Herbs as Functional Foods

Abstract

Introduction
Classification of Herbs
Functional Effects of Herbs
Problems in using herbs as food ingredient
Summary and Conclusion
Medicinal herbs are among our oldest medicines and their increasing use
in recent years is evidence of public interest in alternatives to
conventional medicine. Herbs are grown and harvested for many uses
like culinary, aromatic, fibrous and medicinal uses. Some of the herbs
have the power to change our physiological functioning and thus
revolutionized medicine and created fortunes for those who grow
process and treat them. Now a day herbs have greater importance in
economic terms being an important ingredient in food and medicine,
perfumery and cosmetics products. From thousands of years, the
knowledge of herbs has been handed down from generation to
generation. Many issues like safety, stability, regulatory etc. arises when herbs are
added to food products. Very much research is needed for different
herbs to be used in food as a ingredient. There is a vast gap of
knowledge exist on the part of both the manufacturer and consumer.
Because of ancient knowledge and progressive research on herbs, their
future may be assumed to be bright in the world in coming years.

Full text

HERBS AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS
Sunil Bishnoi
Table of Contents
1. Introduction 141
2. Classification of Herbs 146
3. Functional Effects of Herbs 149
4. Problems in using herbs as food ingredient 162
5. Summary and Conclusion 165
References 165
1. Introduction
Medicinal herbs are among our oldest medicines and their increasing use
in recent years is evidence of public interest in alternatives to
conventional medicine. Herbs are grown and harvested for many uses
like culinary, aromatic, fibrous and medicinal uses. Some of the herbs
have the power to change our physiological functioning and thus
revolutionized medicine and created fortunes for those who grow
process and treat them. Now a day herbs have greater importance in
economic terms being an important ingredient in food and medicine,
perfumery and cosmetics products. From thousands of years, the
knowledge of herbs has been handed down from generation to
generation (Brown, 1995). Knowledge of herbs and spices is important
for many of our newest medicines, chemicals and flavours. Many
medicinal herbs are also food, oil and fibre plants and have always been
grown for a range of purposes (Andi et al., 1997).
The term ‘herb’ has many definitions. In the most generally accepted
sense, herbs are plants often grown and harvested for their unique
medicinal and aromatic properties. An herb is a plant or part of plant
used for its characteristic flavor, aroma or remedial properties, and
medicinal products made from herbs are usually taken as dietary
6

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supplements (Jarukamjorn & Nemoto, 2008). Herb gardens have very
long history. In Egypt, earliest of herb gardens were planted about 4000
years ago. From that time herbs and sacred flowers were required for
daily worship and rituals. Study of both horticulture and botany began
with the study of herbs. In ancient time the gardens were herb gardens.
The concept of herb garden has developed largely from ancient
Egyptian, Christian and Islamic traditions. Herbs are grown mainly as
field crops or on a small scale as a catch-crop among vegetables in most
parts of the world.
Difference between herb and spice is a old age question, which was
well answered by Rodale’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs, as Leaves, both
fresh and dried, more frequently grown in temperate regions are
normally called herbs, while seeds, roots, fruits, flowers or bark, usually
hail from the tropics are spices. Herbs are green and often impart a
subtler flavor while spices tend to be shades of brown, black, or red with
a pungent flavor. For example, the tangy leaves the multi-purpose plant
Coriandrum sativum are referred to as the herb cilantro (Chinese parsley),
but its round brown seeds are known as coriander, a spice.
Functional foods are products that resemble traditional foods but
having physiological benefits. Their examples include conventional,
fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods and dietary supplements.
However, nutraceuticals are commodities derived from foods, but are
used in the medicinal form of pills, capsules or liquids and again render
demonstrated physiological benefits (Shahidi, 2012). When herbs are
provided in the form of a capsule, powder, softgel, gelcap, or other form
that is not represented as a conventional food, these products are
considered dietary supplements and are regulated quite differently from
foods or food additives. Although the growing interest in herbal
products has perhaps reached a level because of concern towards health
and wellness. Traditional herbalists used plant roots, leaves, bark,
flowers, and seeds to prepare teas, broths, tinctures, poultices, etc.
Today, highly purified extracts and powders are put into capsules and
tablets. Modern herbal medicine (or phytotherapy) relies on
standardization and demonstrated efficacy-constituent relationships
(Blumenthal, 1998).
Herbs and spices have tremendous importance as ingredients in
food, alcoholic beverages, medicine, perfumery, cosmetics, colouring
and also as garden plants. Spices and herbs are used in foods for their
flavour, pungency and colour. Herbs and spices also have antioxidant,
antimicrobial, pharmaceutical and nutritional properties. In addition to
imparting flavour and taste, spices play a major role in food preservation
by delaying the spoilage of food. Antioxidants also play a role in the
body’s defence against cardiovascular disease, certain (epithelial) cancers

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and other conditions such as arthritis and asthma. Phenolic compounds
such as flavonoids may help to protect against cardiovascular disease
and intestinal cancer (black pepper, oregano, thyme and marjoram).
Gingerol in ginger is also an intestinal stimulant and promoter of the
bioactivity of drugs. Capsaicin in chilli pepper is an effective counter-
irritant used in both pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Fenugreek, onion
and garlic are helpful to lower cholesterol levels. A number of spices
have also been identified for their antimicrobial properties (Peter, 2004).
When these plants are used in food, they lead to complex secondary
effects such as salt and sugar reduction, improvement of texture and
prevention of food spoilage. The toiletries and allied industries use
spices and herbs and their fragrant oils for the manufacture of soaps,
toothpastes, face packs, lotions, freshness sachets, toilet waters and hair
oils. They are extensively used in beauty care products as cleansing
agents, infusions, skin toners, moisturizers, eye lotions, bathing oils,
shampoos and hair conditioners, cosmetic creams, antiseptic and
antitanning lotions and creams (Ravindran et al., 2002).
1.1 Medicinal uses
Herbs had been priced for their medicinal, flavouring and aromatic
qualities for centuries; but the synthetic products of the modern age
surpassed their importance, for a while. However, with hope of safety
and security, people are returning to the naturals. The Indian herbal drug
market is increasing its size and reached about $1 billion and the export
of plant based crude drug is around $100 million. The current market
potential of herbal medicine is estimated about $ 80-250 billion in
Europe and USA and for China, it is about USD 650 million, of which
imported herbal medicines account for USD 15 million (Meena et al.,
2009). Thus, the economic importance of medicinal plants is much more
to countries like India than to rest of the world. The two third of the
plants used in modern system of medicine is provided by these
countries. More than 80,000 plant species are medicinal out of total
250000 higher plant species found on earth. India is one of the world’s
12 biodiversity centre with the presence of over 45,000 different plant
species. India’s diversity is unmatched due to the presence of 16
different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces
and 426 biomes (habitats of specific species). In this divers country,
about 15000-20000 plants have good medicinal value. However,
traditional communities have used only 7000-7500 species for their
medicinal values. In India, traditional systems of medicines such as
Unani and Ayurveda had been used the drugs of herbal origin since
ancient times. Various ancient system of medicine uses different plant
species like the Ayurveda system uses about 700 species, Unani 700,

