Article

Chemical composition and source apportionment of PM10 at an urban background site in a high–altitude Latin American megacity (Bogota, Colombia)

February 2018
Environmental Pollution 233(37):142-155

DOI:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.045

Authors:

Omar Ramírez Hernández

Nueva Granada Military University

Ana M Sánchez de la Campa Verdona

Universidad de Huelva

Ruth ALEJANDRA Catacoli Jimenez

Universidad Libre

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Bogota registers frequent episodes of poor air quality from high PM10 concentrations. It is one of the main Latin American megacities, located at 2600 m in the tropical Andes, but there is insufficient data on PM10 source contribution. A characterization of the chemical composition and the source apportionment of PM10 at an urban background site in Bogota was carried out in this study. Daily samples were collected from June 2015 to May 2016 (a total of 311 samples). Organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), water soluble compounds (SO42−, Cl−, NO3−, NH4+), major elements (Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P) and trace metals (V, Cd, Pb, Sr, Ba, among others) were analyzed. The results were interpreted in terms of their variability during the rainy season (RS) and the dry season (DS). The data obtained revealed that the carbonaceous fraction (∼51%) and mineral dust (23%) were the main PM10 components, followed by others (15%), Secondary Inorganic Compounds (SIC) (11%) and sea salt (0.4%). The average concentrations of soil, SIC and OC were higher during RS than DS. However, peak values were observed during the DS due to photochemical activity and forest fires. Although trace metals represented <1% of PM10, high concentrations of toxic elements such as Pb and Sb on RS, and Cu on DS, were obtained. By using a PMF model, six factors were identified (∼96% PM10) including fugitive dust, road dust, metal processing, secondary PM, vehicles exhaust and industrial emissions. Traffic (exhaust emissions + road dust) was the major PM10 source, accounting for ∼50% of the PM10. The results provided novel data about PM10 chemical composition, its sources and its seasonal variability during the year, which can help the local government to define control strategies for the main emission sources during the most critical periods.

Spatio-temporal analysis of PM2.5 and policies in Northwestern South America

Article

Sep 2022
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

This paper analyzes the spatio-temporal variations, and exceedances of the PM2.5 concentrations in Northwestern South America at different scales to assess the implemented policies and identify the involved phenomena. Through reanalysis and ground-based data, we found that high PM2.5 levels in most cities of the region are caused by wildfires and local emissions, including the capital cities of Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Panamá. In-situ measurements suggest that the majority of the cities comply with the local but not with the WHO guidelines, indicating that local annual limits should be more restrictive. Two peaks in the daily variations of PM2.5 (related to vehicle emissions) and also a steeper decrease around noon (associated with an increase in wind speed and in the boundary layer height) were identified. The trend-analysis shows that Bogotá and Medellín have a decreasing PM2.5 annual-trend (between −0.8μgm⁻³ and −1.7μgm⁻³) that corresponds to effective policies. In contrast, Cali has a positive annual-trend (0.8μgm⁻³) most likely because of Short-Range Transport produced by a northerly-flow from a highly polluted neighboring city, which also affects Cali's PM2.5 diurnal cycle, or by local-dynamics. The exceedances show that the policies are working on an annual but not at a daily time-scale. These results serve as a first input for additional studies, with the aim of gaining a better understanding of the contaminant before adapting current policies or implementing new policies and measures that need to include a joint international, regional, and inter-city efforts regarding pollution transport.

Source Apportionment and Risk Estimation of Heavy Metals in PM10 at a Southern Vietnam Megacity

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Airborne particulate matter (PM) pollution is a global concern, in which partitioned heavy metals (HMs) could impose great risks to residents living in metropolitan areas. In this study, PM10 samples were collected in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) – a megacity in southern Vietnam – and analyzed for 11 HMs to investigate their concentration profiles, perform source apportionment and estimate their risk factors. Results showed that atmospheric HMs concentration decreased following the order of Al > Fe > Sr > Mn> Pb > Cu > Cr > V > Ni > Sb > As. Traffic activities were likely the major cause of rush-hour peaks for most HMs in which Cr, As, and Cu showed > 20% increases in their relative proportions. For seasonal variation, most HMs showed a dry > rainy pattern as a result of washout by higher rainfall in the rainy season while crustal elements (Al, Sr, Mn) showed a rainy > dry pattern and might be explained by the difference in air mass transport modulating by monsoon activities. The positive-matrix factorization (PMF) model revealed 5 primary sources for HMs, including traffic emission, shipping activity and combustion activity, fugitive dust re-suspension and waste incineration. Combustion activity might enrich As, Sb, Pb levels at HCMC, and As contributed half (50.8%) to the potential ecological risk (PER) in the city. Besides, the current Cr level could impose a carcinogenic effect towards children in HCMC (total carcinogenic index > 10-4) while Mn might impose intolerable non-carcinogenic risk (hazard index > 1). This study provides information on local air quality status for scientific and regulatory perspectives as well as helps fill the information gap and update the understanding of air pollution in South and Southeast Asia.

Atmospheric particulate pollution in South American megacities

Article

Apr 2021

Air pollution is one of the major problems caused by urban growth, and both industrial and automobile emissions have been the main causes of air quality deterioration in cities since the beginning of the 20th century. Atmospheric pollution is the largest single environmental risk for health causing about 7 million human deaths per year. On a global scale, developing countries are major contributors to air pollution due to their rising economies, with rapid industrial and population growth combined with poor emission controls. In South America there are five megacities (Bogotá, Buenos Aires, Lima, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo) with over 10 million people potentially contributing to wide-ranging environmental consequences. Atmospheric particulate matter (APM) plays a leading role in the transport of trace metals and metalloids through the atmosphere and are chemical markers of air quality. The presence of these pollutants in APM has a detrimental effect on both the air quality and human health. In this review we provide an integrated assessment of hazardous metals and metalloids in the fine and coarse APM fractions, focusing on the South American megacities. We identified the current state of research for Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, Pd, Pt, Rh, Sb, Sn, V and Zn, and summarized the findings in the 21st century. The findings of this review highlighted that despite the phasing out of leaded gasoline, Pb continues to be a metal pollutant with one of the highest atmospheric emission rates, mainly due to vehicular pollution. The megacities from Brazil and Argentina were, by far, those with the highest number of studies performed. However, updated research is needed for the five megacities, including specific studies on fine and ultrafine particulate matter fractions as these pose serious human health issues. Urban agglomerations denoted sustained increases of most metals over time that is indicative of deteriorating air quality. Nickel and Cd concentrations in megacities from Argentina, Brazil and Colombia, as well as Pb in one study from Colombia, were found to have exceeded international air quality guidelines.

Seasonal variations in PM10 inorganic composition in the Andean city

Article

Oct 2020

Valeria M Diaz

Metal Composition and Source Identification of PM2.5 and PM10 at a Suburban Site in Pathum Thani, Thailand

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

This study reports the mass concentrations, elemental characterization and identification of the possible sources of PM2.5 and PM10 at a suburban site in Pathum Thani, Thailand. The sampling was done from 18 February 2021 to 14 September 2021. PM2.5 concentrations were between 0.39 μg/m3 and 174.26 μg/m3, while PM10 concentration ranged from 12.75 μg/m3 to 242.02 μg/m3. The average concentration of PM2.5 in the wet season (61.96 μg/m3) in the study area exceeded the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS). Particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) was used to measure the element concentrations. The main elements, namely Fe, K, Cr and Ca, in both PM2.5 and PM10 showed significantly higher concentrations in the summer season. A qualitative inter-elemental correlation analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) were applied for source identification of PM2.5 and PM10. The results for the three procedures were in good agreement. Four and three factors of sources were isolated by the PCA for PM2.5 and PM10, respectively. The main sources identified by PCA were, for PM2.5, soil dust and biomass burning (32%), road dust and industrial emission (25%), vehicle and industrial emission (10%) and soil dust (9%); for PM10, road dust and industrial emission (36%), crustal and biomass burning (30%) and industrial sources (10%).

Understanding organic aerosols in Bogotá, Colombia: In-situ observations and regional-scale modeling

Article

May 2022
ATMOS ENVIRON

Organic aerosol (OA) is one of the major components of fine atmospheric aerosol particles. Recent field campaigns and modeling studies in Colombia have demonstrated the presence of a large OA fraction in urban and rural aerosols. In this work we focus on constraining the sources associated with OA and its precursors over the city of Bogotá, Colombia. We used PM2.5 chemical speciation data from field campaigns carried out during 2018 to evaluate the ability of a regional transport model to reproduce and explain the observed OA. The samples were collected at three sites during high- and low-aerosol concentration seasons in the region. We used The Weather Research and Forecasting Model coupled with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) with two different chemical mechanisms and aerosol schemes, RACM/MADE-VBS and MOZART/MOSAIC, in conjunction with the detailed in-situ aerosol chemical speciation observations to analyze the seasonality of OA in the city of Bogotá, and to establish the most relevant sources. Simulations were carried out for the same periods for which data is available, spanning a high biomass burning (BB) season (February 2018) and a low biomass burning season (September 2018). We demonstrated that long-range transport of BB emissions from Northern Amazonia can episodically increase aerosol loading during September, while BB activity in the Grasslands of the Orinoco River Basin are the main source during February. The two aerosol schemes utilized in this work reproduce the observed seasonal variations in total fine aerosol concentration, with a difference between February and September of 10 μg m⁻³. The comparison between aerosol schemes demonstrated that MOZART/MOSAIC consistently predicted more OA with a larger SOA:OA ratio than in the RACM/MADE-VBS experiment. SOA dominates the OA fraction by 66% for RACM/MADE-VBS and 74% for MOZART/MOSAIC during February and 69% for RACM/MADE-VBS and 71% for MOZART/MOSAIC during September. These differences between organic aerosol burden between the mechanisms used in this study may be attributed to the different treatment of SOA gas/particle partitioning in the schemes.

Source identification and exposure assessment to PM10 in the Eastern Carpathians, Romania

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021
J ATMOS CHEM

Observations of particulate matter less than 10 μm (PM10) were conducted from January to December in 2015 in the Ciuc basin, Eastern Carpathians, Romania. Daily concentrations of PM10 ranged from 10.90 to 167.70 μg/m3, with an annual mean concentration of 46.31 μg/m3, which is higher than the European Union limit of 40 μg/m3. Samples were analyzed for a total of 21 elements. O, C and Si were the most abundant elements accounting for about 85% of the PM10 mass. Source identification showed that the elemental composition of PM10 is represented by post volcanic activity, crustal origin, and anthropogenic sources, caused by the resuspension of crustal material, sea salt and soil dust. The average PM10 composition was 72.10% soil, 20.92% smoke K, 13.84% salt, 1.53% sulfate and 1.02% organic matter. The back-trajectory analysis showed that the majority of PM10 pollution comes from the West, Southwest and South.

Assessment of metals in PM10 filters and Araucaria heterophylla needles in two areas of Quito, Ecuador

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

The reliability of Araucaria heterophylla needles as a biomonitor was evaluated by analyzing the concentration of metals in PM10 filters and in Araucaria heterophylla needles. The sampling campaign was carried out at two sites in the city of Quito, Ecuador, in 2017–2019. Concentrations of Cr, Cu, K, Mn, Pb, Zn, Ca, Fe, Al and Mg were determined in PM10 filters and in Araucaria heterophylla needles using an Inductively Coupled Plasma – Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The annual mean concentrations of PM10 ranged between 24.9 and 26.3 μg m⁻³, exceeding the limit established by the World Health Organization (20 μg m⁻³). Statistical analyses, performed for the PM10 filters, showed that dust resuspension and anthropogenic activities were important sources for PM10 emissions in the city. Metals related to natural emissions (Ca, Mg, K, Al and Fe) dominated in both types of samples, while the minor metals were those related to anthropogenic emissions (Zn, Cu, Cr and Pb). The former were positively associated with the needle samples, while the latter were associated with PM10 filters. This work not only improved scientific knowledge on the concentrations of PM10 and metals in the Andean city of Quito, but also greatly contributed to the progress of research on the use of Araucaria heterophylla needles as a biomonitor.

