recreational exercise levels on street segments vary based on the blue space type and design. Compared to inland canals and rivers, small-scale recreational waterbodies are more conducive to running but not cycling, while both activities tend to cluster around the Nieuwe Maas River. Interestingly, the Water View Index shows a general negative association with both activities after adjusting for the blue space type. Besides the waterbody charac teristics, eye-level environmental factors, including higher Green View Index, lower building density, more diverse land use, greater connected street network and fewer traffic elements, are associated with more running and cycling exercises. Results for visual complexity and neighbourhood population composition are mixed depending on the exercise type. These findings are further translated into spatial design patterns for developing exercise-supportive and health-promoting blue spaces.
... The health values of human settlement environment have been widely recognized and studied. Globally, researchers have established that, compared to the built environment, the natural environment is more effective in reducing stress and enhancing emotional status (1)(2)(3), and in promoting physical health (4,5); this could be a result of the fact that humans possess biophilia, an innate tendency to seek connections with nature, and that engaging with nature provides restorative experiences (6). It has also been discovered that individual emotional reactions and the activation of internal cognitive processes are influenced differently by various settings (7). ...
The need for privacy, recognized as a fundamental psychological requirement, has garnered increasing attention as researchers explore the restorative effects of privacy driven activities (PDA). This study employs quantitative experiments and analyses to assess the restorative benefits of PDA within three classical Chinese gardens, demonstrating their superiority over conventional leisure activities in promoting emotional recovery, reducing stress, and restoring attention. The experiment quantifies the restorative effects of PDA versus standard leisure activities using a classic restorative scale and physiological indicators reflecting emotional relief. Regression analyses then identify five key factors influencing the occurrence of PDA, derived from preferred locations and behavioral tendencies observed in the three gardens. Further analyses reveal significant differences in the impacts of these five environmental feature dimensions on the evaluation indicators of “preference for privacy-oriented activities” and “restorative effects”. Among these dimensions, “spatial scale and accessibility” has the greatest impact on the “preference for privacy-oriented environments”, while “spatial atmosphere” and “activity facilities” have the most significant impact on “restorative effects”. The findings suggest that behavioral activities mediate the relationship between environmental factors and restorative effects, highlighting the potential of PDA as a mediating variable for a comprehensive investigation into the pathways and mechanisms influencing restorative environments in research and design.
... There is less research comparing mental health outcomes for the same or similar people, but different nature experiences, such as different ecosystems (Hatty et al., 2022;Manero, 2023;Remme et al., 2021;Selinske et al., 2023;Subirana-Malaret et al., 2023;Turunen et al., 2023;Wyles et al., 2019;Yin et al., 2022) or activities (Buckley, 2022a;Johansson et al., 2024a;Turunen et al., 2023). ...
To advance the theoretical and practical underpinnings for nature therapies, i.e. nature exposure as a means to improve mental health, we compared the most memorable sensory experiences reported by forest tourists in Australia, Chile, China and Japan. Sensory experiences are a fundamental driver of the psychological effects of nature exposure.
We first reviewed relevant research from each country and language. We then conducted 100 on‐site interviews in Australia, 100 in Chile, and >500 in China, and compiled 1000 relevant social media posts from Japan. We analysed these datasets using directed‐content qualitative thematic analyses, both in original languages and in translated texts, and compared outcomes from each country.
The key sensory experiences are universal: sights of plant shapes and colours; sounds of birdsong, running water and rustling leaves; smells of flowers, trees, and earth; taste and temperature of clean air and water; and touch of bark and rocks. Participants gave detailed descriptions of each. These fine‐grained but widespread experiences are our principal finding.
These sensory experiences are at a scale that is broad enough to apply for prescriptible nature therapies in any forested region, but fine enough to be used in future quantitative research to test therapeutic designs, doses and durations. This distinguishes them from prior research, that is either too broad or too fine in scale for practical therapy design.
Future research aiming to maximise the mental health benefits of nature may not need to distinguish different countries and cultures, but may need to differentiate nature experiences more finely and precisely than in most therapy‐related research to date.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... Given these environments are less likely to be used for physical activity and are associated with environmental features that can be calming, perhaps mental restoration is a more dominant pathway among adults, specifically when visiting inland blue spaces . While research is needed to specifically examine this potential mediator, adults have reported a greater sense of restorativeness when visiting rural and coastal environments, compared with urban green space environments (Wyles et al., 2019) and two psychological theories explain why blue spaces environments are likely to have restorative effects. Stress recovery theory explains that pleasant, natural environments promote positive affect which can reduce negative affect including anxiety, stress or low mood (Ulrich, 1983). ...
Research has shown that blue space (i.e. water-based environments) can be good for physical and mental health, with one possible reason being that people are physically active when visiting blue space environments. However, little is known about how active people are when visiting blue space. We used the System for Observing Physical Activity and Recreation in Natural Areas to systematically record whether people were active while visiting eight different blue space locations in Australia. We first calculated the proportion of people who were moderately or vigorously active at each location and then conducted a series of linear regression models to determine which demographic and environmental factors predicted higher activity levels. We identified that 44% of people visiting blue space locations were active. However, there were significant interactions between both age and gender, and type of blue space. Males (β = −0.25, p = 0.018) and females (β = −0.26, p ≤ 0.001) were less active at built-up riverfronts than coastal beaches. Females were also less active at inland beaches (β = −0.15, p = 0.013) and watering holes (β = −0.20, p = 0.011) compared with coastal beaches. Children (β = 0.16, p = 0.006) and adolescents, however, were more active at inland beaches (β = 0.32, p ≤ 0.001) than coastal beaches. These results are important to consider when making decisions around access to, and infrastructure within, blue space environments, as different blue space environments influence human behaviour differently for different people.
... User-generated content on social media platforms is gaining popularity as it unites online communities by allowing individuals to share thoughts, experiences, and perspectives (Wyles et al., 2019). This content, including images and tags, reflects personal values and can serve as valuable information for long-term behavior change (Chung and Koo, 2015). ...
Introduction
This study investigates the impact of social media on pro-environmental behavior (PEB) through the lenses of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and Social Impact Theory. The research aims to elucidate how social media influences Environmental Attitude (EA) and Subjective Norms (SN), and how these factors contribute to Behavioral Intentions (BI) that ultimately affect PEB. Additionally, it examines the moderating effect of Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) on the relationship between BI and PEB.
Methods
To explore these relationships, the study employs a dual methodological approach using Variance-Based Structural Equation Modeling (VBSEM) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN). Data were collected from two distinct samples: 1200 participants from Taiwan for the SEM analysis and 602 respondents for the ANN study. SEM was utilized to explore causal relationships, while ANN was employed to enhance predictive accuracy.
Results
The SEM analysis reveals that social media significantly affects both EA and SN, except for Social Networking Site Involvement (SNSI), which does not significantly impact EA. Additionally, the findings indicate that BI mediates the relationship between EA and PEB. However, BI does not mediate the SN-PEB relationship, and the link between SN and BI is found to be non-significant. Empirical evidence also suggests that PBC moderates the BI-PEB relationship, with a stronger influence observed under higher levels of PBC and a weaker influence under lower levels.
Discussion
These results underscore the complex dynamics between social media factors and pro-environmental behavior. The study concludes that while social media plays a significant role in shaping EA and SN, its impact on EA is not mediated by SNSI. Furthermore, PBC significantly moderates the BI-PEB relationship, highlighting its critical role in PEB. The discussion addresses the implications of these findings, acknowledges the limitations encountered, and suggests potential avenues for future research.
