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Behavioural realism and the activation of aggressive concepts in violent video games

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Abstract

A common argument in the violent video game (VVG) literature is that the greater the realism of a game, the more it activates aggressive concepts, and the greater antisocial effects it will have on its players. Several experiments have therefore looked into whether the graphical realism of VVGs might influence their effects. These experiments have returned mixed results. However, there are other ways that a VVG can be realistic besides looking like the real world. More specifically, things in VVGs can not only look realistic, they can also behave realistically. It may be the case that this kind of realism leads to increases in the activation of aggressive concepts, rather than increases in graphical realism. In this paper, we therefore present two large-scale online experiments (n = 898 and n = 1880) which investigate the effects of two different manipulations of behavioural realism on the activation of aggressive concepts in VVGs. In neither experiment did increasing realism increase the activation of aggressive concepts. Realism is often described as increasing the effects of VVGs. These results contradict this perspective, and instead suggest that realism may not lead to increases in aggression-related variables.

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... Realism is predominantly framed as a continuum rather than a binary construct. However what constitutes the non-realistic end of this continuum varies across the literature: For example, low quality [81] or substantial difference to the targeted realistic referent [95] occurs as such, but most commonly it is stylization/abstraction/lack of detail [64,71,148,180,182]. ...
... Realism is considered to have "a notable influence" [145], and in its various forms is "deeply rooted in all forms of entertainment [...,] involved in the active participating nature of video games [... and] an essential element of players' arousal and affect" [92]. It is reported to be a preference (e.g., [10,26,49,112,125,148,175,182]) and a positive factor for PX [33,53,70,112,172,[180][181][182]; it is used in marketing [15,34], and is considered a goal of game design [41,120]. ...
... Others note that literature reports games of "insufficient fidelity" [85] unexpectedly being effective learning tools. As such, "non-empirical evidence from a broad variety of sources suggests that [...] a simple picture of 'more fidelity being more effective' may not be entirely correct" [180]. Some view realism as actively detrimental to learning: it "can even hinder learning with cognitive overloads" [52]. ...
Conference Paper
Researchers reference realism in digital games without sufficient specificity. Without clarity about the dimensions of realism, we cannot assess how and when to aim for a higher degree of realism, when lower realism suffices, or when purposeful unrealism is ideal for a game and can benefit player experience (PX). To address this conceptual gap, we conducted a systematic review using thematic synthesis to distinguish between types of realism currently found in the digital games literature. We contribute qualitative themes that showcase contradictory design goals of realism/unrealism. From these themes, we created a framework (i.e., a hierarchical taxonomy and mapping) of realism dimensions in digital games as a conceptual foundation. Our themes and framework enable a workable specificity for designing or analyzing types of realism, equip future work to explore effects of specific realism types on PX, and offer a starting point for similar efforts in non-game applications.
... Interestingly, a wide range of VR games set in imaginative fantasy worlds demonstrate that the sense of presence can arise even in a VR simulation with diminished levels of perspectival fidelity or context-realism. Although the feeling of presence may persist in such simulations (in the sense that users may report feeling like they're in the simulated world instead of their homes), we claim that the presence of 7 Interestingly, it appears increasingly likely that photorealism only weakly affects perspectival fidelity and that behavioral realism (of virtual characters and virtual environments) plays an outsized role (Slater et al. 2006;Zendle et al. 2018;Sanchez-Vives and Slater 2005). Thus, even fairly graphically primitive simulations are capable of being experienced as high in perspectival fidelity if built well. ...
... We thank an anonymous reviewer for raising the question of photorealistic environments and their effects on virtually real experience. 8 As previously noted, non-player characters that behave realistically appears to be a much more important element of context-realism than designing a photo-realistic environment (Zendle et al. 2018). simulated features that diminish perspectival fidelity and context-realism will typically prevent VR users from having virtually real experiences in such simulations. ...
... Failure to model naturalistic human behaviors in this way can dramatically impact how a subject understands the moral status of virtual agents (Slater et al. 2006). 13 This absence of realistic agency, we argue, radically diminishes the simulation's context-realism (Zendle et al. 2018). 14 When subjects in this experiment chose to push the man onto the tracks, these features of the simulation also make it more likely that subjects treat their experience of their decision in virtually unreal (game-like) ways. ...
Article
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We aim to generate a dilemma for virtual reality-based research that we motivate through an extended case study of Thomson’s (Yale Law J 94(6):1395–1415, 1985) Bridge variant of the trolley problem. Though the problem we generate applies more broadly than the Bridge problem, we believe it makes a good exemplar of the kind of case we believe is problematic. First, we argue that simulations of these thought experiments run into a practicality horn that makes it practically impossible to produce them. These problems revolve around concepts that we call “perspectival fidelity” and “context realism.” Moral dilemmas that include features present in the Bridge variant will, as a result, be practically impossible to simulate. We also argue that, should we be wrong about the practical impossibility of creating a VR simulation of Bridge, such a simulation must face an ethical horn which renders these simulations ethically impermissible to develop or use. For these reasons, we argue that it is virtually impossible to simulate the bridge problem (and other thought experiments with similar features) both practically and ethically in VR.
... Encountering them in a simulated context is thus apt to signal to the subject that the experience is "just a game," "not real," and hence to diminish the degree to which such experiences are likely to be treated as if they were real. 19 In the context of the Gamer's Dilemma, an especially relevant aspect of context-realism refers to the degree to which virtual agents act like real-world agents (Ramirez and LaBarge 2018;Zendle et al. 2018). 20 A simulation that contains virtual agents demonstrating (or providing a convincing illusion of) what some have called "moderate responsiveness to reason" (Fischer and Ravizza 1998) is more context-real than one that does not. ...