Correlación entre el flujo vehicular, el PM2,5 y variables meteorológicas, un estudio de caso al oriente de Bucaramanga (Colombia)

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

El problema de dispersión atmosférica de un contaminante es un tema complejo, donde variables como la velocidad del viento, la temperatura, la época del año, entre otros, contribuyen en mayor o menor grado al incremento o decremento de la concentración de las especies químicas. El objetivo de la investigación fue identificar la correlación entre variables climatológicas y la contaminación por los automotores (PM2,5 Y COV) en un punto de acceso a una institución ubicada al oriente de Bucaramanga (Colombia). Con relación a los datos del estudio, se utilizó un medidor manual y se registraron datos de PM2,5, Compuestos Orgánicos Volátiles (COV) y variables climatológicas de temperatura y humedad relativa para 26 días en la zona de interés durante 3 franjas horarias específicas del día, cada 5 minutos; además, se utilizaron los datos relacionados con la dirección y velocidad del viento de la estación Neomundo, según el documento del Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM) para los años (2005-2009), por ser una zona similar en cuanto a la topografía. El análisis se realizó usando el software libre R (versión 3.5.3) y su librería OpenAir. Los resultados obtenidos muestran las correlaciones correspondientes del PM2,5, los COV, y las variables ambientales corroborando por una parte la influencia del tráfico vehicular en la concentración de PM2,5 principalmente debido a las motocicletas, y por otra parte la relación del PM2.5 con respecto a la Humedad relativa y la temperatura.

Spatial distributions of PM10-bound metal elements in the central part of western Taiwan and their potential emission sources and the carcinogenic health risks

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023
ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R

This study aimed to investigate the spatial distribution of metal elements in PM10 and their potential sources and associated health risks over a period of two years in eight locations in the central part of western Taiwan. The study revealed that the mass concentration of PM10 and the total mass concentration of 20 metal elements in PM10 were 39.0 μg m⁻³ and 4.74 μg m⁻³, respectively, with total metal elements accounting for approximately 13.0% of PM10. Of the total metal elements, 95.6% were crustal elements (Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, and Na), with trace elements (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Ga, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, V, and Zn) contributing only 4.4%. Spatially, the inland areas exhibited higher PM10 concentrations due to lee-side topography and low wind speeds. In contrast, the coastal regions exhibited higher total metal concentrations because of the dominance of crustal elements from sea salt and crustal soil. Four primary sources of metal elements in PM10 were identified as sea salt (58%), re-suspended dust (32%), vehicle emissions and waste incineration (8%), and industrial emissions and power plants (2%). The positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis results indicated that natural sources like sea salt and road dust contributed up to 90% of the total metal elements in PM10, while only 10% was attributed to human activities. The excess cancer risks (ECRs) associated with As, Co, and Cr(VI) were greater than 1 × 10⁻⁶, and the total ECR was 6.42 × 10⁻⁵. Although only 10% of total metal elements in PM10 came from human activities, they contributed to 82% of the total ECR. Graphical Abstract

Regional and Urban Air Quality in the Americas

Chapter

Jun 2023

Source apportionment of PM10 and health risk assessment related in a narrow tropical valley. Study case: Metropolitan area of Aburrá Valley (Colombia)

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023
ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R

This study investigates spatio-temporal variations of PM10 mass concentrations and associated metal(oid)s, δ¹³C carbon isotope ratios, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), total organic carbon (TOC) and equivalent black carbon (eBC) concentrations over a half year period (from March 2017 to October 2017) in two residential areas of Medellín (MED-1 and MED-2) and Itagüí municipality (ITA-1 and ITA-2) at a tropical narrow valley (Aburrá Valley, Colombia), where few data are available. A total of 104 samples were analysed by using validated analytical methodologies, providing valuable data for PM10 chemical characterisation. Metal(oid)s concentrations were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) after acid digestion, and PAHs concentrations were measured by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) after Pressurised Hot Water Extraction (PHWE) and Membrane Assisted Solvent Extraction (MASE). Mean PM10 mass concentration ranged from 37.0 µg m⁻³ to 45.7 µg m⁻³ in ITA-2 and MED-2 sites, respectively. Al, Ca, Mg and Na (from 6249 ng m⁻³ for Mg at MED-1 site to 10,506 ng m⁻³ for Ca at MED-2 site) were the major elements in PM10 samples, whilst As, Be, Bi, Co, Cs, Li, Ni, Sb, Se, Tl and V were found at trace levels (< 5.4 ng m⁻³). Benzo[g,h,i] perylene (BghiP), benzo[b + j]fluoranthene (BbjF) and indene(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene (IcdP) were the most profuse PAHs in PM10 samples, with average concentrations of 0.82–0.86, 0.60–0.78 and 0.47–0.58 ng m⁻³, respectively. Results observed in the four sampling sites showed a similar dispersion pattern of pollutants, with temporal fluctuations which seems to be associated to the meteorology of the valley. A PM source apportionment study were carried out by using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model, pointing to re-suspended dust, combustion processes, quarry activity and secondary aerosols as PM10 sources in the study area. Among them, combustion was the major PM10 contribution (accounting from 32.1 to 32.9% in ITA-1 and ITA-2, respectively), followed by secondary aerosols (accounting for 13.2% and 23.3% ITA-1 and MED-1, respectively). Finally, a moderate carcinogenic risk was observed for PM10-bound PAHs exposure via inhalation, whereas significant carcinogenic risk was estimated for carcinogenic metal(oid)s exposure in the area during the sampling period.

Physicochemical Characterization and Evaluation of the Cytotoxic Efect of Particulate Matter (PM10)

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023
WATER AIR SOIL POLL

Particulate matter arising from different sources affects air quality, representing a risk for human health and the environment. The Valle de Aburrá, Colombia, is facing serious air pollution conditions due to its geographical location and the continuous vehicle fleet growth. In this study, the chemical composition and morphology of the PM10 (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter < 10 μm) collected at monitoring stations across the Valle de Aburrá, were studied by using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), elemental analysis, scanning electron microscope/energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (SEM/EDS), and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Additionally, the potential of PM10-induced cytotoxic and oxidative effects was evaluated using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The PM10 from Valle de Aburrá has a chain morphology and particles of irregular shape; it is mainly composed of ashes (54.8%), followed by volatiles and fixed carbon. Furthermore, different metals were found in PM10, including Si, Fe, K, Na, Al, Cr, and Pt. On the other hand, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) analysis showed benz[a]anthracene levels at 6.71 ng cm−2 which may act as a potent carcinogen by generating various reactive metabolic intermediates leading to oxidative stress. These results are consistent with the cytotoxic effect and the production of ROS observed in PBMCs. Finally, the results suggest that the PM10 of the Valle de Aburrá is mainly arising from construction waste transport, coal combustion to generate energy, and vehicles, representing a potential health risk for the citizens.

Brazilian truckers’ strike and particulate matter (PM10) concentration: Temporal trend and time series models

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

High particulate matter (PM) emissions from vehicular traffic impact air quality in urban areas. In 2018, a truckers’ strike interrupted some of the services in Brazil, leading to a fuel outage in several cities that significantly reduced the flow of vehicles. This study evaluated air quality during the strike in two cities (Limeira and Campinas) in Southeastern Brazil. PM10 concentration was analyzed in the periods before (BTS — 05/01/2018 to 05/22/2018), during (DTS — 05/23/2018 to 05/30/2018), and after (ATS — 05/31/2018 to 06/30/2018) the strike using the Theil-Sen method and the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average model with Exogenous Variables (ARIMAX). A reduction in the PM daily mean concentration in both cities occurred during the strike. Considering the daily peak time of vehicular flow (6:00 p.m.), the PM10 concentration was 20% higher in the BTS period compared to the DTS period for both cities. In comparison, the ATS period showed concentrations 17% (Limeira) and 7% (Campinas) higher when compared with the DTS period. The variations were statistically significant based on the time series models, and the influences of wind speed, rainfall on the sampling day and the day before sampling, and weekends were also evaluated. It was also possible to verify the contribution of the truckers’ strike to the PM10 concentration in the two cities evaluated. In Limeira, truck traffic had a greater influence on the concentration of PM10, while in Campinas, the contribution of trucks was like that of light vehicles. Based on the variation of the PM10 concentration, the influence of changes in vehicle emission dynamics, one of the main sources of emission in the regions studied, was observed. The results indicate that restricting vehicular traffic had an immediate impact on improving air quality. Therefore, public investment in other types of transport and traffic control policies are suggested.

Exploring temporal variation of PM 2.5 and PM 10 and their association with meteorological data in Raipur, Chhattisgarh

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

While significant efforts have been made to mitigate the negative health impacts of particulate matter, there are limited statistics on particle exposure in Raipur. A study was conducted to look at the short-term relationships between particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) and meteorological variables in Raipur. The current research was based on an experimental study conducted at Chhattisgarh’s NIT Raipur. During the pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon, and winter seasons of 2021, a total of 125 air specimens were gathered from the campus. A respirable dust sampler and a fine particulate sampler were used to detect PM10 and PM 2.5 on the building’s terrace. To assess the associations between PM 2.5 and PM10 particulates and both sampling season and site, Pearson’s correlation study was used. The monthly mean mass concentrations of PM 2.5 and PM 10 in Raipur ranged from 28.0-334.0 μg/m ³ to 56.0-448.0 μg/m ³ , respectively. Post-monsoon PM concentrations were highest, followed by pre-monsoon, winter, and post-monsoon. On more than 92 percent of days, PM 2.5 concentrations exceeded NAAQS standards, while PM 10 concentrations exceeded restrictions on 90 percent of days. There were seasonal changes identified in the relationships between PM concentrations and meteorological variables.

Short-Term Associations between PM10 and Respiratory Health Effects in Visby, Sweden

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

The old Swedish city Visby, located on the island Gotland, has, for several years, reported higher PM10 concentrations than any other city in Sweden. In Visby, local limestone is used, both in road paving and as sand used for anti-slip measures, resulting in a clear annual pattern of PM10 with the highest concentrations during winter/spring when studded tires are allowed. This study analyzes the short-term associations between PM10 and daily number of patients with acute respiratory problems (ICD-10 diagnoses: J00-J99) seeking care at the hospital or primary healthcare units in Visby during the period of 2013-2019. The daily mean of PM10 was on average 45 µg m-3 during winter/spring and 18 µg m-3 during summer/autumn. Four outcome categories were analyzed using quasi-Poisson regression models, stratifying for period and adjusting for calendar variables and weather. An increase in respiratory visits was associated with increasing concentrations in PM10 during the summer/autumn period, most prominent among children, where asthma visits increased by 5% (95% CI: 2-9%) per 10 µg m-3 increase in PM10. For the winter/spring period, no significant effects were observed, except for the diagnose group 'upper airways' in adults, where respiratory visits increased by 1% (95% CI: 0.1-1.9%) per 10 µg m-3 increase. According to the results, limestone in particles seem to be relatively harmless at the exposure concentrations observed in Visby, and this is in line with the results from a few experimental and occupational studies.

Spatial Distribution and Chemical Composition of Road Dust in Two High-Altitude Latin American Cities. In Road Dust in Urban and Industrial Environments: Sources, Pollutants, Impacts, and Management.