... One of the most consistent outcomes from nature-based experiences is the relationship between HNC and time spent in a structurally complex and biodiverse green space (Beery and Wolf-Watz 2014;Scopelliti et al. 2016;Coldwell and Evans 2017; Coll� eony, White and Shwartz 2019). Individuals who spend time in these types of spaces report positive psychological, cognitive, physiological, and social effects (Fuller et al. 2007;Keniger et al. 2013;Wyles et al. 2019). Additionally, individuals who experience nature through recreation or in appreciative (e.g. ...
Large, vegetatively diverse, and connected green space is often considered essential to conservation. Yet, these criteria can be impractical when applied to densely populated or under-resourced urban areas and evoke mixed sentiments from people. Conventional urban green space is often smaller, minimally vegetated, and contains open mowed areas that are inadequate for many wildlife species and fail to provide opportunities for nature connection in biodiverse environments. As songbirds are well liked and globally distributed, they present an opportunity to rethink urban green spaces, particularly small urban green spaces, that contain landscape qualities where the needs of people and songbirds converge. We conducted a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed publications to examine the natural, structural, and anthropogenic factors associated with songbird richness in small (<2 ha) urban green spaces. Overall, small urban green spaces that incorporated a variety of habitats and native plant species, particularly trees, supported songbird richness. In some cases, songbird richness in small green spaces was equivalent to richness reported in larger green spaces. Interestingly, connectivity between green spaces was not significant in the majority of articles that examined the factor. This outcome removes a possible obstruction to green space allocation and has the potential to jumpstart the placement of green space into historically and perpetually under-resourced communities. Finally, associations with anthropogenic factors had few positive associations with songbird richness, but this category of factors was also reported the least often. Collectively, these results provide feasible options to improve human health, nature connections, and songbird conservation.
... Numerous studies have shown that nature has restorative properties (McNeel, 2021;Shosha, 2021;Van den Bosch & Sang, 2017), and that green spaces are particularly effective for restoration (Nukarinen et al., 2022). Wyles et al. (2019) note that being immersed in nature enhances psychological restoration. Natural settings can help hospital patients recover quickly and experience positive moods while reducing stress, thus benefiting their healing and recovery outcomes (Suess, 2023). ...
When considering how hotels can facilitate aesthetics that offer restorative benefits to business and leisure travelers, extant research suggests natural environments serve as a refuge and that time spent in nature promotes well-being. Based on the tenets of Stress Recovery Theory (SRT), combined with the theoretical perspective of prospect-refuge, we examine, through a series of conjoint analyses, how combinations of biophilic design elements differ in the extent to which they are perceived to enhance guests’ restoration, including relaxation, energy, and mind clarity. We further explore how these perceptions change based on higher and lower levels of individuals’ longer-term states of anxiety and stress. Findings can be translated into practical applications, ensuring that the biophilic elements more closely aligned with restoration and psychological needs are prioritized in urban hotel building and interior design.
... For example, although in the short term, increased visitor numbers might result in increased volumes of nature-based PA, additional visitors can result in increased degradation of habitat and decreased biodiversity (Wyles et al., 2014), which may ultimately reduce visitor satisfaction and use of the space. Negative effects of visits and certain activities on biodiversity and quality of the natural environment might also be expected to reduce the psychological restorativeness of such spaces (Wood et al., 2018;Wyles et al., 2019), potentially counteracting some of the beneficial effects associated with increased PA. Since the benefits of nature-based PA are accrued over relatively long periods, interventions should be designed to be sustained over a sufficiently long time to affect improvements in health. ...
... Window views of trees and parks adjacent to buildings [43]; wooden walls and floors [44]; biophilic design in residential interiors such as natural images, forms, colors, and materials [45] Residential activities Physical movement in natural environment Frequent visits to green space, water, and other landscapes by walking, running, and cycling [46]; physical exercise [47,48] Interactions with natural environment Natural environment for sitting, touching, and playing with [49]; urban gardening accompanied by nature observation, leisure, physical exercise, social interaction, and knowledge acquisition [50]; community gardening activities [37,51] The purpose of this paper is to develop an effective tool in the form of a scale for evaluating the biophilic spatial environment in high-rise residential areas. Specifically, Sustainability 2024, 16, 2866 3 of 19 there are two objectives: (a) to identify biophilic design features that enhance residents' NC in the spatial environment and (b) to examine the reliability and validity of the scale and analyze its structure. ...
The increasing popularity of high-rise, high-density residential areas in urban environments has brought about problems such as isolation from nature and increasingly depauperate ecological conditions, and consequently, adverse effects on residents’ health and environmental sustainability. Therefore, creating a high-quality biophilic living space environment is key to solving this conflict, considering the health benefits that nature brings to people. However, there are currently no appropriate assessment tools to measure the biophilic living environment of high-rise residential areas. In response, we have developed an environment assessment scale for measuring the Biophilic Experience in High-Rise Residential Areas (BornA) based on resident experiences. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to identify the measurement items relevant to their biophilic living experiences and behaviors. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were performed to identify the scale’s structure and examine its reliability and validity. The study resulted in the development of an 18-item BornA, comprising five dimensions: natural landscape, natural interaction, cultural identity, neighborhood interaction, and personal space. The BornA contributes to the assessment of the biophilic living space environment in high-rise residential areas from the perspective of resident behavior and perception, identifying health intervention environments for sample populations and understanding how the residential environment affects residents’ health.
Background: Physical and mental health issues are increasingly becoming a global focus of attention, and telemedicine is widely attracting academic interest. Objectives: This exploratory study aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of immersive virtual blue spaces for individuals with distinct lifestyle backgrounds—specifically, office workers and retirees. The research explores how different virtual waterscapes influence emotional and physiological states in populations with varying stress profiles and life rhythms. Methods: A mixed-methods design was employed, combining quantitative measurements with qualitative interviews. In September 2023, forty participants (20 office workers and 20 retirees) from Hualien, Taiwan, were exposed to 360° VR simulations of three blue environments: a forest stream, a forest waterfall, and a beach scene. Pre- and post-session assessments included physiological indicators (blood pressure and heart rate) and emotional states measured using the Profile of Mood States (POMS) scale. Results: Significant physiological relaxation was observed among retirees. Office workers demonstrated greater emotional improvements, with noticeable variation depending on the type of virtual environment. Comparative analysis highlighted the stream landscape’s unique benefit for reducing depression and enhancing positive mood states. Thematic findings from post-session interviews further indicated that emotional responses were moderated by individual background and prior emotional experiences. Conclusions: These findings underscore the short-term therapeutic potential of virtual blue spaces for diverse user groups and reveal the influence of personal context on their effectiveness. The study supports the integration of VR-based nature exposure into personalized digital healthcare interventions and offers a foundation for future development in immersive therapeutic technologies.
Introduction
The first signs of mental health issues in dentistry manifest as early as undergraduate training, thus it is essential to delve into the concept of resilience to equip those studying and working in dentistry with the resources to cultivate a positive mindset.
Materials and Methods
A focus group was conducted with a homogenous purposive sample of eight undergraduate dental profession students from all 3 years of study at the University of Portsmouth Dental Academy (UPDA). The six‐phase Braun and Clarke's thematic analysis was adopted to interpret patterns in data.
Results
Four themes of: ‘definition of resilience’; ‘factors enhancing resilience’; ‘factors challenging resilience’ and ‘developing resilience in dentistry’; and 23 subthemes were identified. Students defined resilience as an ability to bounce back from adversity and perceived it as a dynamic and contextual phenomenon that fluctuated due to an interplay of personal, social and environmental factors.