... This is yet another subject-side feature that we believe ought to wash out if the Gamer's Dilemma is meant to apply generally, to most subjects. 20 Behavioral realism appears much more important, when it comes to virtually real experience, than photorealism(Slater et al. 2006;Zendle et al. 2018; Sanchez-Vives and Slater 2005) 21 In other words, such agents behave according to what should be "an understandable pattern of (actual and hypothetical) reasons-receptivity"(Fischer and Ravizza 1998, 71). Understandable, in this context, implies that such behavior flows reasonably if one considers an agent's end and the means available to them. ...
Article
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The Gamer’s Dilemma challenges us to find a distinction between virtual murder and virtual pedophilia. Without such a distinction, we are forced to conclude that either both actions are morally acceptable or that both should be morally illicit. This paper argues that the best way to solve the dilemma is, in one sense, to dissolve it. The Gamer’s Dilemma rests on a misunderstanding in the sense that it does not distinguish between the effects that the form of a simulation can have on moral judgment apart from its surface content. A greater appreciation of the way structural features of a simulation affect subject experience will help us see why only simulations of murder and pedophilia generating virtually real experiences are likely to be seen as wrong. I argue that a simulation’s structural elements powerfully affect how subjects experience simulated content and hence is an important, and previously neglected, variable necessary to dissolve the Gamer’s Dilemma. Properly understood, virtually real simulations of murder and pedophilia are both likely to be treated by players as morally wrong. Similarly, virtually unreal murder and pedophilia will be less likely to be judged as wrong. Subject judgments are thus consistent once a simulation’s structural variables are accounted for. The Gamer’s Dilemma dissolves as a dilemma once we acknowledge these structural features of simulations and how they affect experience and moral judgment.
... Further, the VVAWS does not provide information about the context of the acts of violence experienced in game or about the realistic nature of the graphics or content. Although some research points to graphics and context as being important in understanding negative outcomes, some findings have been mixed (Barlett, Rodeheffer, Baldassaro, Hinkin, & Harris, 2008;Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007;Zendle, Kudenko, & Cairns, 2018). However, this Note. ...
... Furthermore, the VVAWS was created using 32 popular games that spanned many years and consoles. Research has demonstrated that game development and modernization can impact players' immersion and physiological arousal but not their aggressive attitudes (Barlett et al., 2008;Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007;Zendle et al., 2018). Although the games included in the present study varied greatly, it may be a strength that the present measure was created using a wide range of violent games with a wide range of content, as it is designed to capture a wide range of experiences with VVAW in games. ...
Article
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Extant research has shown that exposure to violent video games predicts aggressive attitudes and behaviors (Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Anderson & Dill, 2000; Hasan, Bègue, & Bushman, 2012; Hasan, Bègue, Scharkow, & Bushman, 2013). However, just as games differ from one another in terms of the presence or absence of violence, games differ along other important dimensions, such as the targets of violence (Gentile, 2011). The depiction of violence against women in video games has been shown to affect real-world hostility and acceptance of violence toward women (Beck, Boys, Rose, & Beck, 2012; Yao, Mahood, & Linz, 2010). The present study sought to create an inventory of violent acts against women in video games to help elucidate the construct of virtual violence against women and facilitate future research. Using items from validated, widely used measures of intimate partner violence, researchers assessed the types of violence against women depicted in 32 popular violent video games. Using a sample of 115 video game players, researchers reduced the number of a priori items from 74 to 28 (α = .96) and collected qualitative data to generate an additional 23 items. A second sample (N = 160) further reduced the total number of items to a final 27-item measure. Principal components analysis revealed three distinct factors: physical violence, sexual violence, and atypical violence. In future studies, this scale can be used to assess individuals’ exposure to violence against women in video games and to aid in assessing how such exposure impacts players.
... Worldbuilding refers to the inventive setting and production process of a game world, where the collected components convey a sense of presence and pragmatism to players [104,152]. Building an authentic game world needs specific designs to achieve a certain dash of realism, engage players' attentions, and create an immersive gameful experience [97,133,156]. Exploration design is all about the player's experience of discovery and curiosity. The literature focuses on how the excitement to explore game worlds initiates from humans' intrinsic curiosity and the possibility of safely journeying through a game world and testing its limits and what it has to offer [61,153,157]. ...
... Although each of these two articles appears to show some positive relationship between an aggressive-inducing stimulus and accessibility of aggressive cognition as measured by the AWCT, they should not in themselves be considered evidence of validity. Zendle and colleagues [19] recommend the validation approach advocated by Koopman, Howe, Johnson, Tan, and Chang [20]. Unless or until such validation is conducted and made publicly available, we recommend treating our findings as potentially interesting and consistent with prior weapons priming research, but tentative. ...
Article
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We conducted an experiment to discover if guns-prohibited images prime aggressive thoughts as has already been demonstrated with gun images in other experiments. Ninety-three university students were randomly assigned to one of three prime conditions (gun, gun with a strikeout, and a flower) and then were given an aggressive word completion task. The results showed that participants in both the guns-prohibited image and gun image conditions completed a higher proportion of aggressive words than those in the neutral image condition, thus replicating and extending the weapons priming effect. The findings suggest that even weapon images intended to serve some prosocial purpose may have unintended cognitive consequences, especially given how ubiquitous these images are in many public places.