Chapter

Jun 2022

Road dust (RD) is one of the most important sources of particles in the atmosphere, especially in industrial areas and cities. In this special issue, we collected 16 original articles that describe field, experimental, and modeling studies related to RD and its various size fractions as a key issue in understanding the relationships between several urban and industrial environments and in the identification of pollution sources. Articles in the special issue focus primarily on the following main topics: (1) study of the chemical composition and speciation of RD and its source attribution; (2) assessment of RD and aerosol pollution levels (including express technique), environmental hazards and public health risks; (3) distribution of stable and radioactive isotopes in RD; (4) determination of factors affecting the level of dust accumulation on roads and the intensity of its pollution; and (5) study of the effect of RD on the atmosphere and other environments. Based on the results presented in this special issue, but not limited to, some of the current challenges in studying RD are formulated, including the need for further geographically wider and analytically deeper work on various aspects of the formation, transport pathways, and accumulation of RD in urban, industrial and other areas.

Prevalencia de hipovitaminosis D en mujeres embarazadas y sus recién nacidos en Colombia

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022

Objetivo: Determinar la prevalencia de hipovitaminosis D en gestantes y sus neonatos en un hospital de Bogotá, Colombia. Métodos: Estudio de corte transversal a través de la medición de 25-hidroxivitamina D (25(OH)D) en sangre materna y sangre de cordón, empleando técnica de quimioluminiscencia. Se obtuvieron muestras periféricas de sangre neonatal si la muestra de cordón era < 30 ng/mL. Resultados: Se incluyeron 88 muestras maternas, 90 muestras de cordón (dos gestaciones gemelares) y 43 muestras periféricas neonatales. Según los rangos establecidos en el Consenso Global de la European Society for Pediatric Endocrinology (ESPE), la prevalencia de hipovitaminosis D fue de 26%, 34% y 67% en gestantes, cordón umbilical y muestra neonatal periférica, respectivamente. De acuerdo con la Endocrine Society, la prevalencia encontrada fue de 66%, 83% y 100%, respectivamente. Se evidenció correlación positiva entre niveles maternos de 25(OH) D y niveles de sangre de cordón (Spearman's Rho 0.67, p < 0.001). En las madres con valores de suficiencia un 12.3% de los neonatos bajo criterios ESPE y 56.7% bajo Endocrine society presentaron hipovitaminosis. Conclusiones: Se evidencia alta prevalencia de hipovitaminosis D en neonatos y gestantes en la población a estudio. Los niveles de suficiencia maternos no garantizan niveles neonatales adecuados. La estimación de prevalencia varía significativamente según las guías diagnósticas empleadas.

Carbonaceous aerosols in five European cities: Insights into primary emissions and secondary particle formation

Article

Apr 2022
ATMOS RES

Carbonaceous material is an important component of atmospheric aerosol particles, which plays a significant role in air quality and climate, and also has potentially negative impacts on human health. There is a lack of data reported in the literature regarding the carbonaceous fraction of aerosol in the North-West European ‘air pollution hotspot’ and this work reports a comprehensive one-year intensive measurement campaign, where organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) fractions of PM10 (particulate matter of diameter ≤ 10 μm) were measured. Owing to the importance of carbonaceous aerosols in understanding particulate pollution sources, ~2000 PM10 samples were simultaneously collected across North-West Europe at four urban background sites located in Amsterdam (AD), Antwerp (AP), Leicester (LE) and Lille (LL), and one industrial site at Wijk aan Zee (WZ). PM10 samples were chemically analysed by OC-EC analyser for carbonaceous species (OC, and EC) and trends were identified. OC accounted for 12.8%, 13.9%, 15.3%, 15.1% and 9.8%, and EC accounted for 2.4%, 4.9%, 4.4%, 4.0%, and 2.4% of total PM10 mass for AD, AP, LE, LL and WZ, respectively. Secondary organic carbon (SOC) contributions were higher in warmer months compared to colder months, and SOC concentration levels were similar at all five locations, with SOC contributing more than primary organic aerosol (POC) in each city. The lower effective carbon ratio (ECR) values (≤0.3) at all five sites in October, November, and February can be attributed to higher combined POC and EC concentrations and lesser contributions from SOC, meaning that SOC with a greater relative formation has a greater tendency to disperse solar radiation. Higher ECR values in April, May, and July, on the other hand, indicate that more absorbing types of carbonaceous aerosols are also present. More than 90% of the air-mass trajectories were from the north and northeast. This paper details atmospheric processes and sources influencing the seasonal variability of the carbonaceous components of PM10.

Seasonal and spatial variations of atmospheric depositions-bound elements over Tehran megacity, Iran: Pollution levels, PMF-based source apportionment and risks assessment

Article

Feb 2022

A total of 32 atmospheric depositions (ADs) samples were collected from eight sampling sites from April 2018 to March 2019 in the Tehran megacity. Elemental concentration, pollution characteristics, ecological and human health risks, and source apportionment of ADs in the < 63 μm fraction were investigated. Descriptive statistical analysis revealed that the average concentration of Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu had the highest values over the upper continental crust (UCC). The influence of anthropogenic activities on the level of elements pollution was determined using the Geo-accumulation index (Igeo), Enrichment factor (EF), and Pollution index (PI). The findings revealed the highest Igeo values for Cd at the “extremely contaminated” level due to great influence from Cd emission sources, especially in spring. The extremely high EF values for Zn in 18.8% of samples could be attributed to the low distance of these sampling sites from the nearby industrial areas and adjacent road traffic density. PI values in the range of “considerable to extremely high” pollution were in the order of Zn > Cd > Pb > Cu > Ni > Cr. Eventually, The pollution load index (PLI) indicated the higher than unity of PLI values for all sampling sites reflecting considerable polluted sites across the study area. The ecological risk index (RI) indicated a considerable ecological risk, with the highest monomial risk values for Cd and Pb. The cumulative hazard index (HI) results showed that children encounter higher non-carcinogenic (NCR) risks than adults. However, the cumulative carcinogenic risk (CCR) of adults was 2.25 times higher than for children. The positive matrix factorization (PMF) model extracted four factors, including traffic-related sources (29.7%), local soils and crustal dust resuspension sources (24.8%), demolition and construction activities (23.5%), and industry-related emissions (22%). Among the identified sources, traffic-related sources showed the largest contribution to elements and ecological risks.

Correlación entre el flujo vehicular, el PM2,5 y variables meteorológicas, un estudio de caso al oriente de Bucaramanga (Colombia)

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Box-Jenkins stochastic models for studying air pollutants in a Latin American megacity

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021

The objective of this paper is to show the development of Box-Jenkins stochastic models to study the behavior of air pollutants concentrations in the megacity of Bogotá, Colombia. Information was collected from 10 stations in the city’s air quality monitoring network over a ten-year period. The temporal relationship between air pollutants, their spatial variation, and the occurrence of extreme pollution episodes was studied using Box-Jenkins models. The results showed that the moving average term of the models developed was the main indicator of spatial distribution for the daily pollutant concentrations. In the case of atmospheric particulate matter < 10 μm, the following spatial distribution was identified in the megacity: northwestern, center-southwest, and southeast. For atmospheric particulate matter < 2.5 μm: north, center, and southwest. For ozone: northwest, center, and south. Maximum hourly particulate matter concentrations were observed between 6-10 a.m., and between 11 a.m. - 4 p.m. for ozone. Monthly, the highest particulate matter concentrations were observed in February (14.1%), January (13.5%), and March (12.2%). In the context of atmospheric physics, this study was relevant for the following findings: The usefulness of Box-Jenkins models in simulating the temporal behavior of air pollutants, and for their adequate performance in detecting urban spatial trends.

AIR POLLUTION, CITIZEN DATA COLLECTIVES AND COMMUNICATION AGENDA SETTING IN COLOMBIA

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021

Air pollution levels in the cities of Bogotá and Medellín (Colombia) are now reaching dangerous levels as measured by the few government monitoring stations available and operative. So far, government actions have focused on enforcing private car and industrial emission limits, prohibiting the circulation of vehicles for a few days during particularly polluted periods and vague promises of switching a percentage of public transport vehicles to alternative power. Official measurements are increasingly being reported in the national and local media, as well as through social media, but citizen distrust of their quality has mounted. Citizen collectives are starting to work designing low-cost mobile sensors, monitoring pollution in some areas and in public transport, sharing their georeferenced data over the internet and trying to raise awareness of the dangers of pollution and the necessity of radical actions to deal with the problem. This paper describes the current actions of some of these citizen collectives and their results in setting the media and public agenda on air pollution problems.

Source apportionment of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) and heavy metals in size fractions of urban arterial road dust

Article

Jan 2022
PROCESS SAF ENVIRON

The partitioning of pollutants in the size-fractions of road dust particles is extremely important to their migration and bioavailability in the air environment. Herein, the pollution characteristics and sources of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Pb, Zn, Co, Mn, Ni) and environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) are investigated in 64 samples of mixed particle-size road dust in four size fractions (> 250 μm, 150–250 μm, 75–150 μm, <75 μm). The samples were collected from urban arterial roads of three cities in the core of Central Plains Urban Agglomeration. The results indicate that 67.70% of the road dust (by mass) consist of the <75 μm particles size fraction, and that the highest levels of EPFRs and heavy metals are concentrated in the <150 μm in the <75 μm size fractions. In addition, Cd exhibits extremely high average enrichment factors (EFs) of 51.84 in the 75–150 μm fraction and 64.80 in the <75 μm fraction. Further analysis reveals a remarkable correlation between EPFR concentration and the concentrations Zn and Cr in the road dust. An application of principal component analysis (PCA) and positive matrix factorization (PMF) to the regional investigation and the layout of functional zones demonstrates that Cr, Pb, Zn and EPFRs are mainly derived from traffic emissions, and account for 51.45–77.86% of the fine particle fraction (<150 μm). Meanwhile, industrial activities are identified as the primary source of Cd and Cu, accounting for 63.07–76.22% of the <150 μm particle size fraction. These findings suggest a potential risk of EPFRs and heavy metals in fine particulate matter, and provide a new insight into the potential sources and health risks of EPFRs in road dust. Therefore, further studies are needed in order to explore the EPFRs in fine particulate particles and to assess their effects upon human health.

Poor Regulation Implications in a Low and Middle Income Country Based on PAHs Source Apportionment and Cancer Risk Assessment

Article

Nov 2021

Ambient particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were collected for one year at an urban background site, and spatially and temporally compared to yearly averages in three coastal cities in Lebanon. The samples were quantified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and source apportioned with an optimized robust method using positive matrix factorization (PMF). Three major sources were found to contribute to PAH emissions at the urban background site, namely, traffic (48%), diesel generators (23%), and incineration (29%). The cancer risk was found higher than what was measured at the same site in previous years with an increase of 35%. Improper regulations of the sources (incineration, power plant, diesel generators and traffic) identified in the different sites resulted in PAH intraurban variability. It is essential to study the chemical components of particulate matter (PM) in order to assess toxicity. In particular, particle-bound PAHs and their oxidation products are known for their carcinogenicity as well as their persistence in the atmosphere, which facilitate their transport to new locations. In the absence of law enforcement, unregulated sources and their total contribution to ambient PAHs present a major health risk. This calls for the attention of development funding agencies and their need to implement sustainable "carbon-free" funding strategies in support of urban development of low and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Impact of different sources on the oxidative potential of ambient particulate matter PM10 in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: A focus on dust emissions

Article

Sep 2021
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

In this study, we employed Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Multi-Linear Regression (MLR) to identify the most significant sources contributing to the toxicity of PM10 in the city center of Riyadh. PM10 samples were collected using a medium-volume air sampler during cool (December 2019–March 2020) and warm (May 2020–August 2020) seasons, including dust and non-dust events. The collected filters were analyzed for their chemical components (i.e., watersoluble ions, metals, and trace elements) as well as oxidative potential and elemental and organic carbon (EC/OC) contents. Our measurements revealed comparable extrinsic oxidative potential (P-value = 0.30) during the warm (1.2 ± 0.1 nmol/min-m3) and cool (1.1 ± 0.1 nmol/min-m3) periods. Moreover, we observed higher extrinsic oxidative potential of PM10 samples collected during dust events (~30% increase) compared to non-dust samples. Our PCA-MLR analysis identified soil and resuspended dust, secondary aerosol (SA), local industrial activities and petroleum refineries, and traffic emissions as the four sources contributing to the ambient PM10 oxidative potential in central Riyadh. Soil and resuspended dust were the major source contributing to the oxidative potential of ambient PM10, accounting for 31% of the total oxidative potential. Secondary aerosols (SA) were the next important source of PM10 toxicity in the area as they contributed to about 20% of the PM10 oxidative potential. Results of this study revealed the major role of soil and resuspended road dust on PM10 toxicity and can be helpful in adopting targeted air quality policies to reduce the population exposure to PM10.