Conclusion
The findings of this study showed undergraduate dental profession students' perceptions of resilience, factors influencing it and strategies to develop it. These findings may inform the curriculum of resilience training programmes targeted towards this population.
Genç Yetişkinlerin Yere Aidiyet ve Topluluk Bağlılığı: Kırsal ve Kentsel Topluluklar Arasındaki Farklar
Background
Growing evidence shows various health and well-being benefits from nature contact in parks and other forms of protected areas. However, the methods to measure these outcomes lack systematic identification, critical appraisal, and synthesis. Researchers working in this area would benefit from a clear framework highlighting key considerations when selecting measurement tools, along with a summary of the measures used, and insights into the limitations of generalizing existing research findings.
Objective
The objectives of this scoping review are 2-fold. First, we aim to identify the instruments used to measure mental health and well-being outcomes of adults associated with direct nature contact in parks and other forms of protected areas. Second, we aim to evaluate the psychometric properties associated with the validity of these instruments to better understand the strengths and weaknesses of current measurement approaches.
Methods
Following PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines, 8 scholarly databases were searched (PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO [via ProQuest], ERIC [via EBSCOhost], CINAHL [via EBSCOhost], GreenFILE [via EBSCOhost], OVID, and GEOBASE) on January 4, 2023, for literature measuring the mental health and well-being outcomes associated with nature contact in protected areas. Sources were screened by reviewers based on clear inclusion or exclusion criteria relevant to the research questions: peer-reviewed English language studies measuring mental health and well-being focused on adults (aged 18+ years) with direct, in-person nature contact in parks and protected areas. Data will be extracted, analyzed, and represented according to 3 domains. This includes study details, characteristics of the measurement instruments, and their validity.
Results
The results of the study and submission of a manuscript for peer review are expected in April 2025. The results of the scoping review are expected to contribute to an understanding of the diverse methods used to measure mental health and well-being related to nature contact in protected areas. Expected findings will include an organized summary of existing quantitative and qualitative instruments for measuring mental health and well-being outcomes, including appraisal of the instrument’s psychometric properties.
Conclusions
To the authors’ knowledge, this will be the first scoping review undertaken on measures used to assess mental health and well-being outcomes related to nature contact in parks and protected areas context, offering a starting point from which to critically examine the validity and consistency of such methods. Findings will aid in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of current measurement approaches to mental health and well-being outcomes of nature contact and may be used to guide future research on this topic, helping researchers choose the best tool to assess outcomes.
International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)
DERR1-10.2196/63338
There is growing recognition that our relationship with nature needs repairing. Two operationalizations of this construct within psychology are nature connectedness and relational environmental values. This review covers recent advances on both constructs. It outlines the growing evidence that both operationalizations are strong predictors of pro-environmental outcomes. It goes on to review what is known about the antecedents of the human–nature relationship and outlines three emerging principles about nature connectedness, in particular—it largely operates like a true relationship, it is a form of self-transcendence, and it involves the self. Additionally, the review highlights recent paradigmatic shifts in the study of the human–nature relationship, shifting from studying associations at the individual level to instead focus on group-level processes.
Biophilic design has gained prominence in architecture as a strategy to integrate natural elements into built environments, aiming to improve human comfort, well-being, and environmental sustainability. This paper critically reviews existing biophilic design frameworks, identifying gaps in their integration of health outcomes and the relationship between indoor and outdoor environments, with a primary focus on indoor environmental quality (IEQ) factors such as air quality, natural light, thermal comfort, and acoustics. The review was conducted systematically, comparing frameworks using criteria such as health benefits, human–nature connections, and user satisfaction. Key findings highlight a lack of comprehensive frameworks that explicitly link biophilic design to measurable improvements in human health, comfort, and satisfaction. To address this gap, the study proposes an enhanced biophilic design framework that bridges IEQ-focused indoor environments with urban outdoor elements, prioritizing human comfort alongside environmental sustainability. The framework also emphasizes the role of post-occupancy evaluation (POE) in assessing the real-world performance of biophilic interventions, particularly in achieving user satisfaction and ensuring long-term effectiveness. This research contributes to the advancement of biophilic design by offering actionable strategies for architects, urban planners, and policymakers to adopt biophilic principles that create resilient, healthy, and sustainable spaces. Additionally, the study emphasizes the need for empirical testing and validation of the proposed framework, including POE and user surveys, to assess its real-world impact on human well-being and satisfaction, thus setting the stage for future research.
Urban natural spaces with high wildness degrees could harbor greater biodiversity and provide more experiences of nature for urbanites than green–blue spaces that are perfectly manicured and regularly maintained. Existing empirical studies have suggested that people tend to prefer moderately wild landscapes. However, urbanites’ preferences for varying wildness degrees of urban landscapes have rarely been studied in developing countries with fast-growing cities. Using a photograph-based survey, this study compared citizens’ preferences for an urban wildness gradient of urban lakeshores between developed (Tours, France) and developing (Wuhan, China) contexts. In Tours and Wuhan, respectively, 120 and 295 questionnaires were collected, focusing on lakeshore visitors only. Bootstrapping and thematic analysis of the survey responses affirmed that urban lakeshores with medium-degree wildness are consistently preferred across developed and developing contexts, a result that can be attributed to the perceived balance between landscape coherence/legibility and complexity/mystery. Moreover, some respondents (25.8 % from Tours and 32.6 % from Wuhan) showed a strong preference for complex and unstructured lakeshore landscapes with high wildness for different reasons. In Tours, respondents’ preference for high wildness degree was associated with more frequent visits to lakeshore areas. In Wuhan, a similar preference was associated with increasing age. While increasing the wildness of urban lakeshores from low to medium could adequately meet public preferences, attracting more frequent visits and helping younger residents to appreciate urban wildness should be considered for successfully restoring/enriching biodiversity and mobilizing public support for wild urban landscapes.
In this article, we explore the extent to which applying embodied, ‘skin in the game’ methods used in infrastructure activism (a contemporary art practice) can help expand the toolkit of methods applied in action research on infrastructures, interactions between humans and more-than-humans and urban socio-environmental processes in planning. In particular, we focus on two cases of infrastructure activism: the Amsterdam Zuidoost Food Forest (VBAZO), in Amsterdam's South East, and the KRATER project in Ljubljana's city centre. In our discussion of these projects, we explore the embodied research practices that infrastructure activists have developed to change not only urban green infrastructures but also researcher-actors’ own perspectives.
Experiences of nature provide many mental-health benefits, particularly for people living in urban areas. The natural characteristics of city residents' neighborhoods are likely to be crucial determinants of the daily nature dose that they receive; however, which characteristics are important remains unclear. One possibility is that the greatest benefits are provided by characteristics that are most visible during the day and so most likely to be experienced by people. We demonstrate that of five neighborhood nature characteristics tested, vegetation cover and afternoon bird abundances were positively associated with a lower prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress. Furthermore, dose–response modeling shows a threshold response at which the population prevalence of mental-health issues is significantly lower beyond minimum limits of neighborhood vegetation cover (depression more than 20% cover, anxiety more than 30% cover, stress more than 20% cover). Our findings demonstrate quantifiable associations of mental health with the characteristics of nearby nature that people actually experience.
There is a need to increase people's engagement with and connection to nature, both for human well-being and the conservation of nature itself. In order to suggest ways for people to engage with nature and create a wider social context to normalise nature engagement, The Wildlife Trusts developed a mass engagement campaign, 30 Days Wild. The campaign asked people to engage with nature every day for a month. 12,400 people signed up for 30 Days Wild via an online sign-up with an estimated 18,500 taking part overall, resulting in an estimated 300,000 engagements with nature by participants. Samples of those taking part were found to have sustained increases in happiness, health, connection to nature and pro-nature behaviours. With the improvement in health being predicted by the improvement in happiness, this relationship was mediated by the change in connection to nature.
