Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.) (Aves, Accipitridae) in southern Atlantic Forest, Brazil

Abstract

Neotropical hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.) are large forest raptors, having low population densities and high sensitivity to human disturbance. The three species of Brazil’s Atlantic forest (S. ornatus, S. melanoleucus, S. tyrannus) are threatened and little is known of many aspects of their biology, such habitat requirements, nesting behavior, and food habitats. Here I present data about the breeding biology, diet and behavior of the Ornate Hawk-Eagle (S. ornatus; OHE) and the Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle (S. melanoleucus; BWHW), and estimations of distribution - extent of occurrence (EOO) - and population sizes for the three hawk-eagles of the southern Atlantic Forest. I compiled data from nine years of field studies done in Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina combined with data from the literature (n = 191 records). I calculated the total amount of forest available for each species by GIS analyses and estimated population sizes based on species density data from the literature. The EOO was 123,551 km² for BWHE, 92,512 km² for OHE, and 67,824 km² for Black Hawk-Eagle (S. tyrannus; BHE). All species experienced more than 30% shrinkage in their historical distribution (before the year 2000). Forest remnants comprise 32% of BHE’s EOO and around 20% for other hawk-eagle species. Population sizes estimated for the southern region were 869 pairs for BHE (1,684 individuals), 1,532 pairs for BWHE (2,849 individuals), and 2,020 pairs for OHE (1,192 individuals). Population size estimates based only on forest patches larger than 10 km² were 542 pairs for BHE (RS = 48 pairs; SC = 494 pairs), 818 pairs for BWHE (RS = 67 pairs; SC = 751 pairs), and 1,178 pairs for OHE (RS = 67 pairs; SC = 1,111 pairs). I recorded displays and copulation of BWHE in July; the nest was built in an inaccessible, emergent tree in the hillside of a valley. Two nests of OHE were found in emergent trees (20 m and 30 m height) measured 138 x 115 x 45 cm and 132 x 100 x 100 cm; one egg was found (64.5 x 51.1 mm). Spizaetus seems to have very variable breeding cycles and begin breeding in the austral winter. I estimated egg laying occurs from July to September with fledging happening 3-4 months later. Diet of OHE consisted mostly of birds (90%) but also some mammals. Individuals of Spizaetus require large, unbroken forest areas to live, and my data reinforce the critical situation of hawk-eagles in southern Atlantic forest. All three species have lost habitat and their distributions have shrunk over the past decades. The estimated population sizes suggest concern and a need for conservation actions. Conservation of large raptors in the Atlantic Forest is not a simple task, requiring the need to preserve and limit the disturbance of remaining forests, establish connectivity among fragments and reduce direct threats to raptors (e.g., persecution). We also need to better understand the ecological requirements of hawk-eagles and establish public policies to protect both species and their habitats.

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Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037
1
Série Zoologia
Fundação Zoobotânica do Rio Grande do Sul
Museu de Ciências Naturais
www.scielo.br/isz
e-ISSN 1678-4766
Iheringia
Iheringia
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)
Aves, Accipitridae) in southern Atlantic Forest, Brazil
Felipe Zilio
Setor de Ornitologia. Seção de Zoologia de Vertebrados, Museu de Ciências Naturais, Fundação Zoobotânica do Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Dr. Salvador França, 1427,
Jardim Botânico, 90690-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
Present address: Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV) – Campus Rio Paranaíba, Rodovia MG-230, Km 7, s/n, Caixa Postal 22 , 38810-000,
Rio Paranaíba, MG, Brazil. (fzilio@msn.com)
Received 28 September 2016
Accepted 01 August 2017
DOI: 10.1590/1678-4766e2017037
ABSTRACT . Neotropical hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.) are large forest raptors, having low population densities and high sensitivity to human disturbance.
The three species of Brazil’s Atlantic forest (S. ornatus, S. melanoleucus, S. tyrannus) are threatened and little is known of many aspects of their biology,
such habitat requirements, nesting behavior, and food habitats. Here I present data about the breeding biology, diet and behavior of the Ornate Hawk-Eagle
(S. ornatus; OHE) and the Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle (S. melanoleucus; BWHW), and estimations of distribution - extent of occurrence (EOO) - and

  
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S. tyrannus; 
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Spizaetus seems to have very variable breeding cycles and begin breeding in the