Spatial Distribution and Chemical Composition of Road Dust in Two High-Altitude Latin American Cities

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2021

Road dust (RD) resuspension is one of the main sources of particulate matter in cities with adverse impacts on air quality, health, and climate. Studies on the variability of the deposited PM10 fraction of RD (RD10) have been limited in Latin America, whereby our understanding of the central factors that control this pollutant remains incomplete. In this study, forty-one RD10 samples were collected in two Andean cities (Bogotá and Manizales) and analyzed for ions, minerals, and trace elements. RD10 levels varied between 1.8–45.7 mg/m2, with an average of 11.8 mg/m2, in Bogotá and between 0.8–26.7 mg/m2, with an average of 5.7 mg/m2, in Manizales. Minerals were the most abundant species in both cities, with a fraction significantly larger in Manizales (38%) than Bogotá (9%). The difference could be explained mainly by the complex topography and the composition of soil derived from volcanic ash in Manizales. The volcanic activity was also associated with SO4⁻2 and Clˉ. Enrichment factors and principal component analysis were conducted to explore potential factors associated to sources of RD10. Elements such as Cu, Pb, Cr, Ni, V, Sb, and Mo were mainly associated with exhaust and non-exhaust traffic emissions.

Effects of deployment of electric vehicles on air quality in the urban area of Turin (Italy)

Article

Nov 2021
J ENVIRON MANAGE

This study aims to evaluate and quantify the environmental, health, and economic benefits due to the penetration of electric vehicles in the fleet composition by replacing conventional vehicles in an urban area. This study has been performed for the city of Turin, where road transport represents one of the main primary emission sources. Air pollution data were evaluated by ADMS-Roads, the flow traffic data used for simulation come from a real-time monitoring. Instead, statistics on mortality and hospitalizations due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases were collected from the regional health information system and the National Health Institute and implemented in the BenMap software to evaluate the health and economic impacts. In both cases, two scenarios to evaluate the annual benefits of reducing PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 were used: reduction to the levels gained by the assumptions of 2025 and 2030 Scenario and the PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 concentrations were considered for evaluating short-term and long-term effects. The analysis performed doesn't include background pollution levels, i.e. the concentrations percentage reductions are only related to the local contribution, therefore derived from the contribution only of traffic source. The results show that fleet electrification has a potential benefit for concentrations reduction in comparison to the base Scenario, especially related to NO2, less for PM10 and PM2.5. Regarding 2025 Scenario (4 % (passenger car) and 5 % (light-duty vehicles) electric vehicles), reductions of 52 % of NO2, 35 % of PM10 and 49 % of PM2.5 are observed. Meanwhile, as regards 2030 Scenario reductions of 87 % of NO2, 36 % of PM10 and 50 % of PM2.5 are reached. Also, in terms of social costs a decrease of 47 % for the 2025 Scenario and 66 % for the 2030 Scenario in comparison to the base Scenario is arise.

Reported Lead Levels in Different Environmental Matrices in Colombia *

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Objective: The aim of this paper is to present a review of specific cases that reported lead concentrations in blood, objects, food, soil, bioindicators, air, and water in specific places in Colombia and evaluate the reported concentrations against target values. Materials and Methods: A systematic qualitative literature review of publications between 1995 and 2019 was done; using Boolean operators 1571 papers were identified, to which 3 inclusion and 4 exclusion criteria were applied. A total of 57 studies met the defined criteria. The reports in these studies were geo-localized and compared with acceptable values. Results and Discussion: Results suggest that lead is present in all environmental matrices, widely distributed in the Colombian territory, and that 72 % of the cases exceeded regulation limits. The percentage of noncompliance per environmental matrix was 89 % for blood samples, 71 % in food, 63 %, in soil, 89 % for bioindicators, 60 % for air, and 55 % for water. Conclusion: These results show that lead pollution is a large-scale problem in the country, more systematic studies are needed, and control measures, policy-making and regulatory updating should be pursued.

Urban cycling and air quality: Characterizing cyclist exposure to particulate-related pollution

Article

Mar 2021

Bogotá is a leading city with regard to urban cycling infrastructure in Latin America. This study evaluated cyclist exposure to particle-related air pollution on selected bicycle lanes in Bogotá. We provide new data on cyclist inhalation rates and the chemical composition of ambient particulate matter. We measured real-time concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC) on two different bicycles lanes. Cyclist exposure to PM2.5 and BC ranged between 10.5 and 36.0 μg/m3 and 4.5 and 7.9 μg/m3, respectively. The highest exposure was measured on bicycle lanes adjacent to roads with major vehicular traffic. We also measured PM2.5 concentrations by a gravimetric method using a fixed monitoring point located in one of the bicycle stretches. The chemical composition of PM2.5 showed high concentrations of Ca, Fe, Al, and Mg, with mean values ranging from 63 ng/m3 to 286 ng/m3. The detected trace elements were Cu, Zn, and Ba at concentrations exceeding 10 ng/m3. Our results highlight the influence of traffic emissions (direct emissions and PM resuspension) on cyclist exposure to hazardous air pollutants (such as PM2.5 and BC). Our findings emphasize the need to consider air quality in the urban planning and implementing of cycling infrastructure.

Local versus Regional Contributions to PM10 Levels in the Western Mediterranean

Article

Jan 2023

Regional and Urban Air Quality in the Americas

Chapter

Sep 2023

Source apportionment study on particulate air pollution in two high-altitude Bolivian cities: La Paz and El Alto

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023
ATMOS CHEM PHYS

La Paz and El Alto are two fast-growing, high-altitude Bolivian cities forming the second-largest metropolitan area in the country. Located between 3200 and 4050 m a.s.l. (above sea level), these cities are home to a burgeoning population of approximately 1.8 million residents. The air quality in this conurbation is heavily influenced by urbanization; however, there are no comprehensive studies evaluating the sources of air pollution and their health impacts. Despite their proximity, the substantial variation in altitude, topography, and socioeconomic activities between La Paz and El Alto result in distinct sources, dynamics, and transport of particulate matter (PM). In this investigation, PM10 samples were collected at two urban background stations located in La Paz and El Alto between April 2016 and June 2017. The samples were later analyzed for a wide range of chemical species including numerous source tracers (OC, EC, water-soluble ions, sugar anhydrides, sugar alcohols, trace metals, and molecular organic species). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF v.5.0) receptor model was employed for the source apportionment of PM10. This is one of the first source apportionment studies in South America that incorporates an extensive suite of organic markers, including levoglucosan, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), hopanes, and alkanes, alongside inorganic species. The multisite PMF resolved 11 main sources of PM. The largest annual contribution to PM10 came from the following two major sources: the ensemble of the four vehicular emissions sources (exhaust and non-exhaust), accountable for 35 % and 25 % of the measured PM in La Paz and El Alto, respectively; and dust, which contributed 20 % and 32 % to the total PM mass. Secondary aerosols accounted for 22 % (24 %) in La Paz (El Alto). Agricultural smoke resulting from biomass burning in the Bolivian lowlands and neighboring countries contributed to 9 % (8 %) of the total PM10 mass annually, increasing to 17 % (13 %) between August–October. Primary biogenic emissions were responsible for 13 % (7 %) of the measured PM10 mass. Additionally, a profile associated with open waste burning occurring from May to August was identified. Although this source contributed only to 2 % (5 %) of the total PM10 mass, it constitutes the second largest source of PAHs, which are compounds potentially hazardous to human health. Our analysis additionally resolved two different traffic-related factors, a lubricant source (not frequently identified), and a non-exhaust emissions source. Overall, this study demonstrates that PM10 concentrations in La Paz and El Alto region are predominantly influenced by a limited number of local sources. In conclusion, to improve air quality in both cities, efforts should primarily focus on addressing dust, traffic emissions, open waste burning, and biomass burning.

Intra-urban variability of long-term exposure to PM2.5 and NO2 in five cities in Colombia

Preprint

Full-text available

May 2023

Rapidly urbanizing cities in Latin America experience high levels of air pollution which are known risk factors for population health. However, the estimates of long-term exposure to air pollution are scarce in the region. We developed intraurban land use regression (LUR) models to map long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) in the five largest cities in Colombia. We conducted air pollution measurement campaigns using gravimetric PM 2.5 and passive NO 2 sensors for two weeks during both the dry and rainy seasons in 2021 in the cities of Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Bogotá, Cali, and Medellín, and combined these data with geospatial and meteorological variables. Annual models were developed using multivariable spatial regression models. The city annual PM 2.5 mean concentrations measured ranged between 12.32 𝛍g/m ³ and 15.99 𝛍g/m ³ while NO 2 concentrations ranged between 24.92 𝛍/m3) and 49.15 𝛍g/m ³ . The PM 2.5 annual models explained 82% of the variance (R ² ) in Medellín, 77% in Bucaramanga, 73% in Barranquilla, 70% in Cali, and 44% in Bogotá. The NO 2 models explained 65% of the variance in Bucaramanga, 57% in Medellín, 44% in Cali, 40% in Bogotá, and 30% in Barranquilla. Most of the predictor variables included in the models were a combination of specific land use characteristics and roadway variables. Cross-validation suggest that PM 2.5 outperformed NO 2 models. The developed models can be used as exposure estimate in epidemiological studies, as input in hybrid models to improve personal exposure assessment, and for policy evaluation.

Local versus regional contributions to PM10 levels in the western Mediterranean

Preprint

Full-text available

May 2023

In this study, PM 10 daily samples were collected every day during approximately one month in winter and one month in summer, 2019. Sampling was performed simultaneously at two different locations: an urban traffic site (∼ 80 m a.s.l.) and a regional background station (∼ 1500 m a.s.l.) in the Western Mediterranean. The objective of this work was to investigate PM 10 sources at both sites in order to determine regional and urban contributions to aerosol levels. Seven factors were obtained at both sites using Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF): Saharan dust , Aged sea salt , Ammonium sulfate , Nitrate , Road traffic , Local dust and Fresh sea salt . At the urban site, the contribution of vehicle related-sources ( Road traffic, Nitrate and Local dust ) was significantly higher in winter (∼80%) than in summer (∼60%).

A Review on the Characterization and Measurement of the Carbonaceous Fraction of Particulate Matter

Article

Full-text available

May 2023

The carbonaceous particles represent a significant fraction in the particulate matter (PM) and are considered an environmental hazard due to their effects on climate and health. The main goal in this research is to identify and analyze the scope that have been achieved so far on the characterization and measurement of the carbonaceous fraction present in PM, a great contribution to global pollution and thus to the deterioration of public health. The ProKnow-C methodology was used to build a bibliographic portfolio and perform a bibliometric and systemic analysis of the information found in the chosen databases. The contribution of these carbonaceous compounds to PM is very significant, reaching values up to 50%. The most used methods for the determination of organic and elemental carbon are thermo-optical reflectance and transmittance. Positive Factorization models are used worldwide to determine potential sources of particulate matter emissions. Even though various studies have been developed to understand these carbonaceous substances, there are several limitations in the measurements and limited knowledge on the subject. The positive outcomes and future possibilities were analyzed as well.