Individuals may be losing touch with nature as their contact with it decreases worldwide. Although the consequences for people's
personal well-being outcomes are becoming well documented, there is almost no research examining the social correlates of
contact with nature. This article used a large nationally representative sample to link objective (percent greenspace) and
subjective measurements of contact with nature, community cohesion, and local crime incidence. The perceived quality, views,
and amount of time spent in nature were linked to more community cohesion, and in turn, the perception of cohesive communities
enhanced individual well-being outcomes and contributions back to society through higher workplace productivity and environmentally
responsible behaviors. Our findings also indicated that local nature was linked to lower crime both directly and indirectly
through its effects on community cohesion.
Exposure to natural environments can have calming and stress-reducing effects on humans. Moreover, previous studies suggest that these benefits may be greater in areas with higher species richness. Our study took advantage of a “natural experiment” to examine people’s behavioral, physiological, and psychological reactions to increases in levels of marine biota in a large aquarium exhibit during three stages of restocking: Unstocked, Partially stocked, and Fully stocked. We found that increased biota levels were associated with longer spontaneous viewing of the exhibit, greater reductions in heart rate, greater increases in self-reported mood, and higher interest. We suggest that higher biota levels, even in managed settings, may be associated with important well-being and health benefits, particularly for individuals not able to access the natural analogues of managed environments.
The beneficial effects of blue environments have been well documented; however, we do not know how marine litter might modify these effects. Three studies adopted a picture-rating task to examine the influence of litter on preference, perceived restorative quality, and psychological impacts. Photographs varied the presence of marine litter (Study 1) and the type of litter (Studies 2 and 3). The influence of tide and the role of connectedness were also explored. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods, it was shown that litter can undermine the psychological benefits that the coast ordinarily provides, thus demonstrating that, in addition to environmental costs of marine litter, there are also costs to people. Litter stemming from the public had the most negative impact. This research extends our understanding of the psychological benefits from natural coastal environments and the threats to these benefits from abundant and increasing marine litter.
You can access the article through http://eab.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/07/15/0013916515592177.abstract
Many studies suggest that exposure to natural environments ('greenspace') enhances human health and wellbeing. Benefits potentially arise via several mechanisms including stress reduction, opportunity and motivation for physical activity, and reduced air pollution exposure. However, the evidence is mixed and sometimes inconclusive. One explanation may be that "greenspace" is typically treated as a homogenous environment type. However, recent research has revealed that different types and qualities of natural environments may influence health and wellbeing to different extents.
This ecological study explores this issue further using data on land cover type, bird species richness, water quality and protected or designated status to create small-area environmental indicators across Great Britain. Associations between these indicators and age/sex standardised prevalence of both good and bad health from the 2011 Census were assessed using linear regression models. Models were adjusted for indicators of socio-economic deprivation and rurality, and also investigated effect modification by these contextual characteristics.
Positive associations were observed between good health prevalence and the density of the greenspace types, "broadleaf woodland", "arable and horticulture", "improved grassland", "saltwater" and "coastal", after adjusting for potential confounders. Inverse associations with bad health prevalence were observed for the same greenspace types, with the exception of "saltwater". Land cover diversity and density of protected/designated areas were also associated with good and bad health in the predicted manner. Bird species richness (an indicator of local biodiversity) was only associated with good health prevalence. Surface water quality, an indicator of general local environmental condition, was associated with good and bad health prevalence contrary to the manner expected, with poorer water quality associated with better population health. Effect modification by income deprivation and urban/rural status was observed for several of the indicators.
The findings indicate that the type, quality and context of 'greenspace' should be considered in the assessment of relationships between greenspace and human health and wellbeing. Opportunities exist to further integrate approaches from ecosystem services and public health perspectives to maximise opportunities to inform policies for health and environmental improvement and protection.
Subjective connection with nature, or nature relatedness, is similar to other environmental worldview measures in predicting sustainable attitudes and behaviors, yet is unique in predicting happiness. In two studies, the authors assessed the overlap between nature relatedness and other subjective connections (e.g., with friends or country) and examined these connections as a possible confound in explaining the link between nature relatedness and happiness. Study 1 adapted a measure of general connectedness and administered it to student (n = 331) and community (n = 415) samples along with multiple nature relatedness and happiness indicators. Study 2 examined more established measures of subjective connections in another community sample (n = 204). General connectedness predicted happiness well, yet nature relatedness remained a significant distinct predictor of many happiness indicators, even after controlling for other connections. Results support the notion that nature relatedness could be a path to human happiness and environmental sustainability, though confirming this causal direction requires additional research.
Research suggests that contact with nature can be beneficial, for example leading to improvements in mood, cognition, and health. A distinct but related idea is the personality construct of subjective nature connectedness, a stable individual difference in cognitive, affective, and experiential connection with the natural environment. Subjective nature connectedness is a strong predictor of pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors that may also be positively associated with subjective well-being. This meta-analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between nature connectedness and happiness. Based on 30 samples (n = 8523), a fixed-effect meta-analysis found a small but significant effect size (r = 0.19). Those who are more connected to nature tended to experience more positive affect, vitality, and life satisfaction compared to those less connected to nature. Publication status, year, average age, and percentage of females in the sample were not significant moderators. Vitality had the strongest relationship with nature connectedness (r = 0.24), followed by positive affect (r = 0.22) and life satisfaction (r = 0.17). In terms of specific nature connectedness measures, associations were the strongest between happiness and inclusion of nature in self (r = 0.27), compared to nature relatedness (r = 0.18) and connectedness to nature (r = 0.18). This research highlights the importance of considering personality when examining the psychological benefits of nature. The results suggest that closer human-nature relationships do not have to come at the expense of happiness. Rather, this meta-analysis shows that being connected to nature and feeling happy are, in fact, connected.
Connectedness to nature (CN) influences motivation to have contact with outdoor natural environments. Spending leisure time in natural environments is beneficial for human health and well-being. Besides these positive effects, health risks of open-air activities are mainly related to unprotected sun light exposure-associated acute and chronic skin hazards. Thus, we conducted a cross-sectional, representative telephone survey among Austrian residents to study the association of perceived CN level with sun-exposure knowledge, tanning habits, and sun protective behaviour. In total, 1,500 study subjects (50.5% females) participated in this questionnaire survey. Although knowledge about tanning and motives to tan were similar among genders, females performed more photoprotective measures and were more connected to nature (all p < 0.001) compared to males. Older age and outdoor sport were significant gender-independent predictor variables influencing perceived CN level. Additionally, level of education was relevant in male CN, whereas non-smoking and higher knowledge were predictive of female CN. This survey provides so far unreported empirical data on the relationship between nature connectedness and skin health-relevant recreational habits of Austrian residents. The findings suggest to integrate hitherto neglected gender-specific Public (Skin) Health promotion when counselling on the manifold health advantages of outdoor activities.
The authors hypothesize that environmental values derive from a sense of connectivity with nature. Connectivity describes a perception of sameness between the self, others, and the natural world. The experience of connectivity involves dissolution of boundaries and a sense of a shared or common essence between the self, nature, and others. Connectivity with nature differs theoretically and operationally from other explanations of environmental values, including cultural bias, postmaterialism, and social altruism. The authors describe their development of a sociometric scale to operationalize connectivity with nature. Based on data from a mail survey of Pennsylvania landowners, the authors use multiple regression analyses to determine the extent to which connectivity with nature predicts and explains environmental concern and behavior in the presence of standard sociodemographic variables. Survey respondents reported a high level of connectivity with nature, and connectivity retained a significant and positive relationship to environmental concern and environmental behavior in multiple regression models. Implications of these findings are advanced.