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Siddha 600 species, Amchi 600 species and modern medicine uses
around 30 species. India has been known to be rich repository of
medicinal plants among ancient civilizations. Ayurveda have about 8,000
codified herbal remedies. Various ancient books recorded medicinal
plants like the Rigveda (5000 BC) 67 species, Yajurveda 81 species and
Atharvaveda (4500-2500 BC) 290 species. Charak Samhita (700 BC) and
Sushrut Samhita (200 BC) had described properties and uses of 1100 and
1270 species respectively, in compounding of drugs and these are still
used in the classical formulations in the Ayurvedic system of medicine.
Different traditional systems of medicines like Chinese, Indian, Arabian
etc. make extensive use of about 5000 plants. India is proud to be rich in
biological diversity and tenth among the plant rich countries of Asia,
sixth as far as centre of diversity especially agrodiversity are concerned.
About three fourth of the world’s drugs and perfumery products are
available in natural state in the country. India, with around 126000
species, possesses almost 8% of the estimated biodiversity of the world.
With 2 hot spots of biodiversity in Western Ghats and north-eastern
region, India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity centers. The sacred
groves are a miniature ecosystem conserving biodiversity in its pristine
form. There are about 400 families in the world of flowering plants; of
which at least 315 are represented in India (Joy et al., 2001).
Unfortunately many valuable medicinal plants are under the verge of
extinction due to the rapid depletion of forests. The Red Data Book of
India has 427 entries of endangered species of which 124 are considered
endangered, 81 vulnerable, 100 rare, 28 extinct and 34 insufficiently
known species (Thomas, 1997).
Extracts from herbs and spices are used in different forms like
infusions, decoctions, macerations, tinctures, teas, juices, syrups,
poultices, compresses, oils, ointments and powders. Many medicinal
herbs used in Ayurveda have multiple bioactive principles rather than
single bioactive principle. It is difficult in many herbs to isolate
compounds and demonstrate that the efficacy can be attributed to any
one of the active principles. However, some of the medicinal plants are
being studied for their active principles and their molecular mechanism
of action.
1.2. Active plant constituents
Herbs and spices contains high amount of volatile oils, which give them
pleasurable aromas. In addition, herbs may contain alkaloids and
glycosides, which are of greater interest to pharmacologists (Peter,
2004). Recent research also reveals that dietary spices in their minute
quantities has an immense influence on the human health by their
antioxidative, chemopreventive, antimutagenic, antiinflammatory,

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immune modulatory effects on cells and a wide range of beneficial
effects on human health by the action of gastrointestinal, cardiovascular,
respiratory, metabolic, reproductive, neural and other systems
(Kretchmer, 1994; Kohlmeier et al., 1995; John, 2001; Lampe, 2003;
Rao, 2003; Kochhar, 2008).
Table 1 : Active constituents in herbs, their characteristics and functions (Brown,
1995; De Guzman &Sienonsma, 1999)
S.No
Active constituents Characteristics and functions
1 Acids Sour, often antiseptic and cleansing
2 Alkaloids Bitter, often based on alkaline nitrogenous
compounds. They affect the central nervous system
and many are very toxic and addictive
3 Anthraquinones Bitter, irritant and laxative, acting also as dyes
4 Bitters Various compounds, mainly iridoides and
sesquiterpenes with a bitter taste that increases and
improves digestion
5 Coumarines Antibacterial, anticoagulant, with a smell of new-
mown hay
6 Flavones Bitter or sweet, often diuretic, antiseptic,
antispasmodic and anti inflammatory. Typically
yellow and present in most plants
7 Glycosides
a. cardiac Affects heart contractions
b. synogenic Bitter, antispasmodic sedative, affects respiration and
heart rate
c. mustard oil Acrid, extremely irritant
d. sulphur Acrid, stimulant, antibiotic
8 Gums and
mucilages
Bland, sticky or slimy, soothing and softening
9 Resins Often found as oleo-resins or oleo-gum resins – they
are acrid, astringent, antiseptic, healing
10 Saponins Sweet, stimulant hormonal, often anti-inflammatory,
or diuretic, soapy in water
11 Tannins Astringent, often antiseptic, checking bleeding and
discharges
12 Volatile oils Aromatic, antiseptic, fungicidal, irritant and stimulant
Most of the spice components are terpenes and other constituents of
essential oils. They have been found to be effective in different forms.
For example, about 5–6 cloves of garlic and 50 g of onion in their raw
form are adequate for lowering of cholesterol in human body. Studies
showed better beneficial effects on the lipid profile and blood pressure
of moderately hyper-cholesterolemic subjects when treated with dietary
supplement with aged garlic extract relative to the fresh ones (Steiner et
al., 1996). Intake of garlic with fish oil had a better beneficial effect on

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serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations by a combined lowering of
total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglyceride concentration. If
person with diabetes includes fenugreek seeds (25–50 g), garlic (5–6
cloves), onion (50 g) and turmeric powder (1 pinch) in their daily diet, it
will prevent and manage long term complications of diabetes. By the
regular intake of curcuminoids at about 0.5 g, reduces blood lipid
peroxide level upto about 33% due to their antioxidant activity (Rao,
1994).
2. Classification of Herbs
Herbs are classified in many ways. Some of them are according to the
usage, active constituents, the period of life and taxonomy.
2.1. According to the usage
The herbs are classified in four classes according to usage: Medicinal
herbs, culinary herbs, Aromatic herbs, Ornamental herbs.
A. Medicinal Herbs: Herbs that have curative and healing
properties and used in making medicines are Medicinal herbs.
B. Culinary Herbs: Herbs that have strong flavours and thus used
in cooking are Culinary herbs. For e.g. mint, parsley, basil.
C. Aromatic Herbs: Herbs that have some common uses because
of their pleasant smelling flowers or foliage. Oils from these
herbs can be used to produce perfumes, toilet water, and various
scents. For e.g. rosemary, mint, basil etc.
D. Ornamental Herbs: Because of brightly coloured flowers and
foliage, Ornamental herbs are used for decoration purposes. For
e.g. chives, lavender.
2.2. According to the active constituents
According to active constituents present in them, the herbs are divided
into five major categories: Aromatic (volatile oils), Astringents (tannins),
Bitter (phenol compounds, saponins, and alkaloids), Mucilaginous
(polysaccharides) and Nutritive (food stuffs).
A. Aromatic Herbs
Aromatic herbs, having pleasant odour are used extensively both
therapeutically and as flavourings. Aromatic herbs are further divided
into two sub-categories: stimulants and nervines.
Stimulant Herbs increase energy and activities of the body, or its parts
or organs and most often affect the digestive, respiratory and circulatory
systems in human body. For e.g. garlic, fennel, ginger, lemon grass.
Nerving Herbs are often used to relief and heal the nervous system
and often affect the digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems as well.