... As a result, the length and simplicity of the video actually weakened the context of learning. But the right context must be able to confirm the student's cognitive abilities so that it can help the student understand the relevance of physics in real-world situations (Zendle et al., 2018). If animated video does not pay attention to microlearning, then the context relevant to student cognitive enhancement only stops at the provision of purely scientific entertainment. ...
Article
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The research aims to see effectiveness through the perception of optimized physics learning web design through the development of on-demand microlearning video download facilities in diverse areas and access devices. Physics learning through web design, despite success in a variety of online learning methods, has major constraints on personalized learning. Individually, students have a variety of access devices and are in areas with a variable learning environment topology towards internet access. Agile development methods were developed to develop on-demand video download features on the physical learning web, and the development results were tested on MI-Ar Raudhah students based on characteristic compatibility. The development of the on-demand and simplified physical learning video download feature using microlearning is very effective for accessing students with varied Internet access devices and topologies.
... Con base en esto, Schulzke (2010) lleva esta problemática al debate académico puntualmente por dos razones: la primera de ellas tiene que ver con el reduccionismo de la mayoría de los estudios empíricos y teóricos, que consideran solo una perspectiva, que la violencia simulada es perjudicial, ignorando los resultados de las investigación de un amplio sector de la comunidad académica y científica que se oponen a esa conclusión 29 . Y la segunda, tiene relación con la poca importancia de otros datos que demuestran que los videojuegos no tienen ningún efecto sobre el crimen ni tampoco sobre el crecimiento para la propensión a la agresividad (Zendle, Kudenko, Cairnsa, 2017). Schulzke (2010) concuerda con McCormick (2001 ) en cuanto a la defensa contra los ataques que les hacen a los videojuegos violentos. ...
Book
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El presente libro, resultado de una investigación empírica de corte cualitativo etnográfico, ofrece un modo alternativo de comprender la dimensión ética del juego de videojuegos violentos, luego del análisis y debate crítico con los actuales estudios, investigaciones y propuestas académicas relacionadas con el tema, y su contraste con la acción misma del juego llevada a cabo por jugadores asiduos —Gamers—.
... The second group of researchers proved their claim with some experiments, and their players showed the same behavior and emotions before and after playing the Video Games. Meaning that the players did not gain or get affected by any unique skills along the process [12,21]. More and more arguments are revolved around the impact of the Video Games on the players if it exists or not. ...
Article
Video Games technology has rapidly increased in the last decade with increasing number of users. Players information becomes very important to the researchers in order to measure the impact of these Video Games on the players behaviors. First Person Shooter (FPS) game is considered one of the most attractive game, which make it a realistic environment to measure the players behaviors, emotions and interests. In this paper, we developed a custom First Person Shooter game called “The Protector” in order to study the impact of Video Games on the players' personalities. The game was published in the Google Play Store in order to collect custom data from users in uncontrolled environments. The data was collected based on Five-Factor Model (FFM) for personality traits, which is considered one of the most well-known model in this field. Thousands of real user's data were collected using our published game. Then, different machine learning techniques have been used for the purpose of the personality classification and prediction. We used the classification task in order to automatically classify the possessing level of the players traits based on their data. We have used the prediction task in order to predict the player performance and behaviors in the future rounds. It is shown that the ANN algorithm provides the best accuracy of 98.6% over the other used algorithms in the classification task. While the SVR and KNNR provide the lowest error rate over the other used algorithms in the prediction task.
... Yet, in 2020, in light of human interaction through videogame play during the COVID-19 pandemic, the WHO indicated that videogaming can reduce stress and promote social interaction (Kowert, 2020). Although the pandemic might have helped to change the WHO's stance, such a shift in labeling also could be rooted in the fact that, for quite some time, the relationship between videogames and violent behavior has been found not to be causal (Ferguson, 2007(Ferguson, , 2015Ferguson et al., 2009;Ferguson et al., 2012), and videogames are not responsible for antisocial behavior (Zendle et al., 2018). Furthermore, Blake and Sauermilch (2021) warned that a "formal diagnosis of IGD [Internet Gaming Disorder] fails to account for the benefits of gaming" (para 7). ...
... Despite decades of efforts done to 1) demystify games, 2) their impacts on players, and 3) what game components work for given purposes [74,75,88,[90][91][92], it is still unclear how to best design for specific behavioural change or outcome [11,15,81,93]. No agreement exists on whether, for example, a game with specific characteristics (e.g., a violent game) leads to specific player conduct (e.g., being violent) [81,[94][95][96][97]. This is an issue, as preparing game-based experiences for meaningful social interaction in public space is person-dependent, and mandates consideration of the impacts that certain design choices have in local communities [11,13,15,38,41]. ...
Article
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Location-based games invite players to have new forms of meaningful social interactions with others and provide opportunities for players to engage with their own neighbourhood's public space. Earlier research on user requirements for such games have identified seven different activity types that have proven to initiate social interaction and capture real life exchanges for meaningful play-based social experiences. Yet, current understanding on what makes these games successful in such endeavours is still insufficient. This study furthers current understanding on the effects of location-based games for social interaction in local communities: it studies the forms of social interaction that the previously identified seven types of game activities elicit by analysing the nature and types of the exchanges they trigger. Based on this analysis, a design framework is proposed to 1) analyse existing location-based games and describe the forms of social interaction they trigger, and 2) help practitioners design new game activities that target specific forms of social interaction. This contributes to the enhancement of current understanding on the impact that these games can have in local communities, and on the way they can be better designed and used to promote social exchanges that are desired by players.