 Spizaetus require large, unbroken forest areas to live, and my data reinforce the critical situation of hawk-
eagles in southern Atlantic forest. All three species have lost habitat and their distributions have shrunk over the past decades. The estimated population

preserve and limit the disturbance of remaining forests, establish connectivity among fragments and reduce direct threats to raptors (e.g., persecution).
We also need to better understand the ecological requirements of hawk-eagles and establish public policies to protect both species and their habitats.
KEYWORDS. 
RESUMO. Biologia reprodutiva e conservação de Spizaetus spp. (Aves, Accipitridae) na porção sul da Mata Atlântica, Brasil. Os gaviões do
gênero Spizaetus 
As três espécies que ocorrem na Mata Atlântica (S. ornatus, S. melanoleucus, S. tyrannus
aspectos de sua biologia, como habitat, comportamento reprodutivo e dieta, são pouco conhecidos. Neste trabalho eu apresento dados sobre a biologia
reprodutiva, dieta e comportamento do gavião-de-penacho (S. ornatus, ) e do gavião-pato (S. melanolecus, ), bem como estimativas da
Spizaetus
       


S. tyrannus, ).
        
  e 
para 
 
   

       
Spizaetus 

Spizaetus

  


Diagramação e XML SciELO Publishing Schema: www.editoraletra1.com.br
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
2
Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037

e.g., 

PALAVRAS-CHAVE. 
Spizaetus hawk-eagles are large top predators in
the forests of the Neotropics. Three of the four species of
Spizaetus occur in Brazil: the Black Hawk-Eagle [Spizaetus
tyrannus Spizatus
ornatus  
Eagle [Spizaetus melanoleucus
are widespread over both lowland and montane Neotropical
forests from Mexico to northern Argentina and southern
Brazil (&
Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle, Spizaetus populations of the
Atlantic Forest are disconnected from those of the Amazon
forest (& 
species are nationally or globally threatened (

Threatened and all species have decreasing population
 
 et al
&
et al.

populations might be neglected by conservation policies
that assume that the Amazon forest does support healthy
populations.
The three hawk-eagles are syntopic for most of their
distribution, but segregate themselves by nesting habitats,
food and hunting behavior (
& et al.,



km of forest
& ,

feeds mainly upon mammals, hunting from perches in the
lower canopy and captures prey mostly on trees or diurnal
retreats or by making long attacks through the forest. Black

(e.g., 
 et al.
Ornate Hawk-Eagles are apparently more abundant
 in French


in Tikal Forest
&,


mainly stalk-and-ambush strategy, food being mostly birds
and squirrels and selecting more exposed trees for nesting and
locating the nest on large branches near the trunk (
et al.
The Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle is the least known
of these three species. It is rare or at least uncommon
(&
underestimated because usually soars high (



hunting tactics are poorly described, but it is known to feed
manly upon reptiles and birds caught in the canopy by long

 
only by observation of few nests ( & 
 et al.b;
 et al.


being sought after by birdwatchers and ornithologists, and
having a widespread distribution, much of the biological
information about these species are scarce (e.g., diet. breeding
biology, habitat requirements), especially for Atlantic
Forest populations for which information on breeding and
nesting biology are basically anecdotal. There is only one
description of a nest of the Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle
(
et al.



and which acquired
much information about their diet, breeding biology, habitat
requirements, territory size, and so on ( et al.,
 
Eagle is basically unknown (
b&

     
information about these three species of hawk-eagles at the
southern limits of their distribution in the Atlantic Forest in
southern Brazil. Here I present estimates of the distribution


about the breeding biology, diet and behavior of Ornate and
Black-and-white Hawk-Eagles.
METHODS
Distribution and abundance. The abundance of





Diagramação e XML SciELO Publishing Schema: www.editoraletra1.com.br
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
3
Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037


  
both anecdotal observations and standardized sampling

 i.e. 
count per point) from elevated points above the forest canopy


The literature survey included searching in digital







already been compiled to evaluate the threatened status of
 et al.




(
duplicate records. All records associated with a geographical

valid. In cases where the name of the municipality was the only
geographical information available, I used the coordinates of
the municipality’s city hall.
The abundance of each species was estimated based

 
for estimating the number of individuals and territory for
estimating the number of pairs were taken from the literature
(&

 

pair. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of each species was

excluding historical data, and overlaiding data of Atlantic

www.sosma.org.br) to estimate the area of forest available



of the area available since these species need large areas
of continuous forest ( et
al.

 et al
also did a more conservative evaluation to estimate population
  
 
( et al.