Three studies examine the effects of exposure to nature on positive affect and ability to reflect on a life problem. Participants spent 15 min walking in a natural setting (Studies 1, 2, & 3), an urban setting (Study 1), or watching videos of natural and urban settings (Studies 2 & 3). In all three studies, exposure to nature increased connectedness to nature, attentional capacity, positive emotions, and ability to reflect on a life problem; these effects are more dramatic for actual nature than for virtual nature. Mediational analyses indicate that the positive effects of exposure to nature are partially mediated by increases in connectedness to nature and are not mediated by increases in attentional capacity. The discussion focuses on the mechanisms that underlie the exposure to nature/well-being effects.
Argues that evolutionary heritage underlies humans' consistent preference for stimuli from the natural environment and that research on affective and aesthetic responses is needed to understand human interaction with the environment. It is noted that the rapidly expanding empirical record concerning aesthetic and affective responses to natural environments is in need of a well-developed theoretical foundation. An integrated conceptual framework to address this theoretical lack, drawing on recent theory and research on emotion, is proposed. This framework explains how affects arise in the natural environment; postulates their functions; and links them to cognition, activity in physiological systems, and behavior. The present author, in developing the framework, questions the view that feelings result from cognitive processes, asserting that feelings (not thoughts) are the initial response in environmental encounters. The observer's initial feeling reaction shapes subsequent cognitive events. The relative sequence of feeling and thinking in environmental encounters represents a fundamental issue in understanding human interaction with the environment. (98 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Abstract: Wilson's (1984) biophilia hypothesis predicts that people's psychological health is associated with their relationship to nature. Two studies examined associations among nature connectedness, well-being, and mindfulness in samples of undergraduate students while socially desirable responding was con-trolled. Significant associations emerged among measures of nature connectedness and indices of well-being (in Study 1 and Study 2) and mindfulness (in Study 2). Results are discussed in relation to possible mediators and moderators of the association between nature connectedness and mental health.
Over half of the world's human population lives in cities, and for many, urban greenspaces are the only places where they encounter biodiversity. This is of particular concern because there is growing evidence that human well-being is enhanced by exposure to nature. However, the specific qualities of greenspaces that offer the greatest benefits remain poorly understood. One possibility is that humans respond positively to increased levels of biodiversity. Here, we demonstrate the lack of a consistent relationship between actual plant, butterfly, and bird species richness and the psychological well-being of urban greenspace visitors. instead, well-being shows a positive relationship with the richness that the greenspace users perceived to be present. One plausible explanation for this discrepancy, which we investigate, is that people generally have poor biodiversity-identification skills. The apparent importance of perceived species richness and the mismatch between reality and perception pose a serious challenge for aligning conservation and human well-being agendas.
Background: We aimed to assess moderation of affective and cognitive effects of a brisk walk by urban environmental characteristics and the immediate social context. Methods: We conducted a field experiment with time (pre-walk, post-walk), type of environment (park, street), and social context (alone, with a friend) as within-subjects factors. Twenty university students reported on affective states and completed a symbol-substitution test before and after each of two 40-minute walks in each environment. The routes differed in amount of greenery, proximity to water, and presence of traffic, buildings, and other people. Results: On average, walking per se increased positive affect and reduced negative affect. Feelings of time pressure declined to a greater extent with the park walk than the street walk. Revitalisation increased during the park walks to a greater degree when alone, but it increased more during the walk along streets when with a friend. We found an inconclusive pattern of results for performance on the symbol-substitution test. Conclusions: Some psychological benefits of a brisk walk depend on the influence of the immediate social context and features of the outdoor urban environment, including natural features such as greenery and water.
College students spend much of their time on campus engaged in activities that require sustained directed attention, which may lead to attention fatigue. They would benefit from campus settings that provide effective restoration breaks and allow them to return to their work cognitively refreshed. Studies have found direct exposure to nature, viewing nature through windows, and viewing images of nature are restorative. In the present study, college students, instructed to imagine themselves cognitively fatigued, rated the perceived restorativeness of indoor campus settings that varied by view of nature: some had no views of nature, some had window views of nature with built structures present, and some had views of simulated nature depicted as large nature murals. Students rated settings with views of dramatic nature murals, especially those with water, more restorative than settings with window views of real, but mundane nature with built structures present. Students rated settings that lacked views of real or simulated nature least restorative. The findings suggest that large nature murals in indoor settings used for study breaks may provide attentionally fatigued students with opportunities for restoration when views of nature are unavailable or limited in restorative potential.
Five studies assessed the validity and reliability of the connectedness to nature scale (CNS), a new measure of individuals’ trait levels of feeling emotionally connected to the natural world. Data from two community and three college samples demonstrated that the CNS has good psychometric properties, correlates with related variables (the new environmental paradigm scale, identity as an environmentalist), and is uncorrelated with potential confounds (verbal ability, social desirability). This paper supports ecopsychologists’ contention that connection to nature is an important predictor of ecological behavior and subjective well-being. It also extends social psychological research on self–other overlap, perspective taking, and altruistic behavior to the overlap between self and nature. The CNS promises to be a useful empirical tool for research on the relationship between humans and the natural world.
Different conceptual perspectives converge to predict that if individuals are stressed, an encounter with most unthreatening natural environments will have a stress reducing or restorative influence, whereas many urban environments will hamper recuperation. Hypotheses regarding emotional, attentional and physiological aspects of stress reducing influences of nature are derived from a psycho-evolutionary theory. To investigate these hypotheses, 120 subjects first viewed a stressful movie, and then were exposed to color/sound videotapes of one of six different natural and urban settings. Data concerning stress recovery during the environmental presentations were obtained from self-ratings of affective states and a battery of physiological measures: heart period, muscle tension, skin conductance and pulse transit time, a non-invasive measure that correlates with systolic blood pressure. Findings from the physiological and verbal measures converged to indicate that recovery was faster and more complete when subjects were exposed to natural rather than urban environments. The pattern of physiological findings raised the possibility that responses to nature had a salient parasympathetic nervous system component; however, there was no evidence of pronounced parasympathetic involvement in responses to the urban settings. There were directional differences in cardiac responses to the natural vs urban settings, suggesting that attention/intake was higher during the natural exposures. However, both the stressor film and the nature settings elicited high levels of involuntary or automatic attention, which contradicts the notion that restorative influences of nature stem from involuntary attention or fascination. Findings were consistent with the predictions of the psycho-evolutionary theory that restorative influences of nature involve a shift towards a more positively-toned emotional state, positive changes in physiological activity levels, and that these changes are accompanied by sustained attention/intake. Content differences in terms of natural vs human-made properties appeared decisive in accounting for the differences in recuperation and perceptual intake.
Do individuals’ perceptions of their interdependence with the natural environment affect their environmental behaviors? From the perspective of interdependence theory, we introduce a scale to measure commitment to the natural environment. In Study 1, higher levels of commitment to the environment and greater inclusion of nature in the self separately predicted higher levels of pro-environmental behavior, even when controlling for social desirability and ecological worldview. In Study 2, participants primed to experience high commitment to the environment reported greater levels of pro-environmental behavioral intentions as well as pro-environmental behavior relative to participants primed to experience low commitment to the environment. Commitment to the natural environment is a new theoretical construct that predicts environmental behavior.