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They are often used in teas or in encapsulated form. For e.g. catnip,
ginger.
B. Astringent Herbs
Astringent Herbs have tannins, which precipitate the proteins, and thus
"tightens," contracts, or tones living tissue, and ultimately helps to halt
discharges. These herbs affect the digestive, circulatory and urinary
systems. Large doses of astringent herbs are toxic to the liver. They are
astringent, emmenaggogue, analgesic, antiseptic, hemostatic and styptic.
For e.g. bayberry, peppermint, red sage, red raspberry.
C. Bitter Herbs
Bitter Herbs are named because of the presence of phenols and phenol
glycosides, alkaloids, or saponins, and are divided into subcategories like
laxative herbs, diuretic herbs, saponin containing herbs, alkaloid-
containing herbs etc.
Laxative Bitter herbs have properties like alterative, anticatarrhal,
febrifuge, cholagogue, purgative, hypotonic, ptyalagogue, anthelmintic
and also purify the blood. Examples of laxative bitter herbs include aloe,
pumpkin, senna, cascara, liquorice, yellow dock, barberry, gentian,
safflowers etc.
Diuretic Herbs have properties to cleanse the vascular system, kidneys
and liver because they induce loss of fluid from the body through the
urinary system. Like laxative these herbs too have properties like
alterative, antibiotic, anticatarrhal, febrifuge, antiseptic, lithotripter, and
blood purifier. Examples include sparrowgrass, blessed thistle, butcher's
broom, chickweed, corn silk, dandelion, buchu, chaparral, parsley,
grapevine etc.
Saponin-containing Herbs produces frothing or foaming in solution
with water. The name “saponin” comes from the Latin word for soap.
They emulsify fat soluble molecules in the digestive tract and enhance
the body's ability to absorb other active compounds. Saponins have the
ability to effectively dissolve the cell membranes of red blood cells and
thus disrupt them. They have properties like alterative, anticatarrhal,
antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, cardiac stimulant, and increased longevity in
nature. Examples are yam root, schizandra, black cohosh, blue cohosh,
alfalfa, yucca, devil's claw, liquorice, ginseng etc.
D. Mucilaginous Herbs
Mucilaginous herbs have a slippery, mild taste that is sweet in water, and
these properties are derived from the polysaccharides they contain. All
plants produce mucilage to some extent in some form to store water and
glucide as a food reserve. These herbs are most effective topically as
poultices and knitting agents and are also used topically in the digestive

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tract because most mucilage are not broken down by the human
digestive system, but absorb toxins from the bowel and give bulk to the
stool. They have a demulcent action on the throat when used as
lozenges or extracts. Mucilaginous herbs eliminate the toxins from the
intestinal system, regulate it and reduce the bowel transit time. They are
antibiotic, antacid, demulcent, detoxifier, emollient, and vulnerary in
nature. Some examples include althea, aloe, burdock, comfrey,
dandelion, echinacea, fenugreek, kelp, psylium, slippery elm, Irish moss,
mullein etc.
E. Nutritive Herbs
These herbs provide the nutritive value to the diet. They are true foods
and provide some medicinal effects like fibber, mucilage and diuretic
action. The most importantly they provide the nutrition of protein,
carbohydrates and fats, plus the vitamins and minerals in diet that are
necessary for adequate nutrition. Examples of nutritive herbs are
rosehips, acerola, apple, asparagus, banana, barley grass, bee pollen,
bilberry, broccoli, grapefruit, hibiscus, lemon, oat straw, onion, red
clover, spirulina, stevia etc.
2.3. According to the period of life
Herbs can be classified as annuals, biennials and perennials.
A. Annual herbs complete their life cycle in one year. Annual
herbs include anise, basil, borage, calendula (Pot marigold),
chamomile, chervil, cilantro/coriander, dill bouquet, dill dukat,
fennel, smoky, marjoram, parsley, shiso, saffron, summer
savoury etc.
B. Perennial herbs grow for more than one season and include
sweet marjoram, parsley, mint, sage, thyme and chives. Most can
be started from young plants except for parsley. Others include
alfalfa, allspice, aloe vera, angelica, acrimony, bee balm, bay
leaves, catnip, chives, common thyme, echinacea, fennel,
florence, lavender, lemon balm, mints (spearmint, peppermint,
apple mint, orange mint), marjoram, mitsuba, oregano,
rosemary, sorrel, salad burnet, sage, tarragon, thyme, watercress,
yarrow etc.
C. Biennial herbs are plants which live two season and bloom in
the second season only. These are caraway seeds, prime rose, bai
zhi, mullein, teasel, viper's bugloss etc.
2.4. According to the taxonomy:
According to Mabberley (1998), most of the medicinal and aromatic
plants belong to the families like, Compositae (daisy family), Labiatae
(mint family), Umbelliferae (carrot family), Leguminosae (pea family),

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Roseaceae (rose family), Rutaceae (rue family), Solanaceae (potato
family), Cruciferae (cress family), Liliceae (lily family), Caryophyllaceae
(pink family), Boraginaceae (borage family), Ranunculaceae (buttercup
family), Papaveraceae (poppy family), Malvaceae (mallow family),
Cucurbitaceae (cucumber family), Verbenaceae (verbena family),
Scrophulariceae (figwort family), Phytolaccaceae (pokeweed family) etc.
3. Functional Effects of Herbs
3.1. Nervous System
In the incomparable book Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use,
Schultes and Hofmann (1979) listed 91 such plants, belonging to 44
botanical families occurring all over the world, used by men mostly to
attain altered states of mind. Of those families, the Solanaceae are
present with 12 genera (14 species), Cactaceae with 10 genera (10
species) and Leguminosae (Fabaceae) also with 10 genera (10 species).
Four more hallucinogenic plants were described later (De Smet, 1996),
in addition to those listed in this book. E.A. Carlini (2003) have
reviewed the different plant (crude or semipurified extracts, such as H
perforatum, G biloba, P ginseng, Melissa officinalis L., V officinalis, Crataegus
oxyacantha L., P incarnata, P methysticum, etc) for their effect on the central
nervous system.
Table 2 : Some herbs with their scientific name, active compounds and health
benefits:
Herb Scientific Name Active Compounds Health Benefits
Ginkgo biloba Ginkgo biloba Ginkolides: flavonoid
glycosides, and
diterpene lactones
Brain,
circulatory
System
Kava kava Piper
methysticum
Kavalactones Brain
Passionflower Passiflora
incarnata
Chrysin, flavonoids,
alkaloids and fatty acids
Brain
Valerian Valeriana officalis
Valeptriates, valerenic
acid, sesquiterpenes
Brain
St. John’s wort Hypericum
perforatum
Hypericin,
pseudohypericin,
hyperforins, terpenes,
catechin-type tannins,
proanthocyanidins
Brain
Hawthorn
Berry
Crataegus
oxycantha
Amygdalin, crategolic
acid, oligomeric
proanthocyanadins
Circulatory
system
Indian
Gooseberry
Phyllanthus
emblica
Phyllemblin, terpenoids,
alkaloids, flavonoids, and
tannins
Heart, blood
and circulation