Breeding biology. Breeding behavior of the Black-
and-white Hawk-Eagle was derived from observations at
a single nest. To Ornate Hawk-Eagle breeding data was
collected by monitoring one nest during an entire breeding
season, and with additional information from another two
nests. The nest was monitored one or twice every month
 


and taking notes and photos about breeding behavior, nestling
development, and prey remains. Afterwards I visited the local


Diet.  
based on prey remains and pellets collected in the nests
and from a direct observation of one adult carrying prey
 
by comparing the remains (i.e., bones and feathers) with

 


Weights of prey species were taken from 
and 
RESULTS
Distribution and abundance. 






 
overlaid with the EOO of Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle,
while the current distribution of Black Hawk-Eagle was



their historical distributions. Black and Ornate Hawk-Eagle
showed greater reduction in their area of occurrence (i.e.,
 
 




 
  






 

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Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
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Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037
  




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Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
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Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037
Tab. I. Extent of forest remaining within the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of hawk-eagles’ species in the southern Atlantic Forest, Brazil. The amount
.
Spizaetus species
)

EOO   EOO  
Black Hawk-Eagle S. tyrannus      
Ornate Hawk-Eagle S. ornatus      
Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle S. melanoleucus      
       


size for a pair is smaller than for an individual; 
&
important for regional evaluation (e.g., state red list), are as





 



regardless of the isolation of the patch, the forest available to






individuals showed on Tab. II).
Breeding biology
Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle. 
found a nest of the Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle built in an


 
 



took the prey and the male moved to a nearby tree. After a


Diagramação e XML SciELO Publishing Schema: www.editoraletra1.com.br
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
6
Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037

 & 
a) Estimated number of individuals
Spizaetus species 
EOO   EOO  
Black Hawk-Eagle S. tyrannus      
Ornate Hawk-Eagle S. ornatus      
Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle S. melanoleucus      
b) Estimated number of pairs
Spizaetus species 
EOO   EOO  
Black Hawk-Eagle S. tyrannus      
Ornate Hawk-Eagle S. ornatus      
Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle S. melanoleucus      


apparently foraging, and sometimes diving into the valley.
Few minutes after the female came back to nest, the male



valley, chasing each other and, sometimes grasping onto
the back of the other. After a while, they separated and I
did not see them during the rest of the day (I ended my

but was not successful.
Ornate Hawk-Eagle. 
     
 
reservoir (data available in  et al


with intense vocalization, the male was performing an
undulating display (series of loops and dives) and chasing the









 

 
and sticks. The presence of prey remains, faeces and feather
of Ornate Hawk-Eagle suggested that the nest was still active,






adult carrying a green stick to an Araucaria tree (Araucaria
angustifolia
reservoir in second-growth forest near Pinus sp. plots


 
male above the female and trying several time to scratch
the female’s back. Twice I observed foot-touching, although
without complete claw bonding, and only for a few seconds.
I lost visual contact when the female dived into the valley,
followed by the male.





 
 
deep and decorated with green sticks and leaves of Lithraea
brasiliensis  

before climbing to the nest, I observed one adult perched on

nest, other adult (smaller, probably the male) left the nest,


adults were noted to have continued to bring green leaves to



and attacked me several times, both while climbing and when

and I kept all visits short in order to reduce stress on the

nestling nor did I band it. Based on the estimated hatching

 et
al.

it outside the nest although its rectrices were not completely



still within its parents’ territory. I found prey remains in the

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

(bottom right) of the nest.
 

Diet – Ornate Hawk-Eagle. I collected bones,
feathers and hair of several prey remains and two pellets
at nest B during two visits and during several visits over


least to genus (Tab. III) with the most abundant prey being
Brown Tinamou [Crypturellus obsoletus 
 
 Guerlinguetus
ingrami 
adult Ornate Hawk-Eagle carried to the nest. Mean weight
 
quail-dove; Geotrygon montana 
Penelope obscura

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8
Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037

with details of the chamber (with green leaves and sticks).