Systematic Search Using the Proknow-C Method for the Characterization of Atmospheric Particulate Matter Using the Materials Science Techniques XRD, FTIR, XRF, and Raman Spectroscopy

Article

Full-text available

May 2023

Particulate matter (PM), particle pollution that can travel long distances, is a big concern because it contains liquid droplets or microscopic solids resulting in significant health issues such as respirational and cancer problems. Therefore, the characterization of these particles is very significant as a hazard to public health. PM can be identified by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy (RS), both powerful and non-destructive technologies. RS, in particular, allows the identification of black carbon, considered one of the pollutants with the greatest influence on climate change. Another important technology for the evaluation of inorganic and organic functional groups present in PM compounds is the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). X-ray fluorescence (XRF) provides elemental analysis, revealing, in many cases, the original source of the sample. In order to understand the current state of the art, the Proknow-C method was applied to track the most recent information on PM characterization. Aspects such as sample collection, filter material, characterization parameters, PM components, and the advantages and limitations of each technique are discussed. PM minerals are found to be composed of silicates, oxides, sulfates, and carbonates. The elemental components of PM are classified into five categories: marine aerosol, mineral material, anthropogenic elements, organic carbon, and elemental carbon. The XRD technique is a powerful, fast, and non-destructive tool to identify various minerals present in PM. On the other hand, the XRF technique requires minimal sample treatment, but its sensitivity is limited for the determination of trace metals and some relevant environmental elements. FTIR spectroscopy is able to identify and quantify all organic functional groups present in atmospheric PM. Despite its advantages, a proper choice of calibration method is crucial to ensure its effectiveness. RS is fast and simple, although it only detects Raman-active functional groups. These are some of the advantages and limitations of these techniques addressed in the following review article.

Pollution with Heavy Metals and Metalloids and Ecological Status of Soils in Severobaikal’sk

Article

May 2022

Source apportionment study on particulate air pollution in two high- altitude Bolivian cities: La Paz and El Alto

Preprint

Full-text available

Nov 2022

La Paz and El Alto are two fast-growing high-altitude Bolivian cities forming the second largest metropolitan area in the country, located between 3200 and 4050 m a.s.l. Together they host a growing population of around 1.8 million people. The air quality in this conurbation is strongly influenced by urbanization. However, there are no comprehensive studies that have assessed the sources of air pollution and their impacts on health. Despite being neighboring cities, the drastic change in altitude and topography between La Paz and El Alto together with different socio-economic activities lead to different sources, dynamics and transport of particulate matter (PM). In this investigation, PM10 samples were collected at two urban background stations located in La Paz and El Alto between April 2016 and June 2017. The samples were later analyzed for a wide range of chemical species including numerous source tracers (OC, EC, water-soluble ions, sugar anhydrides, sugar alcohols, trace metals, and molecular organic species). The US-EPA Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF v.5.0) receptor model was then applied for source apportionment of PM10. This is the first source apportionment study in South America that incorporates a large set of organic markers (such as levoglucosan, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – PAH, hopanes and alkanes) together with inorganic species. The multisite PMF resolved 11 main sources of PM. The largest annual contribution to PM10 came from two major sources: the ensemble of the four vehicular emissions sources (exhaust and non-exhaust), together responsible for 35 % and 25 % of the measured PM in La Paz and El Alto, respectively, and dust contributing 20 % and 32 % to the total. Secondary aerosols contributed 22 % (24 %) in La Paz (El Alto). Agriculture-related smoke from biomass burning originated in the Bolivian lowlands and neighboring countries contributed to 8 % (7 %) of the total PM10 mass annually. This contribution increased to 17 % (13 %) between August–October. Primary biogenic emissions were responsible for 13 % (7 %) of the measured PM10 mass. Finally, it was possible to identify a profile related to open waste burning occurring between the months of May and August. Despite the fact that this source contributed only to 2 % (5 %) of the total PM10 mass, it constitutes the second largest source of PAHs, compounds potentially hazardous to health. Our analysis resulted in the identification of two specific traffic-related sources. In addition, we also identified a lubricant source (not frequently identified) and a non-exhaust emissions source. This study shows that PM10 concentrations in La Paz and El Alto region are mostly impacted by a limited number of local sources. In conclusion, dust, traffic emissions, open waste burning and biomass burning are the main sources to target in order to improve air quality in both cities.

Multitemporal Analysis of the Influence of PM10 on Human Mortality According to Urban Land Cover

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

High urbanization and a consequent change in land cover can lead to a deterioration in air quality and generate impacts on public health. The objective of this paper is to provide a multitemporal analysis of the influence of particulate matter ≤ 10 μm (PM10) on human mortality from the land cover variation in a Latin American megacity. Six monitoring stations (monitoring daily PM10 concentration, increases in daily mortality (IDM), and land cover) were established throughout the megacity. The results suggest that for every 10% increase in vegetation cover, the daily PM10 concentration and IDM decreases by 7.5 μg/m3 and 0.34%, respectively. Moreover, it is evident that the monitoring station with the lowest vegetation cover (8.96 times) shows an increase of 1.56 times and 4.8 times in the daily PM10 concentration and IDM, respectively, compared with the monitoring station with the highest vegetation cover (46.7%). It is also suggested that for each increase of 100 inhabitants/hectare in population density, the daily PM10 concentration and IDM increases by 9.99 µg/m3 and 0.45%, respectively. Finally, the population densification of the megacity possibly implies a loss of vegetation cover and contributes to the increase in PM10 and IDM.

THE AEROSOL URBAN POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS ON WEATHER, REGIONAL CLIMATE AND GEOCHEMICAL PROCESSES

Book

Oct 2020

The monograph is devoted to the study of atmospheric aerosol and its dynamics in the urban environment of Moscow megacity. Based on the AeroRadCity 2018-2019 complex experiment, composed of measurement campaign and numerical experiments using the COSMO-ART chemical transport model, a number of new results were obtained, which contributed to a deeper understanding of the gas-aerosol composition of the urban atmosphere, wet aerosol deposition with accounting of geochemical processes and aerosol radiative effects. Aerosol pollution in the Moscow region and its dynamics in the 21st century were estimated according to the aerosol retrievals using the MAIAC algorithm developed for the MODIS satellite instrument, and long-term AERONET measurements. The effects of aerosol on meteorological and radiative characteristics of the atmosphere were obtained from the numerical experiments with the COSMO model and long-term observations. The indirect aerosol effects on cloud characteristics and weather forecast were estimated.

PM10 Source Identification: A Case of a Coastal City in Colombia

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Understanding aerosol composition in a tropical inter-Andean valley impacted by agro-industrial and urban emissions

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022
ATMOS CHEM PHYS

Agro-industrial areas are frequently affected by various sources of atmospheric pollutants that have a negative impact on public health and ecosystems. However, air quality in these areas is infrequently monitored because of their smaller population compared to large cities, especially in developing countries. The Cauca River valley (CRV) is an agro-industrial region in southwestern Colombia, where a large fraction of the area is devoted to sugarcane and livestock production. The CRV is also affected by road traffic and industrial emissions. This study aims to elucidate the chemical composition of particulate matter fine mode (PM 2.5) and to identify the main pollutant sources before source attribution. A sampling campaign was carried out at a representative site in the CRV region, where daily averaged mass concentrations of PM 2.5 and the concentrations of water-soluble ions, trace metals, organic and elemental carbon, and various fractions of organic compounds (carbohydrates, n alkanes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons-PAHs) were measured. The mean PM 2.5 was 14.4 ± 4.4 µg m −3 , and the most abundant constituent was organic material (52.7 % ± 18.4 %), followed by sul-fate (12.7 % ± 2.8 %), and elemental carbon (7.1 % ± 2.5 %), which indicates the presence of secondary aerosol formation and incomplete combustion. Levoglucosan was present in all samples, with a mean concentration of (113.8 ± 147.2 ng m −3), revealing biomass burning as a persistent source. Mass closure using the elemental carbon (EC) tracer method explained 88.4 % on PM 2.5 , whereas the organic tracer method explained 70.9 % of PM 2.5. We attribute this difference to the lack of information of specific organic tracers for some sources, both primary and secondary. Organic material and inorganic ions were the dominant groups of species (79 % of PM 2.5). OM prim and OM sec contribute 24.2 % and 28.5 % to PM 2.5. Inorganic ions as sulfate, nitrate, and ammonia constitute 19.0 %, EC 7.1 %, dust 3.5%, particle-bounded water (PBW) 5.3 %, and trace element oxides (TEOs), 0.9 % of PM 2.5. The aerosol was acidic, with a pH of 2.5±0.4, mainly because of the abundance of organic and sulfur compounds. Diagnostic ratios and tracer concentrations indicate that most PM 2.5 was emitted locally and had contributions of both pyrogenic and petrogenic sources, that biomass burning was ubiquitous during the sampling period and was the main source of PAHs, and that the relatively low PM 2.5 concentrations and mutagenic potentials are consistent with low-intensity, year-long biomass burning (BB) and sugarcane pre-harvest burning in the CRV.

Source Apportionment of Atmospheric PM10 in Makkah Saudi Arabia by Modelling Its Ion and Trace Element Contents with Positive Matrix Factorization and Generalised Additive Model Enhanced Reader

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

In this paper, the emission sources of PM10 are characterised by analysing its trace elements (TE) and ions contents. PM10 samples were collected for a year (2019-2020) at five sites and analysed. PM10 speciated data were analysed using graphical visualization, correlation analysis, generalised additive model (GAM), and positive matrix factorization (PMF). Annual average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) were 304.68 ± 155.56 at Aziziyah, 219.59 ± 87.29 at Misfalah, 173.90 ± 103.08 at Abdeyah, 168.81 ± 82.50 at Askan, and 157.60 ± 80.10 at Sanaiyah in Makkah, which exceeded WHO (15 µg/m3), USEPA (50 µg/m3), and the Saudi Arabia national (80 µg/m3) annual air quality standards. A GAM model was developed using PM10 as a response and ions and TEs as predictors. Among the predictors Mg, Ca, Cr, Al, and Pb were highly significant (p < 0.01), Se, Cl, and NO2 were significant (p < 0.05), and PO4 and SO4 were significant (p < 0.1). The model showed R-squared (adj) 0.85 and deviance explained 88.1%. PMF identified four main emission sources of PM10 in Makkah: (1) Road traffic emissions (explained 51% variance); (2) Industrial emissions and mineral dust (explained 27.5% variance); (3) Restaurant and dwelling emissions (explained 13.6% variance); and (4) Fossil fuel combustion (explained 7.9% variance).

Understanding aerosol composition in an inter-Andean valley impacted by sugarcane intensive agriculture and urban emissions

Preprint

Full-text available

Aug 2021

Agro-industrial areas are frequently affected by various sources of atmospheric pollutants that negatively impact public health and ecosystems. However, air quality in these areas is infrequently monitored because of their lower population density compared to large cities, especially in developing countries. The Cauca River Valley (CRV) is an agro-industrial region in Southwest Colombia, where a large fraction of the area is devoted to sugarcane and derivatives production. CRV is also affected by road traffic and industrial emissions. This study aims to elucidate the chemical composition of particulate matter fine mode (PM2.5) and to identify the main pollutant sources before source attribution. For this, a sampling campaign was carried out at a representative site of the CRV region, where daily-averaged mass concentrations of PM2.5 and the concentrations of water-soluble ions, trace metals, organic and elemental carbon, and various fractions of organic compounds (carbohydrates, n-alkanes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – PAHs) were measured. Mean PM2.5 was 14.38 ± 4.35 ug m−3, and the most abundant constituent was organic material (52.99 % ± 17.79 %), followed by ammonium sulfate (16.12 % ± 3.98 %), and elemental carbon (6.95 % ± 2.52 %), which indicates secondary aerosol formation and incomplete combustion. Levoglucosan was present in all samples with a mean concentration of (113.8 ± 147.2 ng m−3) revealing biomass burning as a persistent source. The diagnostic ratios applied to organic compounds revealed the influence of petrogenic and pyrogenic sources. Principal component analysis identified the influence of traffic-generated road dust, secondary aerosol formation, gasoline and diesel combustion vehicle exhaust, vegetative detritus, and resuspended agriculture soil. However, no single component was dominant nor explained the CRV PM2.5 chemical species variance. Many components had equally important roles instead. Likewise, sugarcane pre-harvest burning, a frequent activity in CRV, was not identified as an independent component. This aerosol and trace gas source contributed to various components and was correlated to the formation of secondary aerosols.