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Herb Scientific Name Active Compounds Health Benefits
Echinacea Echinacea
purpurea
E. pallida
E. angustifolia
Echinosides, caffeic,
ferulic acids and
cichoric acid, inulin and
fructans
Immune system
Ginseng Panax ginseng Ginsenosides Immune system
Astragalus Astragalus
membranaceus
Flavonoids and saponins Immune system
Peppermint oil Mentha piperita Menthol GI tract
Ginger Zingiber
officinale
Gingerols, gingerdiols GI tract
Licorice Glycyrrhiza
glabra
Glycyrrhetic acid,
triterpene, saponins
Respiratory
system
Green Chiretta Andrographis
paniculata
Andrographolide Respiratory
System, GI tract
Cranberries Vaccinium
macrocarpon
Proanthocyanidins Urinary tract
Saw palmetto
Berry
Serenoa repens β-sitosterol, sterols, fatty
acids
Prostate gland
Feverfew Tancetum
parthenuum
Sesquiterpene lactones Brain
Ginkgo: Ginkgo is an extract of the leaves of Ginkgo biloba. This tree is
native to China but seems to grow well in a range of climates. The active
compounds in ginkgo are flavonoid glycosides and novel diterpene
lactones, collectively known as ginkgolides. The ginkgolides may
improve oxygen consumption and enhance peripheral and cerebral
blood flow. It promotes relaxation of blood vessel walls, enhanced
utilization of oxygen and glucose and due to inhibition of platelet-
activating factor (PAF) it affects circulation, blood coagulation, and
inflammation (Kleijnen & Knipschild, 1992). The mechanism by which
gingko has its effect is thought to be due to its ability to improve
microvasculature insufficiency. An increase in blood flow to the brain
may be the reason for the slowing of mental decline in dementia
(DeFeudis, 1998). The ginkgo leaf extracts have very low toxicity. In
rats, even extremely high doses were not mortal. No evidence of cancer,
or genetic mutations was found in animals treated with ginkgo or any
birth defects in the offspring of treated pregnant females (Hansel et al.,
1993).
Kava (Piper methysticum): This psychoactive member of the pepper
family has been used historically in the South Pacific Islands as a
ceremonial and recreational tranquilizing beverage (Singh, 1992). It is an
approved medication in Germany for “states of nervous anxiety,

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tension, and agitation” in doses of 60-120 mg of kava lactones for up to
3 months duration (Schulz et al 1998). Kava is increasingly popular in
the United States for short term relief from anxiety and stress. This
includes successful use for such stressors as fear of flying and
performance anxiety. The muscle-relaxing effects make it particularly
useful in treating headaches, backaches, and other tension-related pain
(Cass, 1998).
The active constituents are the kavalactones or kavapyrones,
including kawain, dihydrokawain, methysticin, and dihydromethysticin
(Schulz et al., 1998). Kavapyrones are absorbed by the gastrointestinal
tract and cross the blood– brain barrier (Keledjian et al., 1988) and act as
skeletal muscle relaxants and anticonvulsants (Meyer, 1967). It likely has
an indirect effect on the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors,
including those for benzodiazepines. Several kavapyrones, including
methysticin and dihydromethysticin, are potent uptake inhibitors of the
stimulant norepinephrine, (Seitz et al., 1997) which can lead to mood
elevating effects.
After all, traditional ceremonies in Hawaii and other locations in the
South Pacific kava beverages are used as natural intoxicants. Kava
supplements are also promoted for antianxiety effects with its relaxing
effects. Animal studies have also found anticonvulsive and
antispasmodic effects of kava (Blumenthal, 1999).
Adverse effects reported in clinical studies have been rare, mild, and
reversible. With higher doses, kava dermopathy (a temporary yellowish
discoloration of the skin, hair, and nails) and liver-related metabolic
abnormalities, including increased liver enzymes has been reported
(Stevinson et al., 2002). Serious adverse events are, however, possible
with kava ingestion, and liver damage is of the greatest concern
(Clouatre, 2004). In addition, because of its effects on the central
nervous system, kava should not be used in conjunction with alcohol,
barbituates, or psychopharmacological agents. Safety for long-term use
is unknown.
Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata) Passionflower is used as a mild
sedative, usually in combination with other herbs. There are no clinical
trials on its use as a single agent but it appears to be safe. Passionflower
contains flavonoids, alkaloids and fatty acids (Newall et al., 1996,
Pizzorno & Murray, 1999). It is not clear till now that which
components of the plant are responsible for its sedative effects. It has
been reported that chrysin (5, 7-dihydroxyflavone), a flavonoid derived
from Passiflora coerulea could account for the activity of the plant. It is a
partial agonist of benzodiazepine receptors and has anxiolytic activity in
mice without inducing sedation or muscle relaxation (Wolfman et al.,
1994).

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Valerian root (Valeriana officalis L.) is well known as a natural sleep
aid in many cultures. It is also promoted as having anxiolytic and
antispasmodic activity. Several small human clinical trials have found
valerian to be efficacious as a mild sedative, showing a significant
decrease in sleep latency as compared to placebos (Miller LG, 1998).
The active ingredients in valerian are likely valepotriates and
sesquiterpenes (Heiligenstein & Guenther, 1998). Both compounds are
known to have sedative effects, and valepotriates are also known to be
cytotoxic. However, therapeutic preparations do not contain
valepotriates as these are thermolabile and chemically unstable. Valerian
has also been shown to be high in gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
(Wong et al., 1998). Its mechanism of action, however, is unknown.
Valerian has been approved for use as a flavoring for foods and
beverages and is considered GRAS. Few examples of products
containing valerian have been found other than teas and beverages
touted for relaxation. No studies have been done on valerian as a food
ingredient.
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), is a widely prescribed
antidepressant in Europe and has become a top-selling dietary
supplement in the U.S. Its common name (wort is Old English for plant)
derives from the traditional belief that the plant blooms on the
anniversary of the execution of St. John the Baptist. Although it has
been suggested to have antiviral and anticancer properties, it is the
antidepressive effects of St. John’s wort that have garnered the attention
of researchers and consumers. A number of compounds may contribute
to the activity of St. John’s wort, including naphthodianthroms,
flavonoids, xanthose, and bioflavonoids (Miller LG, 1998). Although
hypericin and pseudohypericin are the compounds that have been the
subject of most investigations (Wong et al., 1998).
The exact mechanism of action of St. John’s wort has not been well
defined. In vitro evidence initially suggested monoamine oxidase (MAO)
inhibition, but this is unlikely, given the wide use in Europe without
reported side effects usually associated with monoamine oxidase
inhibitors (MAOI) (O’Hara et al., 1998). Other studies suggest effects
on several neurotransmitters, including gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA) affinity, activation of dopamine receptors and inhibition of
serotonin receptors. It is possible that small additive effects on several
neurotransmitters combine to give the antidepressant effect. Side effects
are minimal but have included photosensitivity, gastrointestinal upset,
dizziness, sedation, restlessness and constipation (Wong et al., 1998). At
least two studies have found an interaction with oral contraceptives that
suggest the effectiveness of the contraceptive is less when St. John’s
wort is also consumed (Hall et al., 2003, Pfrunder et al., 2003).

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St. John’s wort has also been shown to reduce blood levels of a
common protease inhibitor used in the treatment of HIV and AIDS
(James, 2000; Piscitelli et al., 2000). St. John’s wort should not be taken
in combination with other antidepressants, and its safety in pregnant and
lactating women and in children is unknown. Tea, juice blends and other
drinks, soups, and snack foods have been marketed with added St.
John’s wort, suggesting “calming” and “relaxing” effects of these
products (Percival & Turner, 2007).
Herbs like, Datura (Datura metel), Serpentwood (Rauvolfia serpentine),
Garden Rue (Ruta chalepensis), Greater Galangal (Alpinia galangal),
Terminalia arjuna, Coleus (Coleus spp.), Pomegranate (Punica granatum),
Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus), Solanum erianthum, Fenugreek (Trigonella
foenum-graecum), Mesua (Mesua nagassarium). Ashoka (Saraca asoca), Mango
Ginger or Curcuma (Curcuma amada) etc. also found to have active
components that affect central nervous system (Joy et al., 1998).
3.2. Heart and Circulation
The hawthorn plant, Crataegus oxycantha, has been traditionally used for a
number of cardiac complaints such as angina, hypertension, arrhythmia,
and congestive heart failure. The medicinal parts of the hawthorn are the
leaves, flowers, and berries, used singly or in combination. Studies show
that 160 to 1800 mg per day of an aqueous-alcoholic extract was
effective for a period that lasted up to 56 days; however, no
pharmacokinetics of the drug in humans were available (Pittler et al.,
2003).
The active compounds of hawthorn are the flavones, flavanols, and
oligomeric procyanidins (catechins and epicatechins). Other potential
active compounds are the triterpene saponins, phenolics, and a few
cardioactive amines. Like many other botanicals, the antioxidant and
antithrombotic activities are likely to be responsible for improvement in
cardiovascular symptoms. Hawthorn is well tolerated by most patients.
In the clinical trials, reports of adverse effects are virtually nonexistent
(Fong & Bauman 2002). One another study aimed to determine whether
hawthorn increases submaximal exercise capacity when added to
standard medical therapy gave negative results and conclude that
hawthorn extract provides no clinical benefit, at the dosing regimen
evaluated, when given in addition to standard evidence-based
contemporary medical therapy to patients with ambulatory symptomatic
chronic heart failure. Hawthorn extract may be associated with an
increase in non-cardiac adverse events (Zick et al., 2009).
Hawthorn has been previously added to beverages but, under
current regulations, no claims could be made for management of
vascular health. A functional food containing hawthorn has potential to