Diagramação e XML SciELO Publishing Schema: www.editoraletra1.com.br
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
9
Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037

Patagioenas cayennensis
 Weight (g) 
Nest B  Total
Tinamidae
Crypturellus obsoletus     

Penelope obscura     

Gallus gallus   - 

Patagioenas picazuro    -
Patagioenas sp.# - 
Leptotila sp.  - 
Geotrygon montana   - 

Ramphastos dicolorus   - 

Colaptes melanochloros     

Pionus maximilliani   - 

Cyanocorax chrysops    -
 - 
Total Aves   

Guerlinguetus ingrami   - 
   
Total Mammalia   
Total 7  
DISCUSSION
Distribution and abundance. Hawk-eagles are
threatened in southern Brazil (&
), mostly
because of habitat loss ( et al.
rate of deforestation has been reduced in recent decades,
remaining forests are extremely fragmented (et al.,
&
 
suggests that they are declining. I did not estimate vegetation
available for historical records, so the real loss is probably
overestimated since species distributions were calculated
which included inappropriate habitats for hawk-eagles
(e.g., grasslands). The past distribution of the Black Hawk-
Eagle, for example, is probably overestimated. In spite of
its occurrence in Misiones, Argentina (&
et al.,
are few recent records,  et al
 et al



 


not been recorded at several places at which they occurred
in the past, suggesting true local extinction rather than lack
of surveys. I’d highlight the lack of recent records of Black


Eagles, and even a Harpy Eagle [Harpia harpyja 

&
has vanished from the western portion of the state (last

have disappeared from the central and southern forests of

by urban and agricultural expansion. The Black-and-white
Hawk-Eagle, for instance, which historically has occurred

, mentioned in 
 &
Ihering,  

the state.
I have estimated population size based on data from
Amazon and Tikal forests, areas which are better preserved
than the southern Atlantic Forest.  et al
summarized data on Spizaetus from the Atlantic Forest and
 for the Ornate and Black Hawk-


for the Black-and-white Hawk-
Eagle, estimations that are smaller than those of 
& 

Diagramação e XML SciELO Publishing Schema: www.editoraletra1.com.br
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
10
Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037
the same situation is true for southern Brazil, where most

( et al.




than half of the estimation based on Amazon and Tikal forests
data (&
and probably more accurate, since the highly fragmented
condition of the Atlantic Forest ( et al.

 


there are no data about population structure and trends in
southern Brazil, it is reasonable to assume that each possible

based on  
 
Endangered species in the southern Atlantic Forest. 

the Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle, which seems to be in a
similar situation to that of the Ornate Hawk-Eagle in terms


The current species risk evaluation for hawk-eagles
 




and Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle as Endangered and the


that the Black Hawk-Eagle has the smallest population of
the three species and it is possible that the regional risk
evaluation underestimates the risk to this species. Both Black
and Ornate Hawk-Eagle depend on mature forests (
et al.
Black Hawk-Eagle has for second-growth and forest edge
( & 
the species is to disturbed landscapes ( et al.,
  


Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle were downlisted to Endangered
 

same criteria above, my data suggest that all species should



; 
et al. 
population size for all species. Although my evaluations are



they should be treated with caution, and I would suggest

Eagle until there is more accurate data. My estimates were
based only on the potential habitat available and probably

Hawk-Eagle also need to be monitored, but risk evaluation for




Breeding biology. Individuals of Spizaetus seems to
have high plasticity in their breeding cycle. The Black-and-
white Hawk-Eagle is the least known species of these three
species of Spizaetus, and the nest reported here is only the
second known for the Atlantic Forest. In southeastern Brazil,


Spizaetus spp.; 
et al 

that Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle starts it breeding cycle




 et al
corresponds with the dry season for most of Brazil.

     &
& et
al.
 et
al., 
Ornate Hawk-Eagles seems to have the same pattern in the
Amazon basin: nesting in March in Ecuador ( et al.,

 et al.
in Manaus, Brazil. In the Atlantic Forest, egg laying by the
Ornate Hawk-Eagle has been reported, or estimated, to be
 et al.
(this study). It is unclear why the Ornate Hawk-Eagle and
also the Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle start breeding in the

 
when starting to breeding; “it is more a matter of avoiding the
worst months” (
Spizaetus species ( et
al.  
 
order to avoid the worst months.
Most nest characteristics and breeding behavior I
observed follow what has been reported for hawk-eagles or
for raptors in general (&
 et al.Spizaetus species nest in




Diagramação e XML SciELO Publishing Schema: www.editoraletra1.com.br
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
11
Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037
Black and Ornate Hawk-Eagles are similar ( et
al.