The often impassioned nature of environmental conflicts can be attributed to the fact that they are bound up with our sense of personal and social identity. Environmental identity—how we orient ourselves to the natural world—leads us to personalize abstract global issues and take action (or not) according to our sense of who we are. We may know about the greenhouse effect—but can we give up our SUV for a more fuel-efficient car? Understanding this psychological connection can lead to more effective pro-environmental policymaking.
Identity and the Natural Environment examines the ways in which our sense of who we are affects our relationship with nature, and vice versa. This book brings together cutting-edge work on the topic of identity and the environment, sampling the variety and energy of this emerging field but also placing it within a descriptive framework. These theory-based, empirical studies locate environmental identity on a continuum of social influence, and the book is divided into three sections reflecting minimal, moderate, or strong social influence. Throughout, the contributors focus on the interplay between social and environmental forces; as one local activist says, "We don't know if we're organizing communities to plant trees, or planting trees to organize communities."
Despite growing interest in the relationships between natural environments and subjective wellbeing (SWB), previous studies have various methodological and theoretical limitations. Focusing on urban/peri-urban residents (n=7272) from a nationally representative survey of the English population, we explored the relationships between three types of exposure: i) ‘neighbourhood exposure’, ii) ‘visit frequency’, and iii) ‘specific visit’; and four components of SWB: i) evaluative, ii) eudaimonic, iii) positive experiential and iv) negative experiential. Controlling for area and individual level socio-demographics and other aspects of SWB, visit frequency was associated with eudaimonic wellbeing and a specific visit with positive experiential wellbeing. People who visited nature regularly felt their lives were more worthwhile, and those who visited nature yesterday were happier. The magnitude of the association between weekly nature visits and eudaimonic wellbeing was similar to that between eudaimonic wellbeing and life circumstances such as marital status. Findings are relevant for policies to protect and promote public access to natural environments.
Global phenomena, including urbanization, agricultural intensification, and biotic homogenization, have led to extensive ecosystem degradation, species extinctions, and, consequently, a reduction in biodiversity. However, although it is now widely asserted in the research, policy, and practice arenas that interacting with nature is fundamental to human health and well-being, there is a paucity of nuanced evidence characterizing how the living components of nature, biodiversity, play a role in this accepted truth. Understanding these human–biodiversity relationships is essential if the conservation agenda is to be aligned successfully with that of public health by policymakers and practitioners. Here, we show that an apparent “people–biodiversity paradox” is emerging from the literature, comprising a mismatch between (a) people’s biodiversity preferences and how these inclinations relate to personal subjective well-being and (b) the limited ability of individuals to accurately
perceive the biodiversity surrounding them. In addition, we present a conceptual framework for understanding the complexity underpinning human–biodiversity interactions.
Ecopsychological theory and practice underscore the vital importance of realizing the interdependence between human beings and the diverse living universes that they inhabit. This article focuses on the mental health implications of the shift toward a more ecologically rooted identity by examining relationships between psychological well-being and the personal experience of connection with nature. Three separate surveys conducted with undergraduate and community samples assessed relationships between the Connectedness to Nature Scale (CNS), psychological well-being, mindfulness, and outdoor recreation. Higher CNS scores were consistently associated with greater trait mindfulness, more participation in appreciative outdoor activities, and higher scores on multiple measures of both hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of psychological well-being. Discussion focuses on informing optimal strategies for nature-based interventions.
Exposure to natural environments can help restore depleted emotional and cognitive resources. However, investigation of the relative impacts of different natural environments among large samples is limited. Using data from 4255 respondents drawn from Natural England's Monitoring Engagement with the Natural Environment survey (2009-2011), we investigated feelings of restoration (calm, relaxed, revitalized and refreshed) recalled by individuals after visits to different natural environments within the last week. Controlling for demographic and visit characteristics we found that of the broad environmental categories, coastal visits were associated with the most restoration and town and urban parks with the least. In terms of specific environmental types two "green space" locations (woodlands/forests and hills/moorland/mountains) were associated with levels of restoration comparable to coastal locations. Urban playing fields were associated with the least restoration. Restoration was positively associated with visit duration (a potential dose-response effect), and visits with children were associated with less restoration than visits alone. There was little evidence that different activities (e.g. walking, exercising) were associated with differences in restoration. The data may improve our understanding of the "cultural eco-system services" provided by different natural environments and help decision makers keen to invest scare resources in those environments most associated with psychological benefits. (c) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A growing body of empirical research suggests that brief contact with natural environments improves emotional well-being. The current study synthesizes this body of research using meta-analytic techniques and assesses the mean effect size of exposure to natural environments on both positive and negative affect. Thirty-two studies with a total of 2356 participants were included. Across these studies, exposure to natural environments was associated with a moderate increase in positive affect and a smaller, yet consistent, decrease in negative affect relative to comparison conditions. Significant heterogeneity was found for the effect of nature on positive affect, and type of emotion assessment, type of exposure to nature, location of study, and mean age of sample were found to moderate this effect. The implications of these findings for existing theory and research are discussed, with particular emphasis placed on potential avenues for fruitful future research examining the effects of nature on well-being.
Although tourism and recreation can bring economic benefits to an area, the presence of visitors may adversely impact biodiversity, particularly if they make use of sensitive environments. It is anticipated that the effects of global climate change alone may increase the vulnerability of many environments, but these effects may be magnified if warmer and drier weather encourages more visitors, or makes them more likely to participate in ecologically damaging activities. Using case study sites from the UK, this study examines how different types of beach visitors make use of coastal environments. Via a series of visitor surveys, information is elicited on the environmental preferences of a range of visitor types including walkers, bird watchers, and bathers. The use of different habitats by these visitors is also assessed via an analysis of walking routes undertaken in a Geographical Information System. From this, an assessment is made of the likely present day biodiversity impacts arising from different coastal users, and how these may change under a modified climate. This study finds that whilst higher temperatures are expected to increase visitor numbers, warmer weather may encourage greater participation in low impact activities such as bathing. The findings are discussed in the context of coastal management.
Links between wellbeing and environmental factors are of growing interest in psychology, health, conservation, economics, and more widely. There is limited evidence that green or natural environments are positive for physical and mental health and wellbeing. We present a new and unique primary research study exploring the relationship between momentary subjective wellbeing (SWB) and individuals’ immediate environment within the UK. We developed and applied an innovative data collection tool: a smartphone app that signals participants at random moments, presenting a brief questionnaire while using satellite positioning (GPS) to determine geographical coordinates. We used this to collect over one million responses from more than 20,000 participants. Associating GPS response locations with objective spatial data, we estimate a model relating land cover to SWB using only the within-individual variation, while controlling for weather, daylight, activity, companionship, location type, time, day, and any response trend. On average, study participants are significantly and substantially happier outdoors in all green or natural habitat types than they are in urban environments. These findings are robust to a number of alternative models and model specifications. This study provides a new line of evidence on links between nature and wellbeing, strengthening existing evidence of a positive relationship between SWB and exposure to green or natural environments in daily life. Our results have informed the UK National Ecosystem Assessment (NEA), and the novel geo-located experience sampling methodology we describe has great potential to provide new insights in a range of areas of interest to policymakers.