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be marketed for cardiovascular health as well. More human, controlled,
randomized clinical trials are needed before this herb is found to be
efficacious or accepted as a medical food.
Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) is a gift of nature to
mankind. It is an indispensable part of the ayurvedic and unani system
with amazing remedial qualities. Indian Gooseberry is perhaps the single
most often mentioned herb in "Charak Samhita", the Ayurvedic
medicine literature (500 BC) (Onions, 1994). There are two varieties of
Indian Gooseberry - cultivated and wild. The wild Indian Gooseberry is
small, while cultivated Indian Gooseberry is big, smooth and juicy
(Singh et al., 2011). The taste of Indian gooseberry is sour, bitter and
astringent, and is quite fibrous (Brun & Schumacher, 1987).
The active ingredient that has significant pharmacological action in
Indian Gooseberry is designated by Indian scientist as "Phyllemblin".
The fruit is rich in quercetin, phyllaemblic compounds, gallic acid,
tannins, flavonoids, pectin, and vitamin C and also contains various
polyphenolic compounds. A wide range of phytochemical components
including terpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins have been shown
to posses’ useful biological benefits (Arora et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2005).
The fruits, leaves and bark are rich in tannins. The root contains ellagic
acid and lupeol and bark contains leucodelphinidin. The phytochemicals
of this plant include hydrolysable tannins (Emblicanin A, Emblicanin B,
punigluconin, pedunculagin) (Ghosal et al., 1996), flavonoids
(Kaempferol 3 O alpha L (6” methyl) rhamnopyranoside, Kaempferol 3
O alpha L (6” ethyl) amnopyranoside), alkaloids (Phyllantidine and
phyllantine) (Singh et al., 2011). Gallic acid, ellagic acid,
1‐Ogalloyl‐beta‐D‐glucose, 3,6‐di‐O‐galloyl‐D‐glucose, chebulinic acid,
quercetin, chebulagic acid, corilagin together with isostrictinnin, were
isolated from the fruit of Phyllanthus emblica (Zhang et al., 2003). An
acylated glucoside was isolated from the methanolic extract of the leaves
of P. emblica.Their structures were named as apigenin7‐O‐
(6”‐butyryl‐beta)‐glucopyranoside, along with four known compounds
gallic acid, methyl gallate, 1,2,3,4,6‐penta‐Ogalloylglucose and
luteolin‐4'Oneohesperiodoside (Desouky, 2008). In addition, the leaves
contain gallic acid, ellagic acid, chebulagic acid and chebulinic acid.
Ellagic acid and lupeol are present in roots of P.emblica (Kapoor, 1990;
Rastogi & Mehrotra, 1993).
Indian Gooseberry nurtures the heart, blood and circulation. It
supports the cardiovascular system. On the other hand, it sometimes
acts as a cardiac stimulant (Williamson, 2002). Research shows that
Indian Gooseberry helps lower cholesterol (Kim et al., 2005) and protect
from heart diseases (Shanmugasundram et al., 1983; Jacob et al., 1988;
Mathur et al., 1996; Yokozawa et al., 2007).

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Other than these herbs, Joy et al (1998) have reported different
herbs that are useful in heart and circulatory system. Some of them are
Common Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria), Coomb Teak (Gmelina arborea),
Terminalia bellirica, Coleus forskohlii, Gymnema (Gymnema sylvestre), Ash
gourd or White gourd melon (Benincasa hispida), Strychnine Tree
(Strychnos nux-vomica) etc.
3.3. Immune System
Herbs that are designed to stimulate the immune system include
echinacea, astragalus, cat’s claw, goldenseal, and pau d’arco (also known
as lapacho). Each herb appears to influence different branches of the
immune system. Echinacea is probably the best studied of the group. The
echinacea plant, also known as the purple coneflower, has been used for
centuries. The herb is best known for its immuno-stimulating
capabilities and is used for treating the common cold, flu, coughs, and
bronchitis (Blumenthal, 1998). Medicinally, three species of echinacea
are important: E. purpurea, E. angustifolia, and E. pallida. Each has been
alleged to have different medicinal properties, but little research has
been done to compare them. The roots, the leaves, or the whole plant
may be used in dietary supplement preparation. Standardized extracts
may be aqueous extracts or ethanol extracts. The active components of
echinacea are flavonoids, immuno-stimulating glycoproteins and
polysaccharides, and caffeic acid and its derivatives. Echinacea, because
of its effect on the oxidative burst of phagocytic cells, would not be
expected to prevent colds or flu; rather, it might be expected to enhance
killing of the invading organisms. Thus, it has been thought more likely
to be a therapeutic herb rather than a prophylactic herb. Recommen-
dations for echinacea use suggest that it should be consumed at the
onset of symptoms. If echinacea affects the phagocytes, long-term
ingestion of echinacea may potentially do more harm than good.
Increased reactivity of the phagocytic system may result in generation of
more free radicals. Free radicals, in turn, may then cause damage to the
host.
Recommendations suggest that echinacea not be consumed for
more than 6 to 8 weeks at a time. Because of its popularity, several
functional foods have been marketed with Echinacea (Percival &
Turner, 2007). Echinacea has been found in snack foods, beverages and
soups. More studies need to be done on the shelf life and heat stability
of the active compounds and also to identify the active compounds.