 
 
 et al

&
development seems similar to the accounts reported by 
et al.
The Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle seems to have
a less elaborated courtship display than other species of
Spizaetus. While both Ornate and Black Hawk-Eagle performs
 
diving, looping, grasping, food-touching and rolling-over
(&
observations of courtship of the Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle
report pairs gliding together, low vocal activity, chasing
and diving culminating with grasping (&
&
this study).  et al. 
observation of an elaborate courtship by Ornate Hawk-Eagles
and none for the Black Hawk-Eagle in Tikal Forest.
Behavior by the pair before and during copulation of the

behavior of both Black and Ornate Hawk-Eagle. While
et al.
between the pair before copulation for both Black and Ornate
Hawk-Eagle, I did not hear any call from Black-and-white
Hawk-Eagle before or after copulation. Indeed, the Black-and-
white Hawk-Eagle seems to be a very shy species, detected
rather by visualization than vocalization (pers. obs.). I did not
see the female bringing sticks or green leaves materials to the
nest before copulation, as has been reported for other hawk-
eagles ( et al.
the male might represent a gift to reinforce pair bonding or
stimulates copulation, as reported to other raptors (&
&
Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle copulating on the nest is more
similar to the behavior shown by Black Hawk-Eagles than by
Ornate Hawk-Eagles ( et al.
CONCLUSION
 &    
 
  is required to
maintain a viable population of Black Hawk-Eagle or any
other raptors including the Ornate Hawk-Eagle that have
small home ranges (&
this requirement to the Atlantic Forest, there is only one patch
of continuous forest able to support viable populations of
these three species of Spizaetus: 
 (
et al.



. Other forested areas are fragments of


et
al.
a breeding pair of Spizaetus
( et al
et al. 
Forest fragments might have a breeding pair of hawk-eagle.
In addition to deforestation, fragment isolation adds
to the threat to large raptors. According to  et al.



distance between territories of Spizaetus ( et al.,

 
km ( et al
and isolation of Atlantic Forest remnants suggest a patchy
distribution for Spizaetus, with single birds or pairs limited
to isolated patches of forest.
The conservation of large raptors such as Spizaetus,
Morphnus and Harpyia in the Atlantic Forest it is not a
simple task. Their conservation requires preservation
not only of the best remaining forest fragments, but also
halting deforestation and disturbance of the remained forest
fragments, establishing connectivity among fragments and
reducing direct threats to raptors (e.g., persecution). We also
need to better understand the ecological requirements of the
species in terms of habitat requirements, diet, and breeding
biology, as well as establish public policies to protect both
species and their habitats, as stated in the Brazilian Action

 et
al.
guessing about the conservation status of the species, and
barely able for formulate a conservation plan.
Acknowledgements. 





Trigo for help in identifying prey items. I appreciate the improvements in
   
Ornithologists’ program of editorial assistance. I dedicate this paper to

had helped me in several studies.
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through Furnariidae. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
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
Biociências 5

Diagramação e XML SciELO Publishing Schema: www.editoraletra1.com.br
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
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Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037
&
In: &
rgs. Livro vermelho da fauna ameaçada de extinção no Rio
Grande do Sul.
&
A fauna ameaçada de extinção do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.


  &  
(Spizaetus tyrannus). In: 
&eds. Handbook of the Birds of the
World Alive

 Spizaetus tyrannus,
Spizaetus ornatus, and Spizaetus melanoleucus
www.birdlife.org
&
from the Atlantic forest of Misiones, Argentina. Cotinga 26
&
Nuestras Aves 57
&Fauna
ameaçada de extinção do estado de São Paulo: Vertebrados


& . Eagles, hawks, and falcons of the
world. Vol. 1 and 2.
 
Journal of Raptor
Research 42
    
hawk-eagle (Spizaetus melanoleucus) in the Brazilian Atlantic
Ornitología Neotropical 19
  
&

  

 In: &
. eds. Tropical Forests
>.

&System for
Automated Geoscientic Analyses (SAGA) v. 2.1.4, Geosci. Model

 Lista
Ocial de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas de Extinção no Estado de
Santa Catarina. Resolução CONSEMA n° 2, de 06 de Dezembro
de 2011 

Lista
de Espécies Ameaçadas de Extinção da Fauna do Estado de Minas
Gerais   

>.
Handbook of avian body masses

Lista da Fauna e Flora Ameaçada de Extinção
do Estado do Espírito Santo. Decreto Nº1499-R de 13 de junho
de 2005

&Raptors of the world. New

 &
Atlas dos remanescentes orestais da
Mata Atlântica: Período 2012-2013
>.
&
an Ecuadorian lowland forest. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’
Club 124
IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. 

Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria
at Regional and National Levels: Version 4.0 

Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015-4.
www.iucnredlist.org>; acc
& 
of breeding of the Ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus) in southern
Brazil. Hornero 26
& 
(Spizaetus ornatus). Journal of Raptor Research 14
&
  
near Manaus, Brazil. Condor 90
&
behavior of Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle, Spizaetus melanoleucus,
Atualidades Ornitológicas
171
&   
Wilson Bulletin 97

crestuda negra (Spizaetus tyrannus tyrannus) em zona periurbana del
 Nótulas
Faunísticas 189

Acta Biologica
Leopoldensia 18
&
Harpia harpyja
state, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia 24
Spizaetus
melanoleucus 
Brasil. Arquivos de Ciências Veterinárias e Zoologia da UNIPAR
18
&Livro Vermelho da Fauna Ameaçada
no Estado do Paraná
MMA - Portaria 444, 17 Dezembro
de 2014. Lista Nacional Ocial de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas de
Extinção

Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus ornatus 
Buteogallus urubitinga Revista de Ecologia Latino-
America 11
 Population ecology of raptors

Neotropical Raptor
Network – Newsletter 7
&   
Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus ornatusBoletín
da Sociedade Antioqueña de Ornitología 21
 R: A language and environment
for statistical computing


 &
  
 
conservation. Biological Conservation 142
Lista das espécies da fauna ameaçadas de
extinção no estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Instrução Normativa n° 3.
DECRETO No 51.797


Biotropica 26
As aves de Santa Catarina: distribuição geográca
e meio ambiente
Mamíferos silvestres do Rio Grande do Sul.

     

&Plano
de ação nacional para a conservação de aves de rapina: série espécies
ameaçadas nº5

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Iheringia, Série Zoologia, 107: e2017037
13
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio

hawk-eagle. Condor 77

 Conservation Biology
3

habitat selection, and conservation. Journal of Raptor Research
41

Journal of
Raptor Research 23
&
Tikal’s raptor fauna. In: Neotropical Birds of
Prey: biology and ecology of a forest raptor community. Ithaca,

   &
  In: 
Neotropical Birds of Prey: biology and ecology of a forest raptor
community.

&In: 
Neotropical Birds of Prey: biology and ecology of a forest raptor
community. 

Wilson Bulletin 100
&
Raptor Research 11

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 Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle;  Ornate Hawk-Eagle;  Black Hawk-Eagle).
  Tree species or family Tree height (m)  Nest height (m) Nest external dimensions
(length x wide x height)(cm) 
 et al.  Metoxylon balsamum   Tree crown 
  Cariniana legalis (Mart.) Kuntze  86   
  Cavanillesia platanifolia (H.& B.) H.B.K.   
et al  Joannesia sp.
 Zeyheria cf. tuberculosa Burman  86
 et al  Myrocarpus frondosus Fr. Allem  
 et al  Copaifera langsdori   66
This study  Myrtaceae     
 Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze     
et al 
Swietenia macrophyla King, Ceiba pentandra
 Bucidas buceras  Ficus sp.,
Piscidia piscipula Cedrela odorata
 Pouteria amygdalina 
Calophyllum brasiliensis

A



A

E

E
&  Manilkara zapota     
 Bucida buceras     
 Ceiba pentandra     
 Bucida buceras     
&   
   
 et al    
   
 et al.   
 et al. 
Bucida buceras 
Brosimum alicastrum 
Rehdera penninervia

B

BB
F


F,

Means   86   
     
 






cm; depth)F

F
all species    
A
B

measure of the center depression on the nest
E
F
Breeding biology and conservation of hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.)...
Zilio
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