Estimation of industrial emissions in a Latin AMERICAN MEGACITY under power matrix scenarios projected to the year 2050 implementing the LEAP model

Article

Apr 2021
J CLEAN PROD

The current global economic model of industrialization has historically searched for indefinite growth without considering environmental impacts. Dependence on fossil fuels has caused degradation of the global air quality and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions increase. Colombia and specifically Bogotá is no exception to this problem, which is causing increasing concern about the negative impacts on its inhabitants. Due to the limitation of investigations contemplating the concentrations of pollutants produced by industries in the city, this study was developed in order to estimate the emissions of air pollutants from fixed sources in Bogotá D.C., projected to the year 2050 using the LEAP software. Under three scenarios, we estimated the variation of emissions for different assumptions of industrial energy matrixes, giving proposals for emissions reduction in the city. The results of the study show that for a Business As Usual (BAU) scenario, the emissions of PM10, NOx, SO2, CO2, CO and VOC’s in 2050 would increase by 31.39%, 2.50%, 21.42%, 26.22%, 35.04% and 41.84% compared to 2014 in the different industrial sectors analysed. On the other hand, the scenarios proposed for the reduction of emissions have a different behavior. In the Carbon Reduction (RC) scenario, PM10 and SO2 emissions in 2050 would decrease by 23.10% and 27.89% respectively, although CO2, NOx, CO and VOC’s would increase by 38.39%, 1.55%, 14.94% and 41.73%. Finally, the Mitigation scenario (MIT) showed a reduction in emissions of PM10, NOx, SO2, CO2, CO and VOC’s by 62.83%, 59.46%, 79.20%, 49.15%, 47.94% and 45.96% during the studied period. Additionally, an economic analysis was included for the proposed scenarios to be implemented. This study allows to conclude that the industries of Bogotá should begin to consider an increase in the fraction of electric energy in their productive activities to reduce emissions. This would stand as long as the power providers have implemented renewable technologies in their generation processes.

Determination of the level of risk of breathable particulate material in bike users: challenge of sustainable mobility by bicycle in Bogotá

Chapter

Full-text available

Mar 2021

Arsenic and SO2 hotspot in South-Eastern Europe: An overview of the air quality after the implementation of the flash smelting technology for copper production

Article

Feb 2021
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

This extensive study considered the air pollution data after the flash smelting technology for copper production had become fully operational. The assessment of the air quality after the implementation was significantly important, since the modernisation was necessary for reducing the environmental contamination in one of the most polluted regions in South-Eastern Europe. The concentrations of SO2, PM10 and toxic elements (As, Pb, Cd, Ni) in PM10 samples were monitored at different sites, with respect to the copper smelter, in the period 2016–2019. The air quality evaluation was performed concerning the corresponding limit and target values defined by the Serbian and European legislation, as well as the World Health Organization Air Quality Guidelines (WHO AQG). The measured SO2 concentrations indicated frequent exceedances of the defined daily and annual limit values, at both national and European level. Although exceedances were not as pronounced as in the period before the implementation of the new technology, the episodes of extreme air pollution with SO2 persisted on the daily basis. The maximum daily SO2 concentration of 2125 μg m⁻³ was more than 100 times higher compared to the WHO AQG, but lower compared to the period before the implementation of the flash smelting technology. The air quality considering PM10 and especially As levels in PM10 samples was notably poorer after the modernisation. The annual target value for As, defined by the European and Serbian Regulation, was exceeded at all the measuring sites, with maximum exceedance of more than 90 times at the suburban site during 2019. The frequent exceedances of the corresponding annual limit and target values were also denoted for Pb and Cd in PM10 samples. The analysed data emphasised that the Bor area could still be characterised as an environmental hotspot in Serbia and beyond.

Air quality modeling to inform pollution mitigation strategies in a Latin American megacity

Article

Feb 2021
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

Poor air quality disproportionally impacts cities in low- and middle-income countries. In Bogotá, Colombia, a metropolitan area with over 10 million inhabitants, fine particulate matter (PM2.5) levels regularly exceed air quality guidelines, leading to detrimental effects on health. Although there is public interest to improve the city’s air quality, the main sources of PM2.5 pollution have not been clearly identified and the use of modeling for policy development in Bogotá has been limited. Here, we apply a modeling framework based on the Community Multiscale Air Quality Modeling System (CMAQ) to conduct seasonal simulations of air pollution in Bogotá and reveal the emissions sectors with the largest contributions to PM2.5. Based on these results, we project and compare the air quality benefits of potential pollution mitigation strategies focused on these sources. The analysis finds that resuspended dust from unpaved roads is the largest local source of PM2.5 and can contribute over 30% of seasonally-averaged concentration across the city. Vehicles, industrial activity, and unpaved road dust combined are responsible for over 60% of PM2.5 pollution in Bogotá. A scenario analysis shows that paving roads can lead to PM2.5 decreases of nearly 10 μg/m³ by 2030 in some areas of the city, but air quality will deteriorate significantly over others in the absence of additional emissions control measures. Mitigation strategies designed to target the sectors with the largest contributions to PM2.5, including road cleaning systems, controls for industrial point sources, cleaner transportation fuels, and updated vehicle fleets, can largely avert projected increases in concentrations, although the impacts of different approaches vary throughout the city. This study is the first to use a comprehensive model to determine sector contributions to air pollution and inform potential emissions control policies in Bogotá, demonstrating an approach to guide pollution management in developing cities facing comparable challenges.

Incremental excess of PM components and sources between two neighbouring sites of Bogotá, Colombia

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2020

Air pollution in towns adjacent to and downwind of large cities can be similar or even higher than in the city itself. In the case of towns constituting the greater Bogotá area, with more than half a million inhabitants and strong industrial activity, little is known about the factors that affect their poor air quality. This work investigated the incremental excess of the composition and source contribution to PM2.5 in two sites near Bogotá (Soacha: 4°35'4.59" N, 74°13'11.62" W; and Mosquera: 4°42'9.75" N, 74°13'54.94" W), using the Chemical Mass Balance receptor model with organic molecular markers, and back trajectory analysis. Simultaneous sample collection was carried out for two-months. Organic matter was the major component of the PM2.5 mass (66 ± 14% and 61 ± 12%), while secondary inorganic ions (sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium) constituted 13 ± 8 % and 10 ± 2 %. The main anthropogenic sources contributing to PM2.5 at Soacha were wood combustion (23%), diesel vehicles (19%), and coal combustion at small facilities (11%). At Mosquera, they were gasoline vehicles (26%), diesel vehicles (19%), and coal combustion at small inefficient facilities (15%). The contribution of regional Secondary Organic Aerosol to PM2.5 was significant (19% and 15%), arriving mostly from the Orinoco basin but higher with air masses arriving from the Amazon rainforest. The regional contribution to secondary inorganic aerosols was higher with winds from the Magdalena Valley. The methods presented in this manuscript will be useful in other megacities and large cities to better manage impacts of local and regional air pollution sources.

Characterization and source identification of VOC species in Bogotá, Colombia

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2015

In this article, volatile organic compounds (VOC) were characterized in ambient air at three different monitoring sites within the urban perimeter of Bogotá, Colombia. On-line VOC measurements were conducted using a Synstech Spectras portable gas chromatograph with a temporal resolution of 30 min. Average VOC concentrations were higher at two of the sampling sites, which are characterized by intensive industrial and commercial activities, and high vehicular activity. Analyses of the diurnal behavior of total VOC showed that concentrations tend to be higher in the morning (at around 8:00 LT) and during the evening (around 22:00 LT). Such trends suggest the influence of road traffic activity in the surroundings of the measuring sites on VOC levels. According to our results, alkanes are the most abundant hydrocarbons in the ambient air in Bogotá (about 80% of the total VOC), while alkenes represent only 15% of the total VOC. We computed the ozone formation potential (OFP) using the maximum incremental reactivity (MIR) concept and evaluated the role of each VOC in the O3 formation. These results show that ethene, propene, n-butane, i-pentane and isoprene are the species with the highest OFP (noting that high concentrations are not necessarily linked with elevated O3 production). Finally, we used principal components analysis to identify the sources of different VOC. Our results showed that most of the compounds included in this study are emitted by road traffic. The receptor modeling also shows that the top-five compounds in terms of O3 production come mainly from the exhaust of gasoline vehicles.

Source apportionment of fine and coarse particles at a roadside and urban background site in London during the 2012 summer ClearfLo campaign

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2016

London, like many major cities, has a noted air pollution problem, and a better understanding of the sources of airborne particles in the different size fractions will facilitate the implementation and effectiveness of control strategies to reduce air pollution. Thus, the trace elemental composition of the fine and coarse fraction were analysed at hourly time resolution at urban background (North Kensington, NK) and roadside (Marylebone Road, MR) sites within central London. Unlike previous work, the current study focuses on measurements during the summer providing a snapshot of contributing sources, utilising the high time resolution to improve source identification. Roadside enrichment was observed for a large number of elements associated with traffic emissions (Al, S, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Rb and Zr), while those elements that are typically from more regional sources (e.g. Na, Cl, S and K) were not found to have an appreciable increment. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) was applied for the source apportionment of the particle mass at both sites with similar sources being identified, including sea salt, airborne soil, traffic emissions, secondary inorganic aerosols and a Zn-Pb source. In the fine fraction, traffic emissions was the largest contributing source at MR (31.9%), whereas it was incorporated within an "urban background" source at NK, which had contributions from wood smoke, vehicle emissions and secondary particles. Regional sources were the major contributors to the coarse fraction at both sites. Secondary inorganic aerosols (which contained influences from shipping emissions and coal combustion) source factors accounted for around 33% of the PM10 at NK and were found to have the highest contributions from regional sources, including from the European mainland. Exhaust and non-exhaust sources both contribute appreciably to PM10 levels at the MR site, highlighting the continuing importance of vehicle-related air pollutants at roadside.

Toward a standardised thermal-optical protocol for measuring atmospheric organic and elemental carbon: The EUSAAR protocol

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2010

Thermal-optical analysis is a conventional method for determining the carbonaceous aerosol fraction and for classifying it into organic carbon, OC, and elemental carbon, EC. Unfortunately, the different thermal evolution protocols in use can result in a wide elemental carbon-to-total carbon variation by up to a factor of five. In Europe, there is currently no standard procedure for determining the carbonaceous aerosol fraction which implies that data from different laboratories at various sites are of unknown accuracy and cannot be considered comparable. In the framework of the EU-project EUSAAR (European Supersites for Atmospheric Aerosol Research), a comprehensive study has been carried out to identify the causes of differences in the EC measured using different thermal evolution protocols; thereby the major positive and negative biases affecting thermal-optical analysis have been isolated and minimised to define an optimised protocol suitable for European aerosols. Our approach to improve the accuracy of the discrimination between OC and EC was essentially based on four goals. Firstly, charring corrections rely on faulty assumptions – e.g. pyrolytic carbon is considered to evolve completely before native EC throughout the analysis –, thus we have reduced pyrolysis to a minimum by favoring volatilisation of OC. Secondly, we have minimised the potential negative bias in EC determination due to early evolution of light absorbing carbon species at higher temperatures in the He-mode, including both native EC and combinations of native EC and pyrolytic carbon potentially with different specific attenuation cross section values. Thirdly, we have minimised the potential positive bias in EC determination resulting from the incomplete evolution of OC during the He-mode which then evolves during the He/O2-mode, potentially after the split point. Finally, we have minimised the uncertainty due to the position of the OC/EC split point on the FID response profile by introducing multiple desorption steps in the He/O2-mode. Based on different types of carbonaceous PM encountered across Europe, we have defined an optimised thermal evolution protocol, the EUSAAR_2 protocol, as follows: step 1 in He, 200 °C for 120 s; step 2 in He 300 °C for 150 s; step 3 in He 450 °C for 180 s; step 4 in He 650 °C for 180 s. For steps 1–4 in He/O2, the conditions are 500 °C for 120 s, 550 °C for 120 s, 700 ° C for 70 s, and 850 °C for 80 s, respectively.