Beaches are the most popular recreational destinations in Australia yet how they are visited and valued by Australians is poorly known. We surveyed 385 people (13.8% of 2800 coastal residents) from south-eastern Australia to examine their use of beaches and the features that are important in their choice and enjoyment of a beach destination. Most respondents (90.3%) nominated beaches as one of their top three most valued natural recreational environments. Thirty-four recreational activities occurred at the beach (8.6 ± 0.3 [mean ± SE] activities per respondent), mostly walking (91.4%) and swimming (78.9%). Factor analyses revealed respondents valued clean, uncrowded beaches with opportunities to view wildlife (n = 338) but also desired facilities (e.g. toilets, shade, life savers, food outlets; n = 331). Difficult access and intrusive recreation activities (e.g. vehicles on beaches) detracted from people′s enjoyment. We describe a distinct dichotomy in use of ‘local’ versus ‘non-local’ beaches, where local beaches are visited more frequently, throughout more of the year, outside working hours and by smaller groups of people, compared with ‘non-local’ beaches. Coastal planners and managers not only face the challenge of increasing visitation to beaches but also the need to manage for somewhat conflicting values among beach-goers.
Nature-protective behavior cannot be sufficiently explained using a pure rational/cognitive approach. Therefore, in a questionnaire study (N = 281), the focus was on emotional motivations of this behavior, especially on a newly conceptualized construct: emotional affinity toward nature. All constructs were measured by reliable and valid scales. Multiple regression analyses reveal that (a) emotional affinity is as powerful to predict nature-protective behavior as indignation and interest in nature and together these three predictors explain up to 47% of variance of the criterion variables, and (b) 39% of emotional affinity toward nature traces back to present and past experiences in natural environments. The resulting integrative path model is discussed. Theoretical conclusions are drawn, and options for practical intervention are derived.
Three experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that exposure to restorative environments facilitates recovery from mental fatigue. To this end, participants were first mentally fatigued by performing a sustained attention test; then they viewed photographs of restorative environments, nonrestorative environments or geometrical patterns; and finally they performed the sustained attention test again. Only participants exposed to the restorative environments improved their performance on the final attention test, and this improvement occurred whether they viewed the scenes in the standardized time condition or in the self-paced time condition. Results are in agreement with Kaplan's [(1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182] attention restoration theory, and support the idea that restorative environments help maintain and restore the capacity to direct attention.
This research investigates whether species are perceived differently based on aesthetic and negativistic attitudes, and whether these and other attitudes, naturalistic activities, and gender predict support for the protection of threatened species. 228 undergraduate students completed a survey in which they rated pictures of 10 endangered species on aesthetic and negativistic attitudes, and support for protection. Findings showed that the two-striped garter snake, Ozark big-eared bat, and dolloff cave spider were conceptualized differently than other species, which may be the result of “irrational” fears linked to animal phobias, culture, and emotional reactions to pictures. The regression results support the common belief that aesthetics is an important determinant in perceptions of endangered species and that the importance of negativistic attitudes may be waning. Moralistic worldviews and attitudes toward landowner rights and the Endangered Species Act were significantly related to support for governmental protection of species. Surprisingly, naturalistic activities and gender were not significantly associated with support for governmental protection of species. In general, the results were consistent across both models. However, the amount of variance explained by aesthetic and negativistic attitudes was 23 percent higher in the other species models than in the bat, snake, and spider models.
Research on executive functioning and on self-regulation have each identified a critical resource that is central to that domain and is susceptible to depletion. In addition, studies have shown that self-regulation tasks and executive-functioning tasks interact with each other, suggesting that they may share resources. Other research has focused specifically on restoring what we propose is the shared resource between self-regulation and executive functioning. Utilizing a theory-based natural environment intervention, these studies have found improvements in executive-functioning performance and self-regulation effectiveness, suggesting that the natural environment intervention restores this shared resource.
© The Author(s) 2010.
Policy makers in Denmark are increasingly recognising the potential health benefits associated with green space, in particular with the use of green space. Knowledge on how green space is used, why it is used, and which factors influence its use, is becoming interesting for researchers, city planners and managers of green space. The present study is based on data from a nationwide study of 11238 randomly selected adult Danes. Respondents were asked about the distance to four different types of green space, their frequency of use of each of these types of green space, and the main reasons for visiting green space. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to investigate the association between potential predictor factors and visits to green space at least a few times per week. Results show that 66.9% of the respondents live within 300m of green space, 43.0% visit green space every day and 91.5% visit green space at least once a week. Only 0.9% never visit green space. To enjoy the weather and get fresh air is the most important reason for visiting green space for 87.2% of the respondents. Distance to green space is not a limiting factor for the majority of the Danish population and for that reason we recommend a thorough analysis of a neighbourhood or city, its population, and the available green spaces, before deciding on a viable strategy to increase the use of green space.
The conservation of biodiversity critically depends on the value that humans attach to it. Apart from an ecological and economic value, an aesthetic value has often been assigned to biodiversity. However, it is not known whether lay people appreciate the diversity of species and not just certain individual species or nature as a whole. We studied in a series of experiments and field studies people’s perception and appreciation of species diversity. We presented meadow-like arrays of different species richness and evenness but random species composition to lay people and asked them to estimate plant species richness and rank the arrays by attractiveness. The experiments were complemented by two larger-scale field studies using natural meadows. Both in the experiments and the field studies the mean perception of species richness by people increased with true species richness, but was slightly overestimated at low and increasingly underestimated at high diversity levels. Lay people’s aesthetic appreciation of both the experimental grassland arrays and the natural meadows increased with true species richness. Communities
consisting of the same number of species were perceived to be more species-rich and were appreciated more when their evenness was high. Our results demonstrate that plant diversity in itself is attractive to humans. The current reduction of the diversity of grasslands due to intensification of management may thus reduce the attractiveness of regions where grasslands are a dominant feature of the landscape. This could have negative consequences for tourism and may add an economic argument for the conservation of biodiversity in grasslands.