... Some studies focus on the 'behavioural realism' of computer characters, rather than their graphical realism (see e.g. Zendle et al. [43]). The BabyX simulation scores highly on all these measures. ...
Article
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As AI advances, models of simulated humans are becoming increasingly realistic. A new debate has arisen about the ethics of interacting with these realistic agents—and in particular, whether any harms arise from ‘mistreatment’ of such agents. In this paper, we advance this debate by discussing a model we have developed (‘BabyX’), which simulates a human infant. The model produces realistic behaviours—and it does so using a schematic model of certain human brain mechanisms. We first consider harms that may arise due to effects on the user—in particular effects on the user’s behaviour towards real babies. We then consider whether there’s any need to consider harms from the ‘perspective’ of the simulated baby. The first topic raises practical ethical questions, many of which are empirical in nature. We argue the potential for harm is real enough to warrant restrictions on the use of BabyX. The second topic raises a very different set of questions in the philosophy of mind. Here, we argue that BabyX’s biologically inspired model of emotions raises important moral questions, and places BabyX in a different category from avatars whose emotional behaviours are ‘faked’ by simple rules. This argument counters John Danaher’s recently proposed ‘moral behaviourism’. We conclude that the developers of simulated humans have useful contributions to make to debates about moral patiency—and also have certain new responsibilities in relation to the simulations they build.
... Как оказалось, между «реальной» и «нереальной» тактиками и агрессией игрока нет никакой связи. Однако ученые обращают внимание на то, что исследование проводилось на взрослых людях; какими будут результаты экспериментов с детьми -неизвестно [180]. Таким образом, к настоящему моменту ни одно исследование не доказало, что видеоигры являются первичным фактором агрессивного поведения среди молодежи [97]. ...
Book
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The monograph is devoted to the issues of understanding video games as a significant phenomenon of modern culture. The main task that the authors of the book set themselves is to acquaint the reader with a wide range of scientific problems in the field of video game research. The monograph contains a study of the origins and effects of video games, highlights the main stages of the development of the gaming industry and game studies. Videogames are investigated from the standpoint of philosophy, cultural studies, psychology, sociology, religious studies and modern educational issues. The book is addressed to a wide audience, but first of all it will be interesting and useful to representatives of the social sciences who are engaged in the study of digital culture and video games.
... Özellikle bu araştırmalarda dijital oyunların çocuklarda şiddet eğilimi yaratıp yaratmadığı konusu üzerinde durulmaktadır. Dijital oyunların genç ve çocuk bireyleri şiddete ve agresif davranışlara yönelttiği sonucuna ulaşan araştırmalar (Anderson ve Dill, 2000; Anderson v.d., 2004; Anderson, Gentile ve Buckley, 2007; Bartholow, Sestir Fatih Söğüt ve Davis, 2005; Carnagey ve Anderson, 2005; Uhlmann ve Swanson, 2004; Durkin veBarber, 2002; Konijin, Bijvank ve Bushman,2004;Colwell ve Payne, 2000; Funk, Buchanan ve Germann, 2000;Colwell ve Kato, 2003;Gentile, Lynch, Linder ve Walsh, 2004; Krahe ve Moller, 2004) olduğu gibi gençlerin ve çocukların şiddete yönelmesinde dijital oyunların etkisinin sınırlı olduğu sonucuna ulaşan güncel araştırmalarda mevcuttur(Przybylski ve Weinstein, 2019;Kutner ve Olson, 2008;Zendle, Kudenko ve Cairns, 2018;Kühn, Kugler ve Schmalen, 2018). ...
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z Günümüzde bilgi teknolojilerinin hayatımızdaki yeri gittikçe artmaktadır. Bu teknolojilerin gelişimi sadece yetişkinleri değil çocukları da etkilemiştir. İnsan ve teknoloji arasındaki bu etkileşim sadece sanal ortamlarla sınırlı kalmayıp toplumsal yaşamı da etkilemeye başlamıştır. Dijital teknolojilerin popüler eğlence araçlarından olan dijital oyunlar çocuklardan büyük ilgi görmektedir. Dijital oyunların eğitim gibi alanlarda faydalı kullanımı olmakla beraber şiddet içeren dijital oyunlar çocuklar için risk oluşturmaktadır. Bu bağlamda ebeveynlere önemli sorumluluklar düşmektedir. Dijital dünyanın olası risklerinden çocukları korumak günümüz yetişkinleri için çok önemli bir konudur. Dijital dünyayı iyi tanıyan ve günlük hayatta bu teknolojileri kullanan ebeveynler için kullanılan dijital ebeveynlik kavramı günümüzde tartışılan bir konudur. Bu bağlamda bu çalışmada dijital ebeveynlerin dijital oyunlardaki şiddet olgusuna bakışları araştırılmıştır. Bu çalışmanın kuramsal çerçevesini kültürel göstergeler ve ekme kuramı oluşturmaktadır. Bu çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemi ve içerik analizi uygulanmıştır. Veri toplama tekniği ise yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmedir. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre katılımcı ebeveynler dijital oyunlardaki şiddet hakkında bilgi sahibidir. Ebeveynler, dijital oyunlardaki şiddet içeriklerine karşı önlem aldıklarını belirtmiştir. Ayrıca ebeveynler, dijital oyunlar konusunda uzman desteğinin de gerekliliğini vurgulamışlardır. Abstract Today, the place of information technologies in our lives is increasing day by day. The development of these technologies has affected not only adults but also children. This interaction between human and technology is not only limited to virtual environments, it has also started to affect social life. Digital games, one of the popular entertainment tools of digital technologies, attract great attention from children. Although digital games have beneficial use in areas such as education, violent contain digital games pose a risk to children. In this context, parents have important responsibilities. Protecting children from the possible risks of the digital world is a very important issue for today's adults. The concept of digital parenting, which is used for parents who know the digital world well and use these technologies in daily life, is a subject that is discussed today. In this context, in this study, the views of digital parents on the phenomenon of violence in digital games were investigated. Cultivation theory constitute the theoretical framework of this study. In this study, semi-structured interview technique and content analysis, which are among qualitative research methods, were applied.. According to the results of the research, participating parents have information about violence in digital games. Parents stated that they took precautions against violent in the digital games. Parents also stressed the need for expert support in digital games.