Air particulate matter and cardiovascular disease: The epidemiological, biomedical and clinical evidence

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2016

Air pollution is now becoming an independent risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Numerous epidemiological, biomedical and clinical studies indicate that ambient particulate matter (PM) in air pollution is strongly associated with increased cardiovascular disease such as myocardial infarction (MI), cardiac arrhythmias, ischemic stroke, vascular dysfunction, hypertension and atherosclerosis. The molecular mechanisms for PM-caused cardiovascular disease include directly toxicity to cardiovascular system or indirectly injury by inducing systemic inflammation and oxidative stress in peripheral circulation. Here, we review the linking between PM exposure and the occurrence of cardiovascular disease and discussed the possible underlying mechanisms for the observed PM induced increases in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Concentration Changes Of PM10 Under Liquid Precipitation Conditions

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2015
ECOL CHEM ENG S

Tomasz Olszowski

This study reports the results of field research into variability of the scavenging coefficient (Λ) of suspended dust comprising particles with aerodynamic diameters less than 10 mm. Registration of PM10 over 7 years in conditions of the occurrence of rainfall (convective light showers, large-scale precipitation and storms) was undertaken in an undeveloped rural area. The analysis involved 806 observations taken at constant time intervals of 0.5 hour. The measurements of the concentration of PM10 were performed by means of a reference method accompanied by concurrent registration of basic meteorological parameters. It was found that, for PM10, the scavenging efficiency is considerably influenced by rainfall intensity R and the type of precipitation. In the case of convective precipitation, data on Λ are only partially related to "classical approach" of rain scavenging. Within the range of comparable values of rainfall intensity, the type of wet deposition (except for storms) does not influence the effectiveness of scavenging PM10 from the ground-level zone. The large number of observations conducted in real-time conditions yielded a proposal of simple regression model, which can be deemed suitable for the description of variability Λ (DPM10), but only to a limited extent for large-scale precipitation. The collected results can be applied in air pollution dispersion models and deposition and were found to be generally representative for areas with similar climatic characteristics.

Mass reconstruction methods for PM2.5: A review

Article

Full-text available

May 2015

Major components of suspended particulate matter (PM) are inorganic ions, organic matter (OM), elemental carbon (EC), geological minerals, salt, non-mineral elements, and water. Since oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) are not directly measured in chemical speciation networks, more than ten weighting equations have been applied to account for their presence, thereby approximating gravimetric mass. Assumptions for these weights are not the same under all circumstances. OM is estimated from an organic carbon (OC) multiplier (f) that ranges from 1.4 to 1.8 in most studies, but f can be larger for highly polar compounds from biomass burning and secondary organic aerosols. The mineral content of fugitive dust is estimated from elemental markers, while the water-soluble content is accounted for as inorganic ions or salt. Part of the discrepancy between measured and reconstructed PM mass is due to the measurement process, including: (1) organic vapors adsorbed on quartz-fiber filters; (2) evaporation of volatile ammonium nitrate and OM between the weighed Teflon-membrane filter and the nylon-membrane and/or quartz-fiber filters on which ions and carbon are measured; and (3) liquid water retained on soluble constituents during filter weighing. The widely used IMPROVE equations were developed to characterize particle light extinction in U.S. national parks, and variants of this approach have been tested in a large variety of environments. Important factors for improving agreement between measured and reconstructed PM mass are the f multiplier for converting OC to OM and accounting for OC sampling artifacts. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11869-015-0338-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effect of particulate matter less than 10μm (PM10) on mortality in Bogota, Colombia: A time-series analysis, 1998-2006

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2014

Objective: To analyze the association between daily mortality from different causes and acute exposure to particulate matter less than 10 microns in aerodynamic diameter (PM10), in Bogota, Colombia. Materials and methods: A time-series ecological study was conducted from 1998 to 2006. The association between mortality (due to different causes) and exposure was analyzed using single and distributed lag models and adjusting for potential confounders. Results: For all ages, the cumulative effect of acute mortality from all causes and respiratory causes increased 0.71% (95%CI 0.46-0.96) and 1.43% (95%CI 0.85-2.00), respectively, per 10µg/m³ increment in daily average PM10 with a lag of three days before death. Cumulative effect of mortality from cardiovascular causes was -0.03% (95%CI -0.49-0.44%) with the same lag. Conclusions: The results suggest an association between an increase in PM10 concentrations and acute mortality from all causes and respiratory causes.

Urban air quality management–A review

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2015
APR

Urban air quality management plan (UAQMP) is an effective and efficient tool employed in managing acceptable urban air quality. However, the UAQM practices are specific to a country’s needs and requirements. Majority of the developed countries have full–fledged UAQMP with a regulatory management framework. However, developing countries are still working in formulating the effective and efficient UAQMPs to manage their deteriorating urban air environment. The first step in the process of formulation of UAQMP is to identify the air quality control regions based on ambient air quality status and second, initiate a time bound program involving all stakeholders to develop UAQMPs. The successful implementation of UAQMPs depends on the strength of its key components, e.g. goal/objective, monitoring network, emission inventory, air quality modeling, control strategies and public participation. This paper presents a comprehensive review on UAQMPs, being implemented worldwide at different scales e.g., national (macro), city (medium), and local (micro).

The Global Contribution of Outdoor Air Pollution to the Incidence, Prevalence, Mortality and Hospital Admission for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2014

This study aimed to investigate the quantitative effects of outdoor air pollution, represented by 10 µg/m3 increment of PM10, on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in China, United States and European Union through systematic review and meta-analysis. Publications in English and Chinese from PubMed and EMBASE were selected. The Cochrane Review Handbook of Generic Inverse Variance was used to synthesize the pooled effects on incidence, prevalence, mortality and hospital admission. Outdoor air pollution contributed to higher incidence and prevalence of COPD. Short-term exposure was associated with COPD mortality increased by 6%, 1% and 1% in the European Union, the United States and China, respectively (p < 0.05). Chronic PM exposure produced a 10% increase in mortality. In a short-term exposure to 10 µg/m3 PM10 increment COPD mortality was elevated by 1% in China (p < 0.05) and hospital admission enrollment was increased by 1% in China, 2% in United States and 1% in European Union (p < 0.05). Outdoor air pollution contributes to the increasing burdens of COPD.10 µg/m3 increase of PM10 produced significant condition of COPD death and exacerbation in China, United States and European Union. Controlling air pollution will have substantial benefit to COPD morbidity and mortality.

Particulate matter concentrations at public schools located near major urban roads in Bogota, Colombia: A pilot study

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2009

A pilot study, in which we conducted inhalable particulate matter (PM10) measurements in four public elementary schools in Bogotá, is presented. Three of these schools are located alongside major urban roads with different types of public transportation. The remainder school is located alongside a rural road. PM10 measurements were carried out using both gravimetric and real time techniques. Average PM10 concentrations found in the schools ranged from 55 ug m-3 to 91 ug m-3. These pollutant concentrations are above the World Health Organization reference values. Significant differences in PM10 concentrations were observed between the schools located in urban roads and the school located in the semi-rural area. The present work corresponds to the base line results of a longitudinal study that is still being conducted. These results demonstrate the importance of continuing developing research aimed at characterizing the range of atmospheric pollutants at major city roads environs in Bogota.

Relationship between PM2.5 and PM10 in Bogotá

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2005

Simultaneous monitoring of PM2.5 and PM10 was carried out during two-month periods at three air-quality monitoring stations in Bogotá. The data gathered were statistically analyzed looking for evidence of correlations between PM2.5 and PM10. Results show a positive linear correlation between the two parameters.

Heavy metal determination and source emission identification in an industrial location of Bogotá-Colombia

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2008

En el presente estudio se llevó a cabo la caracterización química del material particulado menor a 10 micrómetros (PM 10) recolectado en la Localidad de Puente Aranda de Bogotá. Durante el período de estudio (junio de 2005 a junio de 2006) se recolectaron 75 muestras de PM 10 en diferentes condiciones climáticas en tres puntos de monitoreo, dos en la zona industrial y el tercero en una zona remota. Se incluyen en el estudio los días del paro de transportes que tuvo lugar en la ciudad en el 2006. Se determinó la presencia de cadmio, cobre, cromo, plata, hierro, plomo, manganeso, cinc y níquel. Las concentraciones promedio diarias de PM 10 en Puente Aranda se encontraron entre 65 y 100 µg/m3, mientras que para el norte de la ciudad variaban entre 20 y 30 µg/m3. Los principales metales encontrados en la zona industrial fueron Fe y Pb, con concentraciones hasta de 4.000 ng/m3. El grupo de metales Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Mn presentaron un rango medio de concentración (50 a 700 ng/m3 en Puente Aranda, <100 ng/m3 en el norte de la ciudad). Los metales con las menores concentraciones en la atmósfera fueron Cd y Ag. A partir del analisis de material particulado y metales pesados se realizó una aproximación al aporte de las fuentes de emisión.

Trends of road dust emissions contributions on ambient PM levels at rural, urban and industrial sites in Southern Spain

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2014

The impact of road dust emissions on PM10 and PM2.5 (atmospheric particulate matter with diameteer <10 μm and 2.5 μm mass concentrations recorded from 2003 to 2010 at 11 locations (rural, urban and industrial) in southern Spain was estimated based on the chemical characterization of PM and the use of a constrained Positive Matrix Factorization, where the chemical profile of local road dust samples is used as a priori knowledge. Results indicate that road dust increased PM10 levels on average by 21–35% at traffic sites, 29–34% at urban background sites heavily affected by road traffic emissions, 17–22% at urban-industrial sites and 9–22%at rural sites. Road dust contributions to ambient PM levels show a marked seasonality with maxima in summer and minima in winter, likely due to the rainfall frequency. Decreasing concentration trends over the sampling years were found at some traffic and urban sites but in most cases the decreases were less significant than for vehicle exhaust emissions, while concentrations increased at industrial sites, probably due to local peculiarities. Concerning PM2.5, road dust contributions were lower than in PM10, as expected but still important (21–31 %, 11–31 %, 6–16% and 7% for traffic, urban background, urban-industrial and rural sites, respectively). In addition the three main sources of road dust (carbonaceous particles, brake wear and road wear/mineral) were identified and their contributions to road dust mass loadings estimated, supporting the idea that air quality managers should drive measures aimed at preventing the build-up of road dust particles on roads.

Chemical composition and mass closure for airborne particulate matter in Bogotá

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2010

Particulate matter, measured as PM10, is the most concerning airborne pollutant in Bogotá. Determining its chemical composition is important for understanding its potential effects and to estimate various sources' contribution to such pollution. This paper gives the results of characterising the ionic species, carbonaceous material, metals and crustal elements present in airborne PM10 in Bogotá. An ion charge balance and mass reconstruction were done for determining consistency between chemical characterisation and gravimetric PM10. The composition was different in each area; however, the fractions contributing most to PM10 were crustal, 37% to 42% was related to fugitive and suspended dust, 12% to 11% was related to carbonaceus fractions, 43% to elemental carbon, 34% for organic matter and 5% to 8% for ionic fractions.