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Table 3 : Herbal Immunostimulants
Herb or
Extract
Key Constituents Pharmacolgic
Actions
Primary Traditional
Medicine Uses
Echinacea
purpurea,
E. Angustifolia,
E. pallid
Polysaccharides,
glycoproteins,
alkamides, cichoric
acid (a derivate of
caffeic acid)
Stimulation of cell-
mediated
immune
mechanisms
Used for treatment
of upper and lower
respiratory
infections,
pelvic infections
Panax ginseng Ginsenosides,
essential oils,
Phytosterols
Stimulation of cell-
mediated
immune
mechanisms; effects
on cardiovascular
and neuroendocrine
systems
Used primarily for
coping with
physical and mental
stress;
increasingly used as
adjunct to cancer
therapy
Astragalus
membranaceus
Asparagine,
calycosin,
cycloastragenol,
astragalosides,
betaine,
kumatakenin,
glucuronic acid,
β-sitosterol,
soyasaponin,
formononetin
astraisoflavan
Stimulation of cell-
mediated
immune
mechanisms; effects
on cardiovascular
and neuroendocrine
systems
Used as an adjunct
to cancer therapy
and to the treatment
of
immunodeficiency
disorders.
Used in treatment of
a
wide variety of
infections
Ginseng: Ginseng, meaning “man-root,” is a slow-growing root herb
that has been used medicinally for more than 3000 years by practitioners
of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) (Liu & Xiao, 1992). Touted by
many TCM-trained physicians as the “root of longevity,” ginseng is
considered to be an adaptogen, a substance thought to enhance the
body’s ability to resist physical and mental stress (Kumar et al., 1996)
Traditional herbalists also consider it to be a “general tonic,” a substance
that helps protect the body against disease, much as one would expect
from an immunostimulant. Several species are commonly referred to as
ginseng. The 3 most commonly used are Asian or Korean ginseng
(Panax ginseng), American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.), and Siberian
ginseng, more properly called “eleuthero” (Eleutherococcus senticosus). The
Panax species are sometimes considered “true” ginseng; eleuthero is not
in the same genus but comes from the same family and has effects
reputedly similar to those of the Panax species. As a result, all 3 forms
are typically lumped together as “ginseng” and used interchangeably in
Western countries (Block & Mead, 2003).
The main active components of ginseng are glycosidal saponins
(glycosylated steroids) known as ginsenosides. In P. ginseng, 36 different
ginsenosides and many minor constituents (essential oils, phytosterols,

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amino acids, peptides, vitamins, and minerals) have been extracted and
isolated from the root, stem, and leaves (Wilkie & Cordess, 1994). Based
on extensive in vitro and in vivo studies, the main activities of ginseng can
be summarized as follows: immunostimulation, increased antitumor
activity, improved cardiovascular function (vasodilation and reduced
platelet aggregation), antioxidant activity (increased oxygen radical
scavenging and decreased lipid peroxidation), hypoglycemic activity, and
stimulation of the pituitary adrenocortical system (steroidal effect) (Tang
& Eisenbrand, 1992; Sticher, 1998). Mitigation of oxidative stress, or
excessive free-radical damage, may be especially relevant. Many
ginsenosides function as antioxidants that protect the outer membranes
of cells, particularly nerve and immune cells (Zhang et al., 1996). The
cell membranes of circulating lymphocytes have very high phospholipid
content, rendering them vulnerable to oxidative damage. High
concentrations of reactive oxygen intermediates, such as superoxide and
hydrogen peroxide, can suppress natural killer (NK) activity (Hansson et
al., 1996, Brune et al., 1996, Kono et al., 1996). More than 300 scientific
papers have been published on ginseng and its diverse therapeutic
effects, emphasizing enhancement of performance and diminution of
fatigue. Based on the findings of 15 controlled trials, Schulz et al (1998)
conclude that ginseng users show significant improvements in mood, as
well as in physical and intellectual performance. The ginsengs are
generally considered to have a relatively low level of adverse reactions.
Possible contraindications include hypertension and use of warfarin, for
which concerns with drug interactions have been noted.
Astragalus: Astragalus root (Astragalus membranaceus), an
adaptogenic herb, holds an important place in traditional Chinese herbal
medicine. Physicians in that system use astragalus for cardiovascular
disease, and in addition for all diseases caused by “insufficient qi” (life
energy) that typically include the following symptoms: feelings of
weakness, fatigue, apathy, poor appetite, clammy hands, and
vulnerability to infection (Beinfeield & Korngold, 1991) For many
centuries, the herb has been used by TCM practitioners to correct a
condition referred to as “spleen deficiency,”(Bensky & Gamble, 1993),
which has been associated with cellular immune dysfunction (Yu et al.,
1990) Some preliminary confirmation of these adaptogenic properties is
seen in reports that it increases the production of white blood cells,
notably T cells and macrophages (Sun et al., 1983) and that it enhances
both adrenal (Li, 1991) and cardiovascular functioning (Miller AL, 1998).
Major constituents of astragalus include D-β- asparagine, calycosin,
cycloastragenol, astragalosides I-VII, choline, betaine, kumatakenin,
glucuronic acid, β-sitosterol1, soyasaponin I, linoleic acid, linolenic acid,
and the plant pigments formononetin and astraisoflavan (Hong, 1986).

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Certain flavonoids and saponins found in astragalus are thought to have
considerable free-radical-scavenging ability (Wang et al., 1996). Antiviral
activity has been noted for the herb. Very little clinical work on
astragalus is available, although some human studies do indicate
stimulation of activity of immune cells in clinical populations (Block &
Mead, 2003).
3.4. Digestive System
Almost every herb listed in general reference books seems to have some
influence on the digestive system. The alleged use of the botanical is to
cleanse or purify the body. Cleansers and tonics are very difficult to
study. Some of the herbs found to stimulate digestive juices include
wormwood, dandelion, horseradish, chicory, and tarragon. Precautions
should be noted for wormwood (daisy family) as this genus may contain
thujone, a small molecule that has been responsible for convulsions,
hallucinations, and kidney failure. Fennel is supposed to act as a
carminative, a substance to relieve gas, cramps, and bloating. Aloe, when
taken internally, acts as a laxative. Peppermint oil has been used in the
relief of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and gastritis. Another herb that
has been suggested to promote gastrointestinal well-being is ginger
(Zingiber officinale). Ginger is a common culinary spice, but levels that are
recommended therapeutically (2 to 4 g of the rhizome daily) are far
greater than what is incorporated into food as a seasoning (Percival &
Turner, 2007). Clinical trials with ginger have focused on preventing
postoperative nausea and motion sickness. A ginger extract (200 mg)
increased stomach motility (Micklefield et al., 1999), but 1 g of the whole
root did not alter gastric emptying (Phillips et al., 1993). Also, 1 g of the
root did not prevent experimentally- induced motion sickness (Stewart
et al 1991). But in another study, 1 g of the root reduced the tendency to
vomit on the high seas (Grontved et al., 1988). Available data is
inconclusive on the antinausea mechanism of ginger, but it is generally
believed to act differently than Dramamine. Teas, however, are currently
used as a mode of administration, suggesting potential for ginger to be
used in a beverage to prevent nausea.
Other than these, herbs like, Indian Bdellium (Commiphora mukul),
Cinchona or Quinine (Cinchona spp.), Coomb Teak (Gmelina arborea),
Coleus amboinicus, Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri), Barhauta (Solanum indicum),
Leadwort (Plumbago
indica), Gymnema sylvestre, Nagadanti (Baliospermum
montanum), Green Chiretta (Andrographis paniculata), Pippal, Pipli (Ficus
religiosa Linn.), Nagadanti (Baliospermum montanum), Purging Croton
(Croton tiglium) etc. are also found very effective for digestive system in
human (Joy et al., 1998).