... There is, for example, no agreement on whether a game with specific characteristics (e.g. a violent game) leads to specific behaviour (e.g. violent behaviour) [25,[51][52][53][54]. ...
Article
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Digital serious games have shown to be effective in promoting citizen engagement and social interaction. The reasons for their success are, however, unknown. This paper proposes design recommendations to support designers of serious games for meaningful social interaction, based on player preferences, needs and desires, based on literature study and a case study for which a location-based game framework was designed, developed and evaluated. The case study with and for children/teenagers in Rotterdam focussed on the design of challenges by the children/teenagers for meaningful interaction with their environment, and the strengthening of their engagement with their own neighbourhood. The paper focuses specifically on: 1) if and when meaningful social interaction occurred during game play, how it occurred, and with which impact, and 2) the design choices/features that contributed to (the experience of) meaningful social interaction. On the basis of these results and the literature this paper proposes design recommendations to support designers of serious games for meaningful social interaction, taking not only the current players’ needs and desires into account but also those of future players.
... It was started by developing a very simple game like "Snake" to very complex and realistic video games such as BUBG video game. Realistic video games come in a variety of styles such as the realistic of the graphics like players faces and blood, special movements in the players or the enemy [2]. These realistic video games can affect the players' enthusiasm and behavior inside or outside the video games. ...
... But how can audiences' self-reported positive outlook on realistic portrayals of violence be reconciled with research suggesting that perceived realism can reinforce aggression effects (Eron, 1982) and cultivation effects (Hawkins & Pingree, 1980) of violent media content? It is important to note here that research on the reinforcing influence of realism on cultivation and aggression effects has produced inconsistent results (Barlett, Rodeheffer, Baldassaro, Hinkin, & Harris, 2008;Zendle, Kudenko, & Cairns, 2018). Rather than a methodological artifact, this inconsistency of findings might be due to an unobserved difference between naïve and reflective judgments of realism. ...
Article
This study investigates audiences’ reflective thoughts about violent media content with the aim of developing a bilingual self-report scale in English and German. Scale development was based on an item pool of statements derived from previous qualitative interviews about individuals’ reflection and meaning-making of violent media content. Two survey samples from the US (N = 431) and Germany (N = 412) rated their agreement with these statements, with an example of violent fiction, violent nonfiction, or the most recent violent content they had seen in mind. Factor analysis of the data revealed five main dimensions including reflective thoughts about: (1) human cruelty and suffering from violence, (2) own or close others’ experiences with violence, (3) moral complexities of violence, (4) the true story behind violent content, and (5) strategies learned for dealing with violence in real life. Scale items selected to represent these five dimensions showed convergent validity with eudaimonic media experiences and perceived realism as well as comparable measurement properties across the two countries (US and Germany). Results are discussed with regard to the role of reflective thoughts as potential buffer against negative effects of exposure to media violence.
... Before any call to action on part of the research community can be properly affected, evidence of the health effects of VR as they are currently known should be discussed. While recent studies suggest no connection between sustained exposure to simulated environments (in the form of violent video games) and psychological damage, [14] VRbased experiences are qualitatively distinct, categorically different experiences. As such there is a need for studies with experimental frameworks specifically calibrated to the peculiarities of the VR experience. ...
Preprint
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While AR and VR have been received with great enthusiasm regarding new possibilities in storytelling and em-pathy building, research has been conspicuously quiet about possible downsides. Where others praise the 'empathy machine' we took a closer more critical look. In this paper we want to explore the neurological connection and inquire as to whether or not a simulation, if made sufficiently immersive and apparently genuine to a user, could suspend disbelief to such a degree that someone could actually experience trauma or suffer shock and die as a result of a particularly violent video game or other VR-experience.
... Notable is the work of David Zendle, who critically analyzed the relationship between violent content in video games and aggressive behaviors, questioning methods used in early studies [5]. Zendle's empirical work showed that it was players' frustration with game complexity and difficulty that led to them to behave more aggressively after playing, rather than the violent content within games. ...