Explains the importance of environmental education in schools for achieving environmental protection and improvement. Statistically examines factors that incline students to a 'relation' rather than an 'object' conception of the environment. Concludes that development of the former would seem to be an important aim of environmental education and indicates how this might be achieved. (Author/YDS)
Emotional processes influence a wide range of mental and physical systems, which makes them difficult to understand from a single perspective. In this special issue of the Review of General Psychology, contributing authors present 4 articles that draw from several areas within psychology in the service of understanding a topic relevant to emotion. In this overview, the authors argue that the long neglect of the scientific study of complex processes such as emotion might be linked, in part, to the fractionation of the field into specialized subdisciplines. Just as emotions were of central concern in the early years of psychology (which was a generalist's era), as psychology moves toward more integration in the late 20th century broad phenomena such as emotions are once again central interests. The 4 articles of this special issue are briefly reviewed as exemplars of an integrated approach to understanding emotional phenomena. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Philosophical and scientific discussions suggest the presence of a fourth category of self-construal that has received little attention from researchers. In addition to defining themselves in terms of their unique traits, social relationships, and group memberships, some people's self-concepts include broader categories of people, animals, and inanimate objects. For example, a person's identity might include the idea that he or she is a member of the human species; involve his or her kinship with other animals; or incorporate the belief that he or she can be identified as a part of the universe, God, or some other transcendent quality. We call this aspect of identity that goes beyond one's individual, relational, and collective identities
allo-inclusive identity (
allo = other). Earlier in this program of research, we referred to this construct as the transindividual identity, but we have since realized that its central feature is the inclusion of other entities in one's self-concept instead of merely an identity that extends beyond the individual him- or herself (in fact, relational and collective identities may be viewed as transindividual). Many philosophical, religious, and cultural traditions have promoted the notion that people are inherently connected with other human beings and the natural world and that recognizing one's connection to all things is associated with a variety of beneficial outcomes. In fact, some traditions maintain that construing oneself in relation to the rest of existence is a central characteristic of an adjusted, moral, and fully functioning individual, and some even identify it as a feature of self-realization or enlightenment (Leary, 2004). Although our research can in no way address these weighty issues, our preliminary findings suggest that people who feel a greater sense of personal connection with other people and the natural world are less egocentric, more concerned about others, more oriented toward social relationships and ecological issues, less interested in social power, and more inclined toward certain kinds of spiritual experiences. The data also suggest that people high in an allo-inclusive identity (AI) may fare better emotionally, in terms of lower depression and higher life satisfaction, although these effects may involve only individuals' perceived connections with other people. Whether scores on the AI-Natural World subscale predict features of well-being other than those measured here remains to be seen. Although the data clearly show that an AI is associated with a stronger orientation toward other people and the natural world, evidence regarding the relationship between AI and egoism is less direct. On the one hand, we assume that people who are more oriented toward others-in terms of being more agreeable, kind, compassionate, forgiving, and ecologically minded, for example--are inherently less self-centered. On the other hand, contrary to our expectations, AI was not inversely related to constructs that explicitly involve egoism and self-centeredness, such as narcissism, entitlement, public self-consciousness, and the value that people place on self-direction and hedonism. Although we are reasonably confident that people who have stronger allo-inclusive identities also have quieter egos than those who are less allo-inclusive, additional research is needed to explore which self-relevant motives, perspectives, and beliefs are and are not related to having an allo-inclusive identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The concept of ecological self, as expounded and applied by members of a social movement called deep ecology, is examined and compared with self-concepts constructed by academic psychologists. Constructionist theories and research are explored as an area of particular relevance because they (1) exemplify a more ecological, or systems, view of the person, (2) offer an understanding of how an expanded self-concept might affect the functioning of an individual and his or her surrounding environment, and (3) suggest how self constructs might be changed. The "indigenous psychology" implicit in deep ecology may provide fertile ground for the development of more academic theories. Also, due to the collaborative nature of this research, deep ecologists may benefit from the kind of conceptualization and analysis provided by academic psychology. Both effects could encourage environmentally responsible attitudes and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Nature relatedness (NR) describes the affective, cognitive, and experiential aspects of human–nature relationships (Nisbet in Environ Behav
41: 715–740, 2009). Evidence from three studies suggests that individual differences in NR are associated with differences in well-being. In
study 1 (N=184), we explore associations between NR and a variety of well-being indicators, and use multiple regression analyses to
demonstrate the unique relationship of NR with well-being, while controlling for other environmental measures. We replicate
well-being correlates with a sample of business people (N=145) in Study 2. In study 3 (N=170), we explore the influence of environmental education on NR and well-being, and find that changes in NR mediate the
relationship between environmental education and changes in vitality. We discuss the potential for interventions to improve
psychological health and promote environmental behaviour.
KeywordsNature relatedness–Happiness–Well-being–Positive affect–Vitality–Environmental attitudes–Environmental education
A field survey assessed the restorative effects of visiting an urban forest and a city park in Zurich, Switzerland. Respondents rated their headaches, level of stress, and how balanced they felt both prior to visiting the outdoor location and at the time of being interviewed. Suffering from headaches and stress decreased significantly, and feeling well-balanced increased significantly. The recovery ratio for stress was 87%, and the reduction in headaches was 52%, in terms of the possible improvements on five-point rating scales. With respect to feeling well-balanced, the observed changes amounted to 40% of the possible enhancement. Positive effects increased with length of visit, and individuals practising sports (e.g., jogging, biking, playing ball) showed significantly higher improvements than those engaged in less strenuous activities (e.g., taking a walk or relaxing). These findings support previous research on how exercise in green spaces promotes well-being and recovery from stress.
This study aimed to develop a psychometrically sound measure of the construct of love and deep caring for nature as an expression of people’s personal and explicitly emotional relationship with nature. Expert opinion and pre-pilot surveys were employed for refinement of the item pool, and a sample of 307 university students was used in a major pilot study aiming to further purify scale items. A field trial was conducted using a sample of 261 tourists at leisure with nature. The final 15-item Love and Care for Nature (LCN) scale is differentiated from established measures of similar constructs, and demonstrates high internal consistency and sound validity. This research extends the psychological frameworks of environmental altruism, and has also taken the philosophical concept of biophilia, as love for nature, into the operational realm by making it perceptible and measurable.
Although theorists have suggested that aquatic environments or “blue space” might have particular restorative potential, to date there is little systematic empirical research on this issue. Indeed the presence of water has, unintentionally, been a confounding factor in research comparing people’s reactions to built and natural environments. Whereas aquatic features (rivers, lakes, coasts) are frequently present in visual stimuli representing natural environments they are rarely incorporated in stimuli portraying built environments. As many towns are, for good reason, located near water this is a potentially significant oversight. The current research collated a set of 120 photographs of natural and built scenes, half of which contained “aquatic” elements. Proportions of “aquatic”/“green”/“built” environments in each scene (e.g. 1/3rd, 2/3rds) were also standardised. Two studies investigated preferences (attractiveness, willingness to visit and willingness to pay for a hotel room with the view), affect and perceived restorativeness ratings for these photographs. As predicted, both natural and built scenes containing water were associated with higher preferences, greater positive affect and higher perceived restorativeness than those without water. Effect sizes were consistently large. Intriguingly, images of “built” environments containing water were generally rated just as positively as natural “green” space. We propose a number of avenues for further research including exploration of the mechanisms underlying these effects.
Research has shown pro-environmental behaviour to be positively associated with the strength of emotional connection towards the natural environment. The present study (N=199) investigated the predictive utility of an extended model of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) [Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211] for people's intentions to engage with the natural environment. It was hypothesised that both affective connection and identification with the natural environment would contribute significantly to the prediction of people's intentions. A secondary hypothesis was that participants who had grown up in rural areas would report more positive orientations towards engaging with the natural environment than would urban participants. The research found that affective connection was a significant independent predictor of intentions to engage with the natural environment. Environmental identity was only a significant predictor in the absence of affective connection in the regression model. As predicted, rural and urban participants differed significantly along the measured variables.
Two studies were conducted with the aim of developing a set of rating scale measures of restorative components of environments. In Study 1, 238 Norwegian undergraduates acting as subjects imagined themselves to be either in a nature environment or a city environment which they rated on unipolar scales intended to describe how they experienced the environments. In Study 2 another sample of 157 subjects recruited from the same population of Norwegian undergraduates viewed videos of a forest, park, sea area, city, and a snowy mountain, imagining themselves to be in these environments while performing ratings on the same scales. In both studies factor analyses yielded results in agreement with a theory proposed by Kaplan and Kaplan (1989). However, the being away factor posited by the theory was split into two factors, one with high loadings on rating scales tapping being physically away, the other with high loadings on rating scales tapping being psychologically away. The remaining three factors were defined by rating scales tapping extent, fascination, and compatibility, respectively. Composite measures of the factors had acceptable reliability. Furthermore, as predicted, environments with nature elements generally scored higher than city environments on all measures. Compatibility and fascination predicted preference ratings of the environments, whereas escape and compatibility predicted selfratings of relaxation.
Directed attention plays an important role in human information processing; its fatigue, in turn, has far-reaching consequences. Attention Restoration Theory provides an analysis of the kinds of experiences that lead to recovery from such fatigue. Natural environments turn out to be particularly rich in the characteristics necessary for restorative experiences. An integrative framework is proposed that places both directed attention and stress in the larger context of human-environment relationships.