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3.5. Respiratory System
The licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) is claimed to act as an expectorant
although, according to the Physicians Desk Reference of Herbal Medicines, this
has only been researched in rabbits (Gruenwald et al., 1998). Licorice
has been associated with hypertension, and has been suggested to cause
renal retention of sodium and a loss of body potassium. The exact
mechanism is unclear, but it may be through inhibiting 11 beta-hydroxy
steroid dehydrogenase type 2 (Serra et al., 2002). The importance of
replacing lost potassium should be stressed, and perhaps potassium
could become a component of a functional food containing licorice
root.
Green Chiretta (Andrographis paniculata) also called as Kalmegh or
“King of Bitters” belongs to the family Acanthaceae (Mishra et al., 2007)
is an herbaceous plant (Jarukamjorn & Nemoto, 2008). Mostly leaves
and roots have been traditionally used over centuries for different
medicinal purposes in Asia and Europe as a folklore remedy for a wide
spectrum of ailments or as an herbal supplement for health promotion
(Jarukamjorn & Nemoto, 2008). The characteristic secondary
metabolites encountered in the plant have considerably enhanced its
importance in the arena of medicinal plants and medicines. A number of
diterpenoids and diterpenoid glycosides of similar carbon skeleton have
been isolated from this plant, mainly the most bitter compounds among
them are andrographolide, neoandrographolide, deoxyandrographolide
(Kataky & Handique, 2010). Andrographolide is the bioactive
compound of the medicinal plant Andrographis paniculata.
Andrographolide has highly bitter taste, is colorless crystalline in
appearance, and possess a “lactone function” (Mishra et al., 2007). The
highest amount of andrographolide (2.39%) is found in leaves of
Andrographis while the seeds contain the lowest (Sharma et al., 1992).
The highest concentration of the active components is found just before
the plant blooms, making early fall the best time to harvest (Sharma et
al., 1992; Mishra et al., 2007).
Andrographis paniculata shows hepatoprotective, immunological, anti-
inflammatory, antimalarial, antidiarrhoeal, cardiovascular, hypoglycemic,
anti-fertility and psycho-pharmacological activity (Jarukamjorn &
Nemoto, 2008). Andrographis paniculata has been reviewed to alleviating
the subjective symptoms of uncomplicated upper respiratory tract
infection (URI) and preliminary evidence of a prevalence effect (Coon,
2004). There was reasonably strong evidence from clinical trails to
suggest that Andrographis paniculata was effective in reducing the severity
and the duration of URI when treatment was started within the first 36-
48 hr of symptoms (Kligler et al., 2006). In another study, intake of
Andrographis paniculata there was a significant decrease in prevalence and

Functional Foods: Sources & Health Benefits
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intensity of the symptoms in the uncomplicated common cold (Caceres
et al., 1999). The relative risk of catching a cold indicated that the
preventive effect could be due to immunostimulatory effect of
andrographolide. The mechanism of action of Andrographis paniculata in
treatment of URI remains unclear to date. The apparent effectiveness of
the plant may be based either on its anti-inflammatory properties or on
its immunomodulatory properties (Jarukamjorn & Nemoto, 2008)
According to Joy et al (1998), herbs like, Datura (Datura metel), Long
Pepper (Piper longum), Malabar Nut (Adhatoda beddomei), Sweet Flag
(Acorus calamus), Solanum melongena, Ash gourd or White gourd melon
(Benincasa hispida), Strychnine Tree (Strychnos nux-vomica) etc are also
found to be effective against the diseases related to respiration system.
3.6. Urinary System
Cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon) have shown benefits for urinary
tract health (Fleet 1994). Cranberry appears to act as an antiseptic
simultaneously preventing bacterial adherence to the epithelial cells of
the urinary tract (Avorn et al., 1994). Cranberry contains
proanthocyanidins that inhibit binding of Escherichia coli and other
microbes to the bladder epithelium (Sobot, 1984). It also inhibits
binding of E. coli to intestinal mucosa and Helicobacter pylori to gastric
mucosa (Zafriri et al., 1989, Burger et al., 2000). In a review, it was
concluded that cranberry juice decreases the number of symptomatic
urinary tract infections in a 12-month period for women, but there is not
enough evidence to conclude the same for children and the elderly
(Jepson et al., 2004). Cranberry has been studied for a number of other
conditions such as urinary stone formation (Gettman et al., 2005),
neuropsychological effects (Crews et al., 2005) and Helicobacter pylori
infection (Zhang et al., 2005). Data is positive but not sufficient to draw
conclusions. Other berries of the same family such as the blueberry (V.
angustifolium) and bilberry (V. myrtillus) may also aid in urinary tract
health. Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), a different family, is also
indicated in urinary tract infections.
Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is a very common palm plant
indigenous to the southeastern U.S. These plants contain fatty acid
esters as most important group of constituents. Oral administration of
extracts rich in these compounds have been shown to inhibit intra-
prostatic 5-alpha reductase (5AR) in men without influencing systemic
testosterone levels or prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels (Marks et al
2001). The saw palmetto berry is used in the treatment of benign
prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Forty percent of men over the age of 70
have this condition. Frequent urination, nocturia, weak stream,
incomplete emptying, and hesitancy, characterize BPH. The enlargement

Herbs as Functional Foods
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of the prostate is thought to occur via the action of dihydrotestosterone
(DHT). DHT is derived from testosterone via an alpha reductase
enzyme. The action of DHT is anabolic, hence the growth of the
prostate. Treatment for this condition uses drugs designed to inhibit the
alpha reductase enzyme. Saw palmetto berries contain compounds that
inhibit the alpha reductase enzyme. Two advantages of the berry over
the drug have been noted: (1) saw palmetto berry is less expensive than
finasteride (a drug used in BPH treatment that acts as an alpha reductase
inhibitor) and (2) erectile dysfunction was noted in 5% of the men on
the drug, but there were no such side effects in the saw palmetto group
(Wilt et al., 1998).
Urinary antiseptic and anti-adhesion herbs, particularly Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi (uva-uri) leaf, Juniperus spp (juniper) leaf and Vaccinium macrocarpon
(cranberry) fruit were reviewed and herbs for symptoms of benign
prostatic hyperplasia, most notably Serenoa repens (saw palmetto) fruit,
Urtica dioica root and Prunus africana (pygeum) bark were surveyed by
Yarnell (2002). Other botanicals that are becoming better known for the
ability to reduce the symptoms associated with BPH include Pygeum
africanum and Urtica dioica (Krzeski et al., 1992; Chatelain et al., 1999).
Less is known about these herbs, although Pygeum acts as an alpha
reductase inhibitor. For mild BPH, saw palmetto berries may be
beneficial. Their actual benefit in a functional food rather than in
capsule form is questionable, however.
In an another study, 47 herbs of potential interest in the context of
renal or urinary tract pathologies were tested by Wojcikowski et al
(2009) for their beneficial and toxic effects on two normal mammalian
kidney cell lines using polar and non-polar extracts of each herb and
some of them appear to be the best products for further in vivo research.
Ambrette (Abelmoschus moschatus), Asparagus (Asparagus racemosus), Long
Pepper (Piper longum), Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica), Indian
Bdellium (Commiphora mukul), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Indian Beech
(Pongamia pinnata), Eclipta (Eclipta prostrate), Terminalia chebula, Tinospora
(Tinospora cordifolia), Gymnema (Gymnema sylvestre), Ash gourd, White
gourd melon (Benincasa hispida), Sweet melon (Cucumis melo), Colocynth or
Bitter apple (Citrullus colocynthis), Blach Musale (Curculigo orchioides) etc.
were also found to be effective in health problems related to urinary
system by Joy et al (1998).
3.7. Musculoskeletal System
There are a number of herbal preparations designed to act as analgesics
(relieve joint and muscle pain) and anti-inflammatory agents to reduce
swelling and pain. The bark of the white willow is known to contain
salicylates, the compound that is in aspirin. Ginger is also found to show