Preprint
BACKGROUND Video game playing is a daily activity for many youths that replaces other media forms (e.g., TV watching) and serves as an important source of knowledge, with the potential to impact their attitudes and behaviors. Researchers are concerned about the impact of video gaming on youth (e.g., for promoting prosocial or antisocial behaviour). Studies have also begun to explore players’ experience of gameplay and video game messages about violence, sexism, and racism; however, little is known about the impact of commercial video games in the sharing/shaping of knowledge and/or messages about mental illness. OBJECTIVE This study aims to review and examine messages about, and representations of mental illness, especially psychosis, and its context of care in commercial video games. METHODS On Steam (a popular PC gaming platform), we performed keyword searches on games made available between January 2016 to June 2017. A total of 789 games were identified and reviewed to assess whether their game content was related to mental illness. At the end of the screening phase, a total of 100 games were retained. RESULTS We used a game elements framework (characters, game environment/atmosphere, goals, etc.) to describe and then unpack messages about mental health and illness in video games. The majority of the games we reviewed (97%) portray mental illness in negative, partial, misleading, and problematic ways (e.g., associating it with violence, scary, insanity, hopelessness, etc.). Furthermore, some games portrayed mental illness as manifestations or consequences of supernatural phenomena or paranormal experiences. As mental illness was often associated with mystery, unpredictable, and as an obscure illness; its treatment was also associated with uncertainties, as game characters with mental illness had to undergo “experiment treatment” to get better. Unfortunately, little or no hope for recovery was present in the identified video games, where mental illness was often presented as ongoing straggle as well as endless battle with their mind and themselves. CONCLUSIONS The game elements of a large number of commercial video games included mental illness, about which many perpetuated well-known stereotypes and prejudices. We discuss the key findings further in relation current evidence on the impact of media portrayals of mental illness and stigma; the ability of serious video games, to promote alternative messages around mental illness and clinical practices. Future research is needed to investigate the impact that such messages have on players and to explore the role that video games can play in fostering alternative messages to reduce stigma associated with mental illness.
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Dijital teknolojinin ipleri eğlence dünyasının tasarımı olan oyuna konumlandırılmıştır. Dijitalleşen oyunun hızla artan payı inovasyonun ticari değere dönüşümünü elverişli kılmıştır. Bu bölümde dijital oyun ekonomisi mercek altına alınarak pazarının büyüklüğü ve ihracat potansiyeli performans ve rekabet perspektifinden değerlendirilmiştir. Dijital oyun pazarının kısaca gelişimi incelenmiştir. Dijital oyunların değer zinciri değerlendirilirken Porter yaklaşımı ile bağ kurulmuştur. Küresel ticarette dijital oyun pazarı uluslararası işletmeler, sanal pazarlar çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. Dijital oyun pazarına ilişkin uluslararasılaşma sürecinin getirdiği ticari başarı ve ihracat potansiyeli vurgulanmıştır. Link: https://acikkaynak.gim.org.tr/img/dijital-oyunlar-2.pdf
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The inciter may not be responsible for the criminal actions of those who are incited by hate speech, but hate speech can create an atmosphere of intolerance that can be a threat to individual freedom. This idea was formulated in Popper’s “paradox of tolerance”, which suggests that unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance. While considering a legal code that prohibits intolerant speech because it can offend people produces an environment of intolerance, or leads to subsequent crimes, it is important to remember that legal decisions cannot be based on the idea that someone may feel mentally hurt or distressed. The only real way to protect liberty and avoid compromising the value of free speech is to decriminalise hate speech and opinions that differ from the mainstream.
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This thesis broadens current understanding of how location-based games can promote meaningful social interaction in citizens' own neighbourhoods. It investigates social cohesion and the role of social interaction to its promotion, delves into which requirements users have for playing in their neighbourhood and with its citizens, and takes a technical perspective into how this type of games should be designed to be successful at triggering interaction in public space. From this understanding, which stems from adolescents and adults from Rotterdam and The Hague, NL, a specific design and prototype of a location-based game is proposed and tested. This thesis addresses several gaps found in the current body of knowledge. On the one hand, meaningful interactions are person-dependent, can occur in various forms, and their impact on societies is not well understood. On the other hand, it is not well understood how to build location-based games for such aim: it is not known which requirements should be considered, attempts to build location-based games are often a product of in-house development not centred early on around users, no known guidelines exist for meaningful social interaction, and no consensus exists on what to consider when building location-based games from a technical perspective.This thesis offers learnings on how to best design location-based games to promote interaction that matters to local communities. It firstly offers an overview of social cohesion and how multiple factors and actors have the power to influence local communities. It then argues that meaningful social interaction bears the power to break down stereotypes and prejudice, empowers people's agencies to act, has a positive impact on cohesion, emerges at people's own pace, and addresses conflict. From this, it dives into the preferences, needs and desires of adolescents and adults to better understand what sorts of interactions are meaningful to them. This thesis explores throughout several case studies the requirements that these target groups have, and advances gameplay dynamics and game activity types that location-based games should implement to be successful at inviting meaningful social interaction in public space. These case studies also research different sorts of interaction that each game activity type invites players to have, and elicit specific game ideas that are particularly tailored around perceived-to-be socially challenging neighbourhoods in The Netherlands. These case studies culminate in the recommendation of several guidelines to be used at different stages of the game design: gameplay requirements, guidelines for meaningful social interaction to occur in the studied groups, and the sorts of game activities that designers should include to invite specific forms of social interaction. This thesis also proposes a systems architecture with key architectural components, to drive consensus and inform on what to consider when building location-based games for this purpose from a technical perspective.The lessons learned that are advanced in this thesis help practitioners design location-based games that are more tailored to what future players want to play, and help researchers understand what it means to design for meaningful social interaction in any public space around the world. Players have distinct preferences with regard to the ways they are exposed to their own neighbourhood, and the forms of interaction they would rather experience. Understanding this, and incorporating such preferences in game design, lead to gameplay experiences that can have a positive effect on societies, as they have the power to promote interaction and positive relationships in local communities. These gameplay experiences invite individuals to come together and have meaningful interactions in a playful way, (re)engage with their own neighbourhood, and be part of their local community.