Source Apportionment of PM10 in a North-Western Europe Regional Urban Background Site (Lens, France) Using Positive Matrix Factorization and Including Primary Biogenic Emissions

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2014

In this work, the source of ambient particulate matter (PM10) collected over a one year period at an urban background site in Lens (France) were determined and investigated using a~Positive Matrix Factorization receptor model (US EPA PMF v3.0). In addition, a Potential Source Contribution Function (PSCF) was performed by means of the Hysplit v4.9 model to assess prevailing geographical origins of the identified sources. A selective iteration process was followed for the qualification of the more robust and meaningful PMF solution. Components measured and used in the PMF include inorganic and organic species: soluble ionic species, trace elements, elemental carbon (EC), sugars alcohols, sugar anhydride, and organic carbon (OC). The mean PM10 concentration measured from March 2011 to March 2012 was about 21 μg m-3 with typically OM, nitrate and sulfate contributing to most of the mass and accounting respectively for 5.8, 4.5 and 2.3 μg m-3 on a yearly basis. Accordingly, PMF outputs showed that the main emission sources were (in a decreasing order of contribution): secondary inorganic aerosols (28% of the total PM10 mass), aged marine emissions (19%), with probably predominant contribution of shipping activities, biomass burning (13%), mineral dust (13%), primary biogenic emissions (9%), fresh sea salts (8%), primary traffic emissions (6%) and heavy oil combustion (4%). Significant temporal variations were observed for most of the identified sources. In particular, biomass burning emissions were negligible in summer but responsible for about 25% of total PM10 and 50% of total OC at wintertime. Conversely, primary biogenic emissions were found to be negligible in winter but to represent about 20% of total PM10 and 40% of total OC in summer. The latter result calls for more investigations of primary biogenic aerosols using source apportionment studies, which quite usually disregards this type of sources. This study furthermore underlines the major influence of secondary processes during daily threshold exceedances. Finally, apparent discrepancies that could be generally observed between filter-based studies (such as the present one) and Aerosol Mass Spectrometer-based PMF analyses (organic fractions) are also discussed here.

An Integrated Risk Function for Estimating the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter Exposure

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2014
ENVIRON HEALTH PERSP

Estimating the burden of disease attributable to long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in ambient air requires knowledge of both the shape and magnitude of the relative risk function (RR). However, there is inadequate direct evidence to identify the shape of the mortality RR functions at high ambient concentrations observed in many places in the world. Develop relative risk (RR) functions over entire global exposure range for causes of mortality in adults: ischemic heart disease (IHD), cerebrovascular disease (stroke), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer (LC). In addition, develop RR functions for the incidence of acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) that can be used to estimate mortality and lost-years of healthy life in children less than 5 years old. An Integrated Exposure-Response (IER) model was fit by integrating available RR information from studies of ambient air pollution (AAP), second hand tobacco smoke (SHS), household solid cooking fuel (HAP), and active smoking (AS). AS exposures were converted to estimated annual PM2.5 exposure equivalents using inhaled doses of particle mass. Population attributable fractions (PAF) were derived for every country based on estimated world-wide ambient PM2.5 concentrations. The IER model was a superior predictor of RR compared to seven other forms previously used in burden assessments. The PAF (%) attributable to AAP exposure varied among countries from: 2-41 for IHD, 1-43 for stroke, < 1-21 for COPD, < 1-25 for LC, and < 1-38 for ALRI. We developed a fine particulate mass-based RR model that covered the global range of exposure by integrating RR information from different combustion types that generate emissions of particulate matter. The model can be updated as new RR information becomes available.

Geochemical features of aerosols in Santiago de Chile from time series analysis

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2013

Santiago, the capital of Chile, suffers from high air pollution levels, especially during winter. An extensive particulate matter (PM) monitoring and analysis program was conducted to quantify elemental concentrations of PM. Size-resolved PM samples (PM2.5 and PM10–2.5) from the La Paz and Las Condes stations in Santiago (2004–2005) were analyzed using ICP-MS. Most trace element concentrations (Cu, Pb, Zn, Mn, V, Sb, Pb and As) were higher during winter than during summer and were also higher at the La Paz station than at the Las Condes station. During the highest pollution events, As concentrations in PM2.5 (16 ng m−3) exceeded the annual average standard value (6 ng m−3). A 10-year time series showed decreasing Pb and As concentrations and slightly increasing Zn, Cu and Mn concentrations. Concentrations of Cr and Ni remained relatively constant. The implementation of new public policies in 1998 may explain the decreasing concentrations of Pb and As. Enrichment factor (EF) calculations identified two principal groups: elements with EF < 10 (Mg, Y, Zr, U Sr, Ca, Ti, and V) and EF > 10 (Rb, K, Cs, Fe, P, Ba, Mn, Ni, Cr, Co, Zn, Sn, Pb, Cu, Mo, Cd, As, Ag, and Sb), which were related to natural and anthropogenic PM sources, respectively. Three main PM sources were identified using factor analysis: a natural source (crustal matter and marine aerosol), combustion and copper smelting. Three other sources were identified using rare earth elements: fluid catalytic crackers, oil-fired power production and catalytic converters.

Urban air pollution in school-related microenvironments in Bogota, Colombia

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2013

Particle-related pollution (PM10, PM2.5 and soot) was measured in both indoor and outdoor microenvironments at four public elementary schools in Bogota, Colombia. Three of these schools were located alongside major urban roads in w hich different types of public transit systems are used (bus rapid transit system and conventional transit buses). The fourth school was located on a non-congested road (background school). Pollutant levels at schools situated on major-roads were higher than those found at the low -congestionroad school. Outdoor black carbon daily mean concentrations at the schools located near major roads were up to six times higher than those recorded at the background school. Mean particulate matter concentrations at schools near major roads were above international standards, suggesting that school-age children in Bogota are exposed to pollution levels that are considered to be harmful by environmental and public health authorities. Elevated indoor and outdoor pollutant concentrations documented in this study suggested that traffic has a direct impact on air quality regarding the schools’ characterised microenvironments.

Prediction of PM10 concentrations at urban traffic intersections using semi-empirical box modelling with instantaneous velocity and acceleration

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2010
ATMOS ENVIRON

At urban traffic intersections, vehicles frequently stop with idling engines during the red-light period and speed up rapidly during the green-light period. The changes of driving patterns (i.e., idle, acceleration, deceleration and cruising patterns) generally produce uncertain emission. Additionally, the movement of pedestrians and the influence of wind further result in the random dispersion of pollutants. It is, therefore, too complex to simulate the effects of such dynamics on the resulting emission using conventional deterministic causal models.

Relationships among aerosol constitutes from Asia and the North Pacific during PEM-West A

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1996

Aerosol particle samples collected from Asia and the North Pacific were analyzed to investigate the relationships among atmospheric sea salt, mineral aerosol, biogenic emissions (methanesulfonate (MSA)), and several anthropogenic substances (sulfate, nitrate, and various trace elements). These studies specifically focused on the sources for aerosol SO=4 and on the long-range transport of continental materials to the North Pacific. Ground-based aerosol sampling was conducted at four coastal-continental sites: Hong Kong, Taiwan, Okinawa, and Cheju; and at three remote Pacific islands, Shemya, Midway, and Oahu. Non-sea-salt (nss) SO=4 and MSA were uncorrelated at the East Asian sites presumably because pollution sources overwhelm the biogenic emissions of nss SO=4. At the coastal-continental sites, marine biogenic emissions accounted for only 10 to

Characterization and source apportionment of PM2.5 based on error estimation from EPA PMF 5.0 model at a medium city in China

Article

Mar 2017

Heze city, a medium-size city in Shandong province, Eastern China. Ambient PM2.5 samples were collected in urban area of Heze from August 2015 to April 2016, and chemical species and sources of PM2.5 were investigated in this paper. The results indicated that the average concentration of PM2.5 was 100.9 μg/m³ during the sampling period, and the water-soluble ions, carbonaceous species included elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC), as well as elements contributed 32.7–51.7%, 16.3% and 12.5%, respectively, to PM2.5. Pearson's correlation analysis showed that the existing form of NH4⁺ was more complex and diverse in spring/summer, and ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate and ammonium hydrogen sulfate might be major form of NH4⁺ in autumn/winter. Correlation analysis between PM2.5 and SO4²⁻/NO3⁻, PM2.5 and OC/EC during different seasons suggested that mobile sources might make an important impact on the increase of PM2.5 concentrations in spring/summer, and stationary sources might play a critical role on the increase of PM2.5 concentrations in autumn/winter. Seven factors were selected in Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) models analysis based on the Error Estimation (EE) diagnostics during different seasons. Secondary source had the highest contribution to PM2.5 in Heze for the whole year, and followed by coal combustion, vehicle exhaust, soil dust, construction dust, biomass burning and metal manufacturing, and their annual contributions to PM2.5 were 26.5%, 17.2%, 16.5%, 11.5%, 7.7%, 7.0% and 3.8%, respectively. The air masses that were originated from Mongolia reflected the features of large-scale and long-distance air transport; while the air masses that began in Jiangsu, Shandong and Henan showed the features of small-scale and short-distance. Shandong, Henan and Jiangsu were identified as the major potential sources-areas of PM2.5 by using potential source contribution function (PSCF) and concentration-weighted trajectory (CWT) models.

Characteristics and environmental significance of rare earth elements in PM2.5 of Nanchang, China

Article

Jan 2017
J RARE EARTH

Concentrations of sixteen rare earth elements (REEs) in PM2.5 and potential-source samples, collected in Nanchang city in mid-September 2013, were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The results showed that the concentrations of total REEs (∑REE) ranged from 78.76 to 1351 ng/mg. The order of REEs in PM2.5 samples showed the anthropogenic effects, Ce and Eu were affected more than the other REEs according to the enrichment factors. The results of chondrite-normalized REEs patterns and characteristic parameters showed evident light REEs fractionation, and positive anomalies of Ce and Eu in PM2.5. The other non-local pollution sources affected the PM2.5 samples, according to the triangular diagram of La, Ce and Sm compositions and plot of ∑REE vs δEu. Moreover, plot of (La/Sm)N vs (Gd/Yb)N revealed the effects of local sources. In conclusion, the REEs in potential-source samples were close to the background of local soil, while the REEs in PM2.5 samples in Nanchang city were jointly affected by the investigated local sources and other non-local sources.

Source apportionment of atmospheric pollutants based on the online data by using PMF and ME2 models at a megacity, China

Article

Oct 2016
ATMOS RES

From 1st June to 31st August 2015, the online datasets (the water soluble ions (WSIs), OC and EC in PM2.5, and SO2, NO2, NO) were measured continuously at Tianjin. Source apportionment of atmospheric pollutants was carried out by using PMF and ME2 models based on the online datasets. During summer in Tianjin, the ammonium sulfate/ammonium hydrogen sulfate might be major forms of sulfate in the atmospheric aerosol, while the ammonium nitrate might be major forms of nitrate. The poor correlation between OC and EC might be caused by the changes of emission sources and the production of secondary organic carbon (SOC). Five source-categories that contributed to atmospheric pollutants were extracted by PMF and ME2 models, respectively. The profiles calculated by PMF and ME2 models were consistent, and the source contributions estimated by the two models were also similar. The correlations (R² = 0.84–0.94) were better on the time series of the contributed concentrations for the same source-category calculated from PMF and ME2 models. The source-categories were identified as secondary sources (the contribution of 25.4–26.1%), vehicle exhaust (23.3–25.4%), coal combustion (16.5–18.2%), crustal dust (13.2–14.0%) and biomass burning (9.1–10.2%). For the same source-category identified from PMF and ME2 models, the differences of profiles might be attributed to the differences of calculated methods from the two models and the uncertainties of the online datasets.

Impact of harbour emissions on ambient PM10 and PM2.5 in Barcelona (Spain): Evidences of secondary aerosol formation within the urban area

Chemical composition and source apportionment of PM10 at an urban background site in a high–altitude Latin American megacity (Bogota, Colombia)

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