Functional Foods: Sources & Health Benefits
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anti-inflammatory properties (Hania, 2010). The exact mechanism by
which ginger relieves pain remains unclear, studies indicate that ginger
may inhibit key enzymes that lead to inflammation (inhibition of
prostaglandin and leukotriene synthesis) (Govindarajan, 1982, Bhandari
et al., 2005). The presence of major components like [6]-Gingerol
(Aeschbach et al., 1994) and [6]-Shogaol (Srivastava & Mustafa, 1992;
Bliddal et al., 2000) in ginger may also contribute to the anti-
inflammatory effects associated with the use of powdered ginger.
Feverfew (Tancetum parthenuum) is an herb resembling the daisy that
has been reported as a prophylactic treatment for migraine headaches.
The active components of feverfew are thought to be the sesquiterpene
lactones (Barsby et al., 1993). An in vitro study suggested that the
mechanism by which feverfew worked was inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase
and cyclo-oxygenase enzyme activities (Sumner et al., 1992). The five
clinical trials that have been published suggest a beneficial effect of
feverfew compared to placebos. More recently, clinical trials with
standardized extract (MIG-99) showed a significant reduction in the
number and frequency of migraines (Pfaffenrath et al., 2002, Diener et
al., 2005).
Green Chiretta (Andrographis paniculata), Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha),
Blach Musale (Curculigo orchioides) etc. herbal plants are also found to be
effective in problems related to inflammation (Joy et al., 1998).
4. Problems in using herbs as food ingredient
Numerous issues are raised when considering botanical ingredients as
food additives, including regulatory requirements, safety, and identity, in
addition to efficacy. One of the biggest questions is the stability of
botanical ingredients in foods that must be processed by heat, air, or
pressure.
4.1. Regulatory
In regulatory requirements, as no separate regulatory category is well
defined, an herbal ingredient to be used in a food must be “generally
recognized as safe” (GRAS) or approved as a food additive. The United
States Code of Federal Regulations has considered spices and herbs as
“GRAS”, i.e. generally recognized as safe for human consumption (Das
et al., 2012).
4.2. Identity
Second is the correct identity issue, many times the problems arise due
to harvesting of different genus of plant. Two individuals were poisoned
when the herbal preparation they consumed contained the Digitalis lanata
plant rather than plantain, of the plantago genus (Slifman et al., 1999).

Herbs as Functional Foods
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Both individuals experienced cardiac symptoms as a result of elevated
levels of digoxin. After tracing the product back through the
manufacturer, supplier and farmer, it was determined that the identity of
the D. lanata had been confused with the plantain at harvest.
4.3. Correct species
The other issue concerns identifying the correct species of the plant.
The efficacy of Echinacea cannot be extended to all species: E. purpurea,
E. angustifolia, and E. pallid. Studies can be flawed because although one
species was studied, another species may have been reported. This
confusion resulted in a denial by the German Commission E for
approval of some of the Echinacea preparations (Blumenthal, 1998).
The Commission E has approved the oral use of E. purpurea herb, i.e.,
ground parts for colds, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract
infections, and the topical use for poorly healing wounds. The E. pallid
root (fresh or dried) has been approved for use in the treatment of
influenzalike infections. The E. angustifolia root or herb and the E. pallid
herb have not been approved due to the confusion in the identity of the
actual plant that was studied.
4.4. Standardization
Next problem while using herbs in food products is standardization for
both food manufacturers and consumers. Herbs are grown under
different conditions, at different locations, and in different seasons of
the year. These geographical and environmental differences result in
variations in the levels of active compounds. The community of herbal
growers, producers, etc., has called for standardization of herb products.
But which compounds should be standardized? In some cases, the active
compound is unknown. Even if the active ingredient is known, there are
many different active compounds in herbs that may act additively or
synergistically. Little is known about the optimum level of these
compounds. Much research is needed to determine the appropriate
standards for quantity, potency, and content uniformity.
4.5. Effects of processing
Clearly, we do not know many of the active compounds in the herbals
that may be used in a functional food. More importantly, with the
addition of those herbs to food and the processing that the food must
undergo, even less is known about the effects of processing on the
active compounds. Storage of Echinacea purpurea roots either at 24oor –
18o resulted in significant losses in the alkamides, although drying and
chopping had little effect (Slifman et al., 1999). Hyperforin, an
ingredient in St. John’s wort, has been shown to be very sensitive to
oxidation, and storage conditions are critical to maintaining the levels

Functional Foods: Sources & Health Benefits
164
found in the original harvested plant (Orth et al., 1999). Thus, foods
containing echinacea or St. John’s wort that have been stored may lose
efficacy. More research is needed on the stability of herbal active
components. However, even if we were to determine that one
compound is affected by processing, we would still need to determine
whether the whole herb in a food product becomes ineffective.
4.6. Safety
Another key question for herbal additives to food is the safety of the
herb itself. Examples of herbs with known dangers include chaparral,
ephedra, blue cohosh, and yohimbe, to name a few. Other safety
concerns include potential interactions with other medicines (e.g.,
anticoagulants and Ginkgo biloba), and the possibility of contaminants,
such as lead, in herbal preparations.
According to studies, adverse effects on health such as anemia,
weight loss, heart, liver, kidney toxicity (Bannerjee et al., 2003) and other
dermatological problems (Sahu, 2002) may induce due to excessive
consumption of garlic (4 ml/kg for raw garlic juice or of 100 mg/kg for
garlic oil). High doses of onion (500 mg/kg) as well causes lung and
tissue damage in rats (Ali et al., 2000). In many cases, the functional or
active ingredients in an herb may have drug-like qualities. The suitability
of providing such an herb in a food product for general consumption
needs to be considered. Allergies to some herbal preparations exist;
common allergens would need to be clearly identified in ingredient lists.
Herbal preparations are, by definition, rather dilute. Adding the herb to
a food may increase the dilution. However, when extracts are used, do
the active compounds become more concentrated and thus potentially
stronger? How much is effective? How much is too much? Concerns are
raised regarding unintentional consumption and consumption by
children. These are some of the many unanswered questions
surrounding functional foods with herbal ingredients.
4.7. Intractions with drugs
Spices and herbs are in most cases harmless, when used as food, but
may exhibit toxicity, when used as medicine, because of their relative
higher dose administered, or rather due to the possibilities of their
interactions with other pharmaceutical medications (Argento et al., 2000,
Ernst 2003). Anecdotal incidences, case studies, and clinical trials have
clearly shown an increase in the occurrence of complications between
drugs and herbs. Interactions documented in the literature include herbs
that increase the effects of anticoagulants, and those affecting brain
neurotransmitters, immunity, or hormonal actions (Hall et al., 2003;
Pfrunder et al., 2003; Sparreboom et al., 2004). Some herbs act as
hepatic enzyme inducers or inhibitors, thereby increasing or decreasing,

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165
respectively, plasma levels of prescribed drugs (Gurley et al., 2004). As
these herbs can be added as ingredients to foods, it is important to pay
attention to the levels that cause these drug interactions.
5. Summary and Conclusion
Many issues like safety, stability, regulatory etc. arises when herbs are
added to food products. Very much research is needed for different
herbs to be used in food as a ingredient. There is a vast gap of
knowledge exist on the part of both the manufacturer and consumer.
Because of ancient knowledge and progressive research on herbs, their
future may be assumed to be bright in the world in coming years.
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