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هدفت الدراسة الحالية تعرف الأسس النظرية للألعاب الإلكترونية، خاصة الألعاب القتالية، والكشف عن درجة الوعي بمخاطر الإدمان على ممارستها والآليات المقترحة لمواجهتها من وجهة نطر عينة من أولياء أمور تلاميذ المرحلة المتوسطة بمنطقة جازان السعودية قوامها (245) فرداً. ولتحقيق أهداف الدراسة تم استخدام المنهج الوصفي التحليلي، وبناء أداة (استبانة) والتحقق من خصائصها السيكومترية. وقد بيّنت نتائج الدراسة أن مستوى وعي أولياء الأمور بمخاطر إدمان أبنائهم على ممارسة الألعاب الإلكترونية القتالية جاء بدرجة "كبيرة" بالنسبة لكل المخاطر (الصحية والسلوكية والنفسية الاجتماعية والدينية والأكاديمية) فيما ما عدا المخاطر الأمنية التي كشفت النتائج عن قلة وعيهم بها، وأنه لا توجد فروق دالة إحصائيًا بين تقديراتهم تُعزى إلى متغيرات (النوع، والمستوى التعليمي، مكان السكن، متوسط الدخل الشهري). كما بيّنت النتائج اتفاق عينة الدراسة وبنسبة كبيرة جداً على الآليات المقترحة لمواجهة تلك المخاطر. وأوصت الدراسة بالعمل على تفعيل الآليات المقترحة لمواجهة المخاطر، وعقد برامج لتوعوية أولياء الأمور بالمخاطر الأمنية لإدمان أبنائهم على ممارسة الألعاب الإلكترونية القتالية. الكلمات المفتاحية: إدمان، الألعاب الإلكترونية القتالية، تلاميذ المرحلة المتوسطة.
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The effect of exposure to violent video game content on aggression is intensely debated. Meta-analyses have produced widely varying estimates as to the effect (or non-effect) of violent video games on subsequent aggressive thoughts and behaviors. Recent work suggests that interactivity and player skill may play key roles in moderating the effects of violent content in video games on aggression. This study investigates the effects of violence, interactivity, and player skill on mild aggressive behavior using a custom-developed first-person shooter game allowing for high levels of experimental control. We conduct effect and equivalence tests with effect size assumptions drawn from prominent meta-analyses in the video game violence literature, finding that aggressive behavior following violent video game play is statistically equivalent to that observed following non-violent game play. We also observe an interaction between violent game content, player skill, and interactivity. When player skill matched the interactivity of the game, violent content led to an increase in aggressive behavior, whereas when player skill did not match the interactivity of the game, violent content decreased aggressive behavior. This interaction is probed using a multiverse analysis incorporating both classical significance testing and Bayesian analyses.
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El presente trabajo examina el videojuego histórico como una forma de memoria estética. A través del estudio de distintos títulos recientes y populares ambientados en el pasado, como Call of Duty: WWII (Sledgehammer Games, 2017) y Battlefield V (DICE, 2018) tratamos de definir e ilustrar el concepto de “memoria estética”. Se trata de un concepto entendido como la reproducción de imágenes definitorias y populares de un momento histórico. Se trata de imágenes seleccionadas por distintos grupos sociales, alejados del oficio del historiador, cuya función es consolidar la verosimilitud histórica del producto y que son consideradas canónicas y representativas de un momento concreto.
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Exposure to violent video games (VVE) has been shown to increase aggression in the player. In the present two experiments, we tested whether this effect spreads within a social network. In Experiment 1, using data from a previous study that showed an effect of VVE on aggression in a Competitive Reaction Time Task (Greitemeyer, 2014), we assigned the blasts of noise selected by players to new participants. Afterwards, they selected these parameters themselves. VVE had a causal effect on retaliatory aggression, showing that the effect of VVE may spread on non-players. In Experiment 2, 200 participants played either a violent or nonviolent video game and participated in a Cold Water Task (CWT) in which they assigned the time another person has to keep the hand in painfully cold water. Two-hundred new participants were yoked to one of the video game participants and had to keep their hand in the water for the indicated duration. Afterwards, they assigned the time to the video game participant (retaliation) or to another person (displaced aggression). Although VVE had no significant impact, we found that higher CWT duration led participants to behave more aggressively not only when retaliating, but also, to a lesser extent, in the displaced aggression condition. Implications of the spreading effect of aggression in the context of VVE are discussed.
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Research into students’ interactions with historical video games is limited and tends to focus on teacher mediation. As a result, little is known about the meanings that students independently construct as they consume this form of media. This qualitative interview study uses Assassin’s Creed, a narrative video game with a historical setting, as a site of inquiry. Students described a sense of immediate access to history that contrasted with school-based learning, a sense of human connection to people in the past, and increased perception of multiple perspectives in history. They also evidenced a willingness to allow the games to rewrite their beliefs about history, and theorized about the games’ historical accuracy. However, students tended to miss opportunities for critical engagement with this visceral sense of immersive experience. As such, implications are raised regarding ways to promote critical investigation into gameplay experiences as well as the importance of fostering a sense of human connection to history through social education.
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Background: Video game playing is a daily activity for many youths that replaces other media forms (eg, television); it serves as an important source of knowledge and can potentially impact their attitudes and behaviors. Researchers are, thus, concerned with the impact of video gaming on youth (eg, for promoting prosocial or antisocial behavior). Studies have also begun to explore players' experience of gameplay and video game messages about violence, sexism, and racism; however, little is known about the impact of commercial video games in the sharing and shaping of knowledge, and messages about mental illness. Objective: The aim of this review was to identify how mental illness, especially psychosis, is portrayed in commercial video games. Methods: We performed keyword searches on games made available between January 2016 and June 2017 on Steam (a popular personal computer gaming platform). A total of 789 games were identified and reviewed to assess whether their game content was related to mental illness. At the end of the screening phase, a total of 100 games were retained. Results: We used a game elements framework (characters, game environment/atmosphere, goals, etc) to describe and unpack messages about mental health and illness in video games. The majority of the games we reviewed (97%, 97/100) portrayed mental illness in negative, misleading, and problematic ways (associating it with violence, fear, insanity, hopelessness, etc). Furthermore, some games portrayed mental illness as manifestations or consequences of supernatural phenomena or paranormal experiences. Mental illness was associated with mystery, the unpredictable, and as an obscure illness; its treatment was also associated with uncertainties, as game characters with mental illness had to undergo experimental treatment to get better. Unfortunately, little or no hope for recovery was present in the identified video games, where mental illness was often presented as an ongoing struggle and an endless battle with the mind and oneself. Conclusions: The game elements of the identified commercial video games included mental illness, about which many perpetuated well-known stereotypes and prejudices. We discuss the key findings in relation to current evidence on the impact of media portrayals of mental illness and stigma. Furthermore, we reflect on the ability of serious video games to promote alternative messages about mental illness and clinical practices. Future research is needed to investigate the impact that such messages have on players and to explore the role that video games can play in fostering alternative messages to reduce the stigma associated with mental illness.
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Ferguson’s (2015a) meta-analysis assessed a very important and controversial topic about children’s mental health and video games. In response to the concerns raised by researchers about the appropriateness of the meta-analytical methods used by Ferguson; we decided to reanalyze the data and discuss two major misconceptions about meta-analysis. We argue that partial correlations can (and should) be meta-analyzed instead of zero-order bivariate correlations if the predictors included in the partial correlation represent a similar construct. We also discuss the fallacy by which the conventional meta-analytical model assumes that the studies’ effect sizes came into being according to the same random effect construct used by the analysis. Our replication results using partial correlations, standardized (valid and reliable) outcomes, and an improved meta-analytical model (that does not assume a random effect is the mechanism of data generation) confirmed the main results of Ferguson’s meta-analysis. There was a significant yet very small effect on aggressive behavior of exposure to both general, rp = 0.062, 95% CI [0.012, 0.112], and violent, rp = 0.055, 95% CI [0.019, 0.091], video games. A very small effect was seen on reduced prosocial behavior, but this was only in the general video game exposure category, rp = 0.072, 95% CI [0.045, 0.100].
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We re-analyzed data gathered by Anderson et al. (2010) on the relationship between violent video games and aggressive outcomes. Contrary to the original report, we found evidence of significant publication bias among experiments with aggressive affect or aggressive behavior as an outcome. Results suggest that short-term laboratory effects may be smaller than previously reported. Research practice and theory in this area will benefit from publication of all studies and outcomes, as in a registered report.
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The issue of whether video games-violent or nonviolent-"harm" children and adolescents continues to be hotly contested in the scientific community, among politicians, and in the general public. To date, researchers have focused on college student samples in most studies on video games, often with poorly standardized outcome measures. To answer questions about harm to minors, these studies are arguably not very illuminating. In the current analysis, I sought to address this gap by focusing on studies of video game influences on child and adolescent samples. The effects of overall video game use and exposure to violent video games specifically were considered, although this was not an analysis of pathological game use. Overall, results from 101 studies suggest that video game influences on increased aggression (r = .06), reduced prosocial behavior (r = .04), reduced academic performance (r = -.01), depressive symptoms (r = .04), and attention deficit symptoms (r = .03) are minimal. Issues related to researchers' degrees of freedom and citation bias also continue to be common problems for the field. Publication bias remains a problem for studies of aggression. Recommendations are given on how research may be improved and how the psychological community should address video games from a public health perspective.
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While previous research on entertainment-education has assessed its effectiveness, primarily at the conscious level (e.g., free recall and self-reported change in knowledge), few studies have explored its effect on viewers' implicit knowledge. To fill this gap, this study examined the mechanism through which viewers form implicit memory of short health messages inserted in a primetime TV show and its preconscious effects on viewers' health attitudes and intentions. An experiment was conducted using a 3-group (health message: present vs. absent vs. control), posttest-only design with additional planned analyses of differences by subject variables (past experience and involvement). Overall, findings supported the hypothesized effects of implicit memory of a brief antialcohol message embedded in an ER episode on college students' attitudes and intentions against binge drinking. Results showed that participants who were exposed to the health message reported less positive attitudes toward binge drinking and lower intentions to binge drink, compared with those who were not exposed; the causal relations among viewers' implicit memory, attitudes, and intentions were also validated. Results also showed that individuals' past experience and involvement moderated the effects of the health message on attitudes and intentions. Theoretical explanations and practical implications are discussed.
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Whether video game play affects social behavior is a topic of debate. Many argue that aggression and helping are affected by video game play, whereas this stance is disputed by others. The present research provides a meta-analytical test of the idea that depending on their content, video games do affect social outcomes. Data from 98 independent studies with 36,965 participants revealed that for both violent video games and prosocial video games, there was a significant association with social outcomes. Whereas violent video games increase aggression and aggression-related variables and decrease prosocial outcomes, prosocial video games have the opposite effects. These effects were reliable across experimental, correlational, and longitudinal studies, indicating that video game exposure causally affects social outcomes and that there are both short- and long-